Chapter 3. The People—Hawaiian Culture Part I. Polynesian Origins and Traditions of Ancient Times Part II. Island Flowers and Lei
Ēwe hānau o ka ‘āina. Natives of the land. People who were born and dwelt on the land. (Pukui: 387-47)
[Illustration: Ancient Hawaiian village; pili grass houses]
Part I. First Polynesians, First Hawaiians The First Polynesians Celestial Navigation and Non-Instrument Wayfinding The Role of Birds as Guides to Navigation The First Hawaiians
Rediscovering the Past: The Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoes The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe
DNA Research on Polynesian Origins and Migrations Mitochondrial DNA—Three Main Subgroups of Polynesians Y Chromosomes Study Origins of the First Hawaiians
The Hawaiian Language Hawaiian Becomes a Written Language Refinements to the Written Hawaiian Language Pronunciation The Top 150 Hawaiian Words Most Commonly Used in the Islands
Hula and Mele ‘Auana and Kahiko Mele Oli and Mele Hula The Artistry of Chants: Microtonal Inflection and Kaona Hula and Mele—Carrying on the Hawaiian Culture Forest Plants Used in Hula Traditional Instruments
Petroglyphs The Creation and Meanings of Petroglyphs Preservation of Petroglyphs Sites
Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth The Kapa-Making Process Decorating Kapa Traditional Dyes of Ancient Hawai‘i Plants Used to Scent Kapa Barkcloth Uses of Kapa
Heiau: Hawaiian Sacred Places Types of Heiau Heiau on the Island of Hawai‘i Other Heiau of the Hawaiian Islands
The Menehune: An Ancient Race
Captain Cook Navigator and Explorer First Contact Cook Leaves and Returns Fatal Encounter
The Hawaiian Flag
The History of Surfing The First Surfers Constructing a Surfboard
Duke Kahanamoku Hui Nalu Olympic Champion Duke Kahanamoku’s Olympic Medals Duke Kahanamoku—Hawaiian Waterman The Duke Kahanamoku Stamp Duke Kahanamoku—Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha”
Eddie Aikau The Capsizing of the Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe The Eddie Aikau Big Wave Invitational Past Winners of the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau Eddie Would Go
Chapter 3—Part II Island Flowers and Lei
Island Emblems State of Hawai‘i Pua Ma‘o Hau Hele Hawai‘i Island Pua Lehua Maui Pua Lokelani Moloka‘i Pua Kukui Lāna‘i Pua Kauna‘oa Kaho‘olawe Hinahina O‘ahu Pua ‘Ilima Ni‘ihau Pūpū Ni‘ihau Kahelelani(Leptothyra verruca) Momi(Euplica varians) Laiki(Mitrella margarita)
Island Flowers and Lei Lei Materials and Uses Historical Lei Selling Areas Lei Day and other Lei Events Lei Making Methods Stringing the Lei
Popular and Traditional Lei Flowers Aloalo Pahūpahū Turk’s Cap Hibiscus Intr. ‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o White Ginger Intr. ‘Awapuhi Melemele Yellow Ginger Intr. ‘Ilima ‘Ilima Ind. Kiele Gardenia Intr. Kou Kou Ind. Kukui Candlenut Tree P.I. Kupaloke Tuberose Intr. Lehua Mau Loa Globe Amaranth Intr. Lokelani Damask Rose Intr. Maunaloa Pacific Beach Pea Intr. Maunaloa Sea Bean Intr. Melia Plumeria Intr. Nānū Gardenia End. Nuku ‘I‘iwi Jade Vine Intr. Nuku ‘I‘iwi Nuku ‘I‘iwi End. ‘Ohai Native Sesbania End. ‘Ohai Ali‘i Pride of Barbados Intr. ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua End. ‘Okika Dendrobium Orchid Intr. ‘Okika Vanda Vanda Orchid Intr. ‘Oliana Oleander Intr. Pahūpahū Flame Vine Intr. Pakalana Chinese Violet Intr. Pāneki Pansy Intr. Pīkake Arabian Jasmine Intr. Ponimō‘ī Carnation Intr. Pua Kalaunu Crown Flower Intr. Pua Kenikeni Ten Cent Flower Intr. Pua Kīkā Cigar Flower Intr. Pua Male Stephanotis Intr. Pua Pākē Chrysanthemum Intr. Pua Pihi Zinnia Intr. Pukanawila Bougainvillea Intr.
Other Traditional Lei Materials Lei Niho Palaoa Whale Tooth Pendant Ind.
First Polynesians, First Hawaiians [Illustrations: Voyaging Canoe; Map of Pacific Islands]
Picture a group of brave sailors on a double-hulled voyaging canoe, alone on a vast ocean. For days upon weeks they sail across the sea, searching for land until finally they come upon eight tiny islands surrounded by thousands of miles of ocean. This discovery occurred more than 1,500 years ago. The sailors were the Polynesian voyagers who became the first Hawaiians.
Poho pono na pe‘a heke a ku ana. A well-filled topsail helped him to arrive. Said of a fast traveler. (Pukui: 2681-293)
The First Polynesians The story of the Polynesians began about 6,000 years ago when a seafaring people traveled from Asia or Melanesia to the islands of Samoa and Tonga. Their descendants eventually sailed east to Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands. Later they sailed south to New Zealand, east to Easter Island, and north to the Hawaiian Islands. By A.D. 1200, the ancient Polynesians voyagers had settled nearly every habitable island over some ten million square miles (30 million sq. km) of the Pacific Ocean. [Illustration: Migration map]
The first settlers of the Hawaiian Islands likely came from the Marquesas Islands some time between A.D. 200 and A.D. 500. The Marquesas Islands are a ring of ten steep volcanic islands about 2,500 miles (4,023 km) southeast of the Hawaiian Islands, 740 miles (1,191 km) northeast of Tahiti, and 3,700 miles (5,955 km) west of Peru.
The ancient Polynesian navigators who discovered the Hawaiian Islands likely began their west-to-east journeys when westerly winds replaced the prevailing easterly trade winds. If they failed to find land, then they could wait for the trades to return and carry them home.
Celestial Navigation and Non-Instrument Wayfinding Seafaring Polynesians navigated the oceans guided only by the clues that nature provided, such as the positions and movements of the sun, moon, stars, and constellations, as well as prevailing winds and seas. The star that Westerners call Polaris (also called the North Star) was used by the Polynesians to determine the direction toward the Hawaiian Islands. The ancient navigators called this star Hōkūpa‘a, or “Fixed Star,” because it is located due north and appears “fixed” in the sky. The Earth spins to the east, so to an observer looking north, the star doesn’t change position, as do all the other stars in the sky.
The star Hōkūle‘a (hōkū means “star”, and le‘a means “happiness,” or “joy”) was also important to ancient Polynesians trying to navigate their voyaging canoes to the Hawaiian Islands. The name Hōkūle‘a refers to the star that Westerners call Arcturus. Voyagers sailing to the Hawaiian Islands from the Marquesas or Tahiti needed to determine how far north to sail. They knew that at the latitude of the island of Hawai‘i the star Hōkūle‘a would be directly overhead (a zenith star). At the high point of its nightly arc across the sky, Hōkūle‘a points the way to the Hawaiian Islands.
The Polynesian voyagers utilized many different types of navigational clues. For example, they knew that clouds tend to pile up over islands, revealing land in the distance. Land also reflects light, and so the color of the sky above islands may reveal their location. Even phosphorescence on the water at night is said to have helped guide the Polynesian navigators.
The Role of Birds as Guides to Navigation Ancient Polynesian ocean navigators also relied on their knowledge of the daily and seasonal cycles of birds. Migratory birds, such as the kōlea (Pluvialis fulva, Pacific golden plover) and the ‘akē‘akē (Arenaria interpres, ruddy turnstone) revealed to the mariners that somewhere to the north or northeast there was land. The birds winter on islands in the Central Pacific and then head back to their arctic breeding grounds in April or May.
Also helpful to the sailors were the flight directions of pelagic (oceanic) birds, such as petrels, shearwaters and albatross. These pelagic birds spend most of their time over the ocean seeking fish, squid and crustaceans, and then return to land during the nesting season.
Non-pelagic birds such as ‘a (boobies), noio (terns) and koa‘e (tropicbirds) all feed over the sea by day but return each night to their island homes. Navigators watched for these species at dusk, because sighting them meant land was near at hand. Sightings of birds congregating over feeding areas also revealed locations where fishing would be productive.
I wawā no ka noio, he i‘a ko lalo. When the noio make a din, there are fish below. When the people gossip, there is a cause. (Pukui: 1267-137)
The First Hawaiians
When the seafaring Polynesians finally reached the Hawaiian Islands, they practiced agriculture in the lowlands and also lived off the sea. They cleared the lowland forests to plant kalo (Colocasia esculenta, taro), the staple of their diet, which they pounded into poi. The taro was grown in lo‘i kalo (taro patches), which consisted of earth-lined and rock-terraced fields with networks of irrigation channels. The Polynesian settlers brought at least 24 (and probably more than 26) useful species of plants with them on their voyaging canoes. (See Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.) These plants included milo (Thespesia populnea, portia) and kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum, Alexandrian laurel) for wood, kalo (Colocasia esculenta, taro) and ‘uala (Ipomoea batatas, sweet potato) for food, ‘awapuhi kuahiwi (Zingiber zerumbet, shampoo ginger) and noni (Morinda citrifolia, Indian mulberry) for medicine. The Polynesian-introduced wauke (Broussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry) and māmaki (Pipturus species) were used for making kapa (tapa) barkcloth. Animals brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers included pua‘a (pigs), moa (chickens) and ‘īlio (dogs). Stowaways on the voyaging canoes included the mo‘o ‘alā (geckos), skinks, and ‘iole (rats). Other important plants brought by the first settlers include: niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palms), pia (Tacca leontopetaloides, Polynesian arrowroot), ‘ōlena (Curcuma longa, turmeric), uhi (Dioscorea alata, yam), the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana), ti (Cordyline fruticosa, ti), kō (Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane) and mai‘a (Musa species). (See Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
The Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands caught a variety of fish and shellfish from the ocean, and they ate honu (Chelonia mydas, sea turtles) as well as various species of limu (seaweed). In the coastal shallows they built large loko i‘a (fishponds), which they kept well stocked with ‘ama ‘ama (Mugil cephalus, mullet), and awa (Chanos chanos, milkfish). Hale pili, the houses of the Hawaiian Islands’ early inhabitants, were made of pili grass (Heteropogon contortus, twisted beardgrass) placed over a wooden frame. More information regarding the lives of ancient Hawaiians is presented throughout this text. [Photograph: Fishpond]
Rediscovering the Past: The Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoes [Illustration: Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe]
The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe In the 1970s, members of the Polynesian Voyaging Society constructed a voyaging canoe called the Hōkūle‘a. Built to show that migrating Polynesians were able to sail east against the prevailing winds, the Hōkūle‘a was launched on March 8, 1975, and completed its first voyage, to Tahiti, in 1976. The Hōkūle‘a has two 62-foot (18.9-meter) long hulls (kuamo‘o), eight crossbeams (‘iako) joining the two hulls, as well as decking (pola), and two masts (kia). The voyaging canoe weighs about 8 tons (7.3 mtons) and may reach speeds up to 12 knots. The Hōkūle‘a can carry more than 5 tons (4.5 mtons), including 12 to 16 people with supplies.
Hele ‘e ka wa‘a. The speed of a canoe. Said of a fast traveler. (Pukui: 736-81)
When Nainoa Thompson led the crew that sailed the Hōkūle‘a to Tahiti and back in 1980, he became the first Hawaiian to navigate a voyaging canoe in more than 600 years. Many more Hōkūle‘a voyages have now been completed, including a voyage to the Marquesas and back in 1995.
The Hōkūle‘a crew sailed around the Hawaiian Islands in 1996-1997, allowing thousands of school children to visit or sail on the vessel. There was also a 1999 journey to Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Voyagers have now sailed the canoe well over 90,000 nautical miles (166,700 km), including 6 major continental and Pan-Pacific voyages. A tragic incident in 1978 occurred when the Hōkūle‘a capsized off Moloka‘i. The crew was eventually rescued, except for 31-year-old Eddie Aikau who paddled a surfboard toward land to get help and was never seen again. A respected lifeguard and surfer who had saved many lives, Eddie Aikau lost his own life trying to save others. Eddie Aikau’s bravery is now immortalized in the saying, “Eddie Would Go.”(See Eddie Aikau section.) The Hōkūle‘a recently underwent a complete restoration, which was finished in January of 2003 after nearly a year of work. The restoration included replacing the approximately 5 miles (8 km) of ropes and cordage holding the canoe together. In September of 2003 the Hōkūle‘a sailed to Nihoa, 150 miles (240 km) from Hanalei, Kaua‘i Nihoa was inhabited in ancient times, but was not inhabited at the time Captain Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. The site of ancient Hawaiian agricultural terraces and home sites, Nihoa rises to 903 feet (275 m), making it the tallest of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. (See Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 2.)
[Photograph: Hōkūle‘a]
The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe
The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is named after an ancient voyager who, according to legend, was the first discoverer of the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is 57 feet (17.4 m) long, and is the first of the voyaging canoes to be built almost entirely out of traditional materials.
The Hōkūle‘a voyaging canoe was built to be as performance accurate as ancient Hawaiian voyaging canoes, but was built with modern materials. The crews of the Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa recovered the art of non-instrument wayfinding used by ancient Polynesian voyagers. In ancient times, koa (Acacia koa) was the wood preferred for making canoes, while the outriggers were traditionally made of wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis, coral tree) and hau (Talipariti tiliaceum). The builders of the Hawai‘iloa, however, had to acquire old growth Sitka spruce trees from southeast Alaska because there were no longer any koa trees in the Hawaiian Islands large enough. The use of Sitka spruce may also be considered traditional, since ancient Hawaiians sometimes used drift logs to make canoes, and those driftlogs may have come from Alaska.
The tools used to construct voyaging canoes and their various components included the stone adze and the bone gouge. Coral files were also used, as well as sharkskin for sanding. Though modern tools were used in the construction of the Hawai‘iloa, traditional materials were used whenever possible. Every attempt was made to build an accurate replica of a traditional voyaging canoe.
[Photograph or illustration: Stone adze; bone gouge; coral file]
The Sitka spruce used for the Hawai‘iloa’s hulls (kuamo‘o) came from two 400-year-old trees, each about 200 feet (61 m) tall and 7 feet (2.1 m) in diameter. Koa wood was used for the bow and stern pieces (manu) as well as for the sideboards (mo‘o), braces (wae), and the steering paddle and steering blades. The seven crossbeams (‘iako) were made from ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species), as were the two masts (kia), the two spars (‘ōpe‘a), and the two booms (pumi). The wood of hau (Talipariti tiliaceum) was used to construct the railings.
Due to safety concerns, synthetic cordage was used for the lashings and riggings. There were attempts to recreate the sennit cordage Polynesians once made from olonā (Touchardia latifolia) as well as from the fiber of the husk of the niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut), but the skills of creating these traditional products have yet to be duplicated to the quality level of the ancient sailors. Traditional lau hala sails were woven and tested, but modern materials were eventually used.
Nakaka ka pua‘a, nahā ka wa‘a; aukāhi ka pua‘a mānalo ka wa‘a. The pig cracks, the canoe breaks; perfect the pig, safe the canoe. Whenever a new canoe was launched, a pig was baked as an offering to the gods. If the skin of the roasted pig cracked, misfortune would come to the canoe; but if it cooked to perfection the canoe would last a long time. (Pukui: 2227-243)
The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe was launched in 1993, then modified and launched again in 1994, making its first voyage in 1995. With no navigational instruments, the crew sailed the boat more than 6,000 miles (9,660 km), from the Hawaiian Islands to Tahiti and the Marquesas, and then back to the Hawaiian Islands. [Photograph: Hawai‘iloa]
DNA Research on Polynesian Origins and Migrations [Illustration: DNA strand]
We carry our histories within us, in our genes and in our DNA. New techniques of DNA analysis are now allowing researchers to learn more about human history, including the migration paths of the ancient Polynesians who sailed their double-hulled voyaging canoes over the largest ocean in the world to become the first Hawaiians. It has long been a question of science exactly how and when Earth’s continents and islands were first inhabited by humans. An ancient proverb referring to the Hawaiian’s ancestors states, “I ulu no ka lālā i ke kumu” (“The branches grow because of the trunk”).[1] Scientists have traditionally relied on fossils and linguistic similarities to trace back through time and discover the history of ancient humans. This research has been revolutionized by recent studies[2] on strands of hair and human cells containing the DNA that reveals to scientists clues about our distant past. DNA studies are also pinpointing the very earliest of human origins. One recent study of a complete human genome concluded that humans first migrated out of Africa into Europe and Asia about 52,000 years ago. Genetic analyses have also led to new discoveries in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, and paleontology, supplementing traditional evidence such as fossils, artifacts, and site excavations. [Illustration: Human migration graphic]
A study led by Dr. Geoffrey Chambers of Victoria University concluded that the ancestors of Polynesian people first migrated from Taiwan and China to the Philippines and Indonesia, then to West Polynesia and East Polynesia, and then to New Zealand. Chambers analyzed DNA data that had originally been collected for a study on genetics and alcoholism. The DNA profiles in Chamber’s study showed that there is less genetic diversity in Polynesians than in other groups. For example, the probability of finding two individuals with the same DNA profile is 1 in 112 million for Asians, and 1 in 47 million for Caucasians, but only 1 in 6.7 million for Polynesians. Researchers theorize that these lower rates of genetic diversity are a result of the fact that Polynesians, sailing voyaging canoes to inhabit remote Pacific islands were very isolated from other races. There are more than 20,000 islands throughout the Pacific Ocean, which is 25% larger than all the world’s land combined. The Polynesians settled many of these distant and isolated islands.
Mitochondrial DNA—Three Main Subgroups of Polynesians Another recent genetics project was led by University of Hawai‘i scientist Rebecca Cann. Cann’s study analyzed mitochondrial DNA, unlike the Victoria University study, which used nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother. Analyzing hair samples gathered from people all around the Pacific, the researchers concluded that there are three main subgroups of Polynesians. The study found that 95% of all Hawaiians are in one of these three sub-groups, along with 90% of Samoans and all the Tongans sampled. Interestingly, this genetic marker that distinguished the Polynesian sub-groups was also found in some Native Americans. A second genetically distinct sub-group of Polynesians contains a small minority of Hawaiian people as well as people from Samoa and the Cook Islands. A third group doesn’t seem to show up at all in the Hawaiian Islands, but appears to link Samoans to Indonesians. Cann’s research also concluded that it is likely that Polynesians first sailed to South America, rather than the other way around, as many researchers had previously asserted. Cann’s genetic study traces the Polynesian expansion from the Southeast Asia mainland to some time around 6,000 years ago. Cann theorizes that there were several waves of migrations from Asia, and that Micronesia was settled after Polynesia, contrary to what most anthropologists have claimed.
Y Chromosomes Study A research project at the University of Texas Health Science Center studied the Y chromosomes of 551 men from Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The Y chromosome is passed only from fathers to sons, and so it is specific to males (unlike the mitochondrial DNA in the previous study). This University of Texas research found that aboriginal Taiwanese carried distinctly different genetic markers than eastern Pacific Polynesians or southwestern Pacific Micronesians. The Texas study also found that the Micronesians/Polynesians were more closely related to Southeast Asians than Taiwanese. These findings cast doubt on the previous reigning theory that Taiwan was the ancestral origin of Polynesians. The history of Polynesian migration will become clearer as new genetic analysis techniques are refined.
Origins of the First Hawaiians Before DNA research began yielding new clues to Polynesian origins, information about the first Hawaiian settlers came predominantly from archaeological and linguistic evidence. The oldest evidence from Hawaiian archeological sites links the Hawaiian Islands to the Marquesas Islands, an archipelago about 2,500 miles (4,020 km) southeast of the Hawaiian Islands. Fish hooks found in both places are also remarkably similar, including the particular notching of the shank of the hook. Research has also shown that the language of the ancient Hawaiians is more closely linked to the Marquesan language than to any other Polynesian language or dialect. The same DNA techniques that genetic anthropologists are using to discover ancient family lineages of Hawaiians are being used to study the spread of diseases among endangered Hawaiian bird species. Another application of DNA studies helps scientists with the captive breeding of endangered Hawaiian birds, including the native honeycreepers. [Photograph: Endemic Hawaiian bird]
The Hawaiian Language [Illustration: A public sign using Hawaiian words on it (e.g., Komo mai!, or street sign)]
Hawaiian is one of about 30 languages comprising the Polynesian language family. The Hawaiian language has a soft, smooth cadence, and a melodic, song-like quality that has been described as spoken music. Linguists note that the Hawaiian language is most similar to the language of the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti and less so to Samoan and Tongan. The Hawaiian language also bears a relationship to languages of the Philippines, Indonesia, Madagascar and Fiji.
Mai ka ā a ka w. From A to W. The alphabet of Hawaiian. (Pukui: 2056-223)
Hawaiian Becomes a Written Language Hawaiian was a spoken language but not a written language when Captain Cook first visited the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Cook’s best linguist expert aboard the Resolution, Surgeon William Anderson, compiled a list of 250 words, writing down as best he could in English what the native Hawaiians were saying. The First Missionary Company arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1820. Missionary scholars (trained in mathematics, sciences, humanities, as well as Latin and other languages) weighed different options on formalizing a native Hawaiian language. One might say that Hawaiian officially became a written language in 1829 when missionaries voted to select the 12-letter alphabet. They outlined a structure for a written Hawaiian language that adopted five vowels (a, e, i, o, and u) and seven consonants (h, k, l, m, n, p, and w). The new written language was modeled after the oral Hawaiian language, attempting to accurately represent the sounds with English letters. The missionary scholars provided some rules for the ordering of words in clauses and phrases. In the Hawaiian language, mood, case, and tense are shown with particles rather than inflection. Typically a sentence will begin with a verb, followed by a subject, object and prepositional phrase. From the time Captain Cook’s linguist expert compiled a list of Hawaiian words until 1865, there were at least 12 more lists made by various people, though they all contained less than 400 words, with the exception of Lorrin Andrews’ 1836 list of 5,700 words. Andrews (1795-1868) was head of Maui’s Lahainaluna School, which was founded in 1831 by American Protestant missionaries as a seminary of advanced education for young Hawaiian men, with an overarching missionary goal of advancing Christianity. Andrews’ 1836 publication of 5,700 words was the first significant Hawaiian-English vocabulary. Andrews also published a grammar of the Hawaiian language in 1854, and then in 1865 he published a list of about 15,000 words in his Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language. In 1845, the Lahainaluna Seminary Press published the first English-Hawaiian Dictionary, which was prepared by Artemas Bishop (1795-1872) and Joseph S. Emerson (1800-1867).
Refinements to the Written Hawaiian Language—Diacritical Marks Refinements to the written Hawaiian language were made over the years, and symbols (diacritical marks) were developed to represent stresses and accents. The reverse apostrophe symbol (‘) is called an ‘okina (also known as a hamzah), and represents a “glottal stop,” which is a slight pause similar to the stopping of sound in the English “oh-oh!” A horizontal line above a vowel (e.g., ā), is called a macron, or kahakō, and is used to show long, stressed vowels, or glides. In 1957, the first edition of Pukui and Elbert’s Hawaiian-English Dictionary was published. Pukui and Elbert’s Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition, published in 1986 contains more than 26,000 Hawaiian words, and is the definitive source for Hawaiian word spellings (e.g., diacritical marks), meanings, and pronunciation. Of course the first source for the Hawaiian language is the Hawaiian elders themselves. The number of native speakers of Hawaiian today is probably less than 10,000 people. These native speakers are mostly elder citizens who speak Hawaiian to each other, and they maintain a critical knowledge that is threatened with extinction. A new generation, however, is now learning the language with the hopes of keeping the Hawaiian culture alive. Music written and sung in the Hawaiian language has also made a popular resurgence.
Ke ho‘i a‘e la ka ‘ōpua i Awalau. The rain clouds are returning to Awalau. Said of a return to the source. (Pukui: 1698-183)
Pronunciation: A general guide for pronouncing the vowels in Hawaiian words is to pronounce: a as in about, or above e as in wet, or let i as in sweet, or the y in pity o as in rope, or hole u as in root, or moon
The vowels above are listed as they are pronounced when unstressed. When stressed, they sound much the same, but the “e” is pronounced more like the “ay” in play rather than like the e in wet. There are exceptions to the above rules, especially when vowels are combined with other vowels to form diphthongs. Also, if a w is after an i or an e, it is usually pronounced like a lax v, but after u and o it is usually pronounced like the English w. Many Hawaiian words have been integrated into the daily lives of English speaking residents of the Hawaiian Islands. For example, “mahalo” is said to express thanks. The word “aloha” is often used to express hello as well as goodbye, and also expresses affection and love. An ancient proverb states, “He kēhau ho‘oma‘ema‘e ke aloha,” which translates to “Love is like a cleansing dew,” and is said to mean, “Love removes hurt.”[3]
In the Hawaiian Islands, most place names (an estimated 86%) are Hawaiian, including names of streets, towns, mountains, and valleys. Ancient Hawaiians also named many rocks and trees (sometimes representing ancestors or gods) as well as taro patches, heiau (sacred places of worship), and fishing sites. In the Hawaiian Islands today, many buildings and stores are also given Hawaiian names. Residents of the Hawaiian Islands, including those of foreign ancestry as well as Hawaiian ancestry, commonly use many Hawaiian words during their daily lives. In addition it is estimated that in 2003 there were about 3,000 people speaking the Hawaiian language out of the State’s population of about 1.3 million people. The following section of this text is a listing of the words most commonly used by all residents of the Hawaiian Islands today. [Photograph: Hawaiian elders]
The Top 150 Hawaiian Words Most Commonly Used in the Hawaiian Islands
Note: The following list includes words commonly heard in the Hawaiian Islands today, and thus these are words that are useful to know for all those living in or visiting the Hawaiian Islands. Hundreds of other Hawaiian words are used throughout the text of this book, including names of plants, birds, place names, and many terms not commonly heard among most residents.
‘a‘ā rough lava ‘ahi yellowfin tuna (very ono) ahupua‘a natural watershed land division extending from the mountains to the sea ‘āina land, earth akamai smart, clever, knowledgeable ‘alalā Hawaiian crow akamai knowledgeable, clever, smart ali‘i chief, chiefess, royalty of ancient Hawai‘i aloha hello, good bye, love, affection aloha kakahiaka good morning ānuenue rainbow ‘aumakua family or personal god, guardian, ancestral spirit (plural: ‘aumākua) auwē (or aue) expresses wonder, fear pity, scorn, or a groan (e.g., oh dear!) E komo mai! come in, welcome! haole Caucasian hapa haole of mixed blood, part Caucasian, part Hawaiian hālau place for hula instruction, or canoes; group hale house Hana bay, valley hānai adopted foster child haole formerly any foreigner; now refers primarily to those of Caucasian ancestry hapa haole half haole, half Hawaiian Hau‘oli Lā Hānau Happy Birthday Hau‘oli Makahiki Hou Happy New Year he‘e nalu surfing, to ride a surfboard heiau sacred temple, ancient Hawaiian place of worship hōkū star honu turtle Hono- valley or bay (e.g., Honolulu) honu sea turtle honua land, earth hui group, organization hukilau a group pulling a fishing net (huki) ashore (lau) hula a Hawaiian dance, cultural practice, art form imu an underground earthen-oven using hot rocks; traditional for lū‘au ka the kāhili feather standard used by royalty kahuna spiritual guide, priest, expert in a profession (plural: kāhuna) kai sea kakahiaka morning kalo taro kālua cooked underground, baked (e.g., kālua pig at a lū‘au). kama‘āina native born, (means “child of the land”), also long-time resident kanaka maoli native Hawaiian kāne man or boy, male (Kāne is a Hawaiian god) kapa cloth made from bark (also called tapa) kapu sacred, forbidden kaukau food keiki child, offspring (also kama) kīpuka vegetation surrounded by lava flow koholā humpback whale kōkua help, assistance kona leeward side, leeward winds konohiki rights native land or fishing rights ko‘oloau windward kuleana responsibility, right, small land parcel ku‘u ipo sweetheart kumu teacher kūmū goatfish (Parupeneus porphyreus) kupuna ancestor, grandparent, relative lānai porch, shed lani sky, heaven lau hala leaf of hala tree, used to weave many items laulima cooperation, working together le‘a joy, happiness lei strands or garlands of flowers, seeds, ferns, shells, feathers or other materials. liliko‘i passion fruit limu seaweed (many types are edible) lo‘i, lo‘i kalo irrigated taro terrace lomilomi masseur, masseuse (lomi—to rub, massage) lomilomi salmon mixed with onions and seasoning lū‘au Hawaiian feast (also means “young taro leaves”) mauna mountain, peak mahalo thank you mahalo nui loa thank you very much mahimahi dolphin fish (not dolphins) mahina moon maika‘i fine, good makai toward the sea mālama to care for, support, preserve malihini newcomer, visitor mana spiritual or divine power, wisdom mana‘o thought, idea, opinion manō shark mauka toward the mountains, inland mauna mountain Mele Kalīkimaka Merry Christmas mele song or chant, to sing, merry menehune legendary small race of ancient Hawaiians moana ocean mo‘i king mo‘i wahine queen moku island, islet mu‘umu‘u loose-fitting dress (introduced by missionaries) nai‘a dolphin nalu wave nani pretty, beautiful nēnē native goose, Hawai‘i’s state bird nō ka ‘oi the best! (e.g. Maui nō ka ‘oi—Maui is indeed the best) ‘ohana family, extended family—named after the ‘ohā (offshoots) of kalo (taro) ‘okole buttocks ‘ono delicious (also the name of wahoo fish) ‘ō‘ō digging stick, digging implement pāhoehoe smooth, ropy lava pali steep cliff or precipice paniolo Hawaiian cowboy papa he‘e nalu surfboard pau finished, done (pau hana—end of work day, job finished, etc.) piha full pilikia trouble poi taro root pounded into edible paste pono correctness, morality, goodness pua flower, blossom, garden puhi eel puka hole, door, opening pūpū appetizer, hors d‘oeuvre pu‘u hill, mound tapa cloth made from bark (also called kapa) tūtū grandmother, aunt ‘ukulele small, guitar-like instrument wahine woman wai water, stream, river wikiwiki speedy, hurry, quick
Hula and Mele [Illustration: Hula]
According to legend, the first hula occurred when Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes, wanted her sisters to entertain her with song and dance. Only Pele’s youngest sister, Hi‘iaka, would comply. Hi‘iaka performed gracefully and powerfully for Pele to the amazement of all. Today hula is a beautiful art form and culturally significant practice that embraces and perpetuates Hawaiian history, legend and culture.
Kuhi no ka lima, hele no ka maka. Where the hands move, there let the eyes follow. A rule in hula. (Pukui: 1868-201)
With no written language, the ancient Hawaiians recorded their histories, genealogies, legends, and the phenomena of their gods through the creation and memorization of chants, known as oli, and dances called hula. Mele is a more general word that refers to any type of song or chant. An oli is a chant that traditionally was not accompanied by dance. Often long phrases were chanted in a single breath, with each phrase ending with a trill (‘i‘i). Hula dancers are trained by a hula master, or kumu hula, in a school called a hālau. The dancers are trained not only in the dance movements but also in the philosophy of the hula. In ancient Hawai‘i, one who trained from childhood in the art of chanting was known as haku mele, a prestigious accomplishment that gave the person a high ranking status in the society. Considered a narrative movement, hula embraces the meanings of the chants while releasing the grace and spirit of the dancer. The essence of hula is to go inward, to touch one’s center. Dancers are especially aware of their feet touching the earth, and of the earth itself, which is felt to be the source of the power of the dance.
‘Auana and Kahiko
The two main forms of hula are ‘auana (also spelled ‘auwana) and kahiko. ‘Auana is the more modern style of hula, which is characterized by undulating movements and is usually accompanied by a Hawaiian band. Kahiko (which means “ancient”), is the older and more traditional form of hula.
In kahiko, an invocation precedes each dance, and the women often wear knee-length skirts made from flat green ti leaves. They may wear a necklace made from the polished nuts of the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut) or draping vines or flowers (lei ‘ā‘ī). Bracelets of ferns around their wrists and ankles are known as kūpe‘e. The lei po‘o encircles the dancer’s head, which is traditionally graced with long, dark flowing hair.
Mele Oli and Mele Hula The two general classes of chants, mele oli and mele hula, serve different purposes. Oli is a non-metered chant that is used for specific occasions and when addressing formal subjects, but not for dancing. Mele hula is more rhythmic chant with a broader tonal range. Mele oli may use just two or three notes, while the lines usually do not rhyme. Instead, the chants often have what is known as “linked assonance,” in which the end of one line has a sound-alike word or some associated meaning with the beginning of the next line. Mele hula is accompanied by hula, and possibly musical instruments as well. Mele oli is never accompanied by dance or music, though may be accompanied by rhythmic instruments such as gourd drums (pā ipu).
In mele oli, the words usually revolve around a principal tone, which is pronounced with more emphasis than other tones of the mele. The principal tone occurs over and over, and several subordinate tones may also be repeated, though with less emphasis and frequency. Mele hula is a relatively free melody, with more tones and larger intervals between tones. The range and pitch of mele oli is more restricted, while the melody is more confined and less voiced.
Mai pa‘a i ka leo, he ‘ole ka hea mai. Do not withhold the voice and not call out [a welcome]. From a password chant used in hula schools. It was often used by one who would like a friendly invitation to come into another’s home. (Pukui: 2082-226)
The Artistry of Chants: Microtonal Inflection and Kaona Chants may use an inflecting tone that momentarily varies from the principal or subordinate tone and then immediately returns. Microtonal inflection involves very quick, small alterations of the pitch, each time quickly returning to the main note. This creates a fluctuating or trilling sound. Chants rarely use melody, the variations in pitch that are so common in Western style songs. The inflecting tones and the weaving up and down sounds of microtonal inflection provide much of the artistry of chants. Also integral to chanting is the use of kaona, or hidden meanings, concealed references, or double meanings that may allow the chants to be interpreted several ways. Chants are typically metaphorical rather than literal. For example, the word lehua may refer to one’s lover, or may refer to the lehua flower blossom, or to Pele’s younger sister, the goddess Hi‘iaka (the lehua was her sacred flower). In ancient times certain meanings were known only by the haku mele, and a chant may be telling two or more stories at the same time. Deciphering the symbolism of a chant was considered part of the enjoyment, sort of an intellectual game.
The style used for a particular mele depends on the chant’s purpose, which resides in the meaning of its words. Some types of mele include mele ipo (love chant), mele inoa (name chant) and mele kahi (place chant). Hula ‘ili‘ili (pebble hula) is a form in which smooth water-worn stones are used as clappers (castanets). Different vocal techniques are required for different styles of mele, such as ‘oli‘oli (joyous), ho‘oipoipo (romantic), ‘ai ha‘a (vigorous), and ho‘aēae, a style of chanting with short phrases and prolonged vowels, often used in love chants. Different chanting styles require tones that may be tremulous, staccato (rapid fire), or more lyrical.
Hula and Mele—Carrying on the Hawaiian Culture
Hula and mele chants are the ancient way that Hawaiians tell their stories, pay reverence to nature, and unite mind, body and spirit with all of creation. Hula and mele are also a celebration of the beauty of the heart of the Hawaiian people, their love and aloha.
Traditionally, hula and mele have helped Hawaiians remember their origins and give thanks for all of the many natural wonders that enrich their world, including the animals, birds, fish, flowers, trees, mountains, streams, ocean, wind and sky. Chants are enhanced by hula, and both are integral parts of Hawaiian spirituality that carry on the ancient legends and history of the Hawaiian people and help Hawaiians retain a connection to their past. Hula brings forth the meanings of the chants, similar to how the form of poetry may give life to a poem. Performed by those trained in the art, hula and mele are infused with all the power and history of the Hawaiian people. Hawaiian chants and hula recount the origins of the Hawaiian people and the islands on which they live, as well as the origins of the universe. There are tales of migrations, genealogies, myths, customs and traditions. There are stories of longing for loved ones and stories of grief over deaths, stories of heroic explorations and stories of love. There is acknowledgement of the ‘āina (the land) and the history of the Hawaiian culture, a culture sustained by an oral tradition captured in the lyrics of the chants.
Forest Plants Used in Hula
On the morning before performing, dancers traditionally walk up the mountain trails into the rainforest. There, with humility and reverence for the ‘āina, they take into their hands the verdant leaves and gently begin to weave and braid them into the strands of lei that will soon encircle their heads, necks and arms. The dancers may gather the lacy pala‘ā fern (Sphenomeris chinensis, lace fern), and most frequently the palapalai fern (Microlepia strigosa) and in post-contact times the hardier laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria). The forest plants they use are symbolic—the palapalai fern is a representation of the hula goddess Laka; pala‘ā is an incarnation of Pele’s sister, Hi‘iaka; blossoms of ‘a‘ali‘i (Dodonaea viscosa) symbolizes strength.
Hula students also learn about the ‘āina, and how to respect and care for the ferns and flowers. Plants are conserved for future generations, and never taken by the roots. The dancers give thanks to the source of the plants, the fragrant maile (Alyxia oliviformis) and leaves of ti (Cordyline fruticosa, ti) and woodland ferns, and ask permission for their use, paying reverence to Laka, the goddess of the forest and hula, as well as other ancient (kahiko) Hawaiian gods. Today many hālau also thank the god of Christianity.
Traditional Instruments
Traditional instruments that accompany hula include the pahu hula, a drum made from the trunk of a coconut or breadfruit tree, with a sharkskin drumhead. Drumming sticks to keep beat are called lā‘au ho‘okani pahu. Also used are pū‘ili (split bamboo rattles) and the ‘ulī‘ulī, a gourd rattle that contains seeds and is adorned at the top with colorful feathers.
I le‘a ka hula i ka ho‘opa‘a. The hula is pleasing because of the drummer. The lesser details that one pays little attention to are just as important as the major ones. Although the attention is given to the dancer, the drummer and chanter play an important role in the dance. (Pukui: 1225-133)
The Rebirth of Hula—King Kalākaua, the Merrie Monarch Beginning in 1820 when the First Company of American missionaries came to the Hawaiian Islands on the Thaddeus, missionaries exerted a steady influence on the native Hawaiians, discouraging traditional cultural and religious beliefs and practices, including hula. Hawaiians were required to learn English, forbidden to speak Hawaiian, and made to wear Western-style clothes. Hula stayed alive only in secret, and the knowledge was passed along by those devoted to keeping this integral part of Hawaiian culture alive. Public displays of hula were not revived until the reign of Hawai‘i’s last king, David La‘amea Kalākaua, which began in 1874. King Kalākaua had a coronation ceremony for himself in February of 1883 at the newly built ‘Iolani Palace in Honolulu. Hawaiian men chanted and pounded on gourd drums (pā ipu) and women in traditional dress performed hula. King Kalākaua later came to be known as the Merrie Monarch for his revival of hula and other Hawaiian customs, despite protests of the era’s missionaries and other influential families of the day. King Kalākaua was attacked in the newspapers for allowing “paganism.” The premier and largest Hawaiian hula event in modern Hawai‘i is the annual Merrie Monarch Festival, a week-long hula competition held every April in Hilo on Hawai‘i Island, in honor of King David Kalākaua. A prominent showcase of the living Hawaiian culture of hula and mele, the Merrie Monarch Festival is just one of numerous annual gatherings, festivals, and competitions held throughout the Hawaiian Islands. [Photograph: Hula and Mele]
There are circles by the hundreds, and circles within circles. There are figures of humans, animals, sailing canoes, fishhooks, and countless cryptic markings carved into island rocks. These are the petroglyphs of the Hawaiians. A petroglyph is a stone carving (petro means “stone” and glyph means “carving”). The ancient Hawaiians referred to petroglyphs as ki‘i pōhaku (ki‘i means “image,” and pōhaku means “stone”). Today petroglyphs are virtually the only prehistoric art of the Hawaiian Islands not in museums, private collections, or hidden away in caves.
Petroglyph Sites
Ancient societies all over the world have left carvings on rocks. Worldwide, the oldest known petroglyphs are in European caves and are thought to be more than 10,000 years old. Petroglyph sites in the Hawaiian Islands continue to provide clues to the Islands’ ancient past.
There are more than 100 places in the Hawaiian Islands where petroglyphs may be found, and these ancient carvings continue to provide clues to the ancient past of the Hawaiian Islands. One of the most extensive Hawaiian petroglyph sites is on the pāhoehoe lava in South Kohala on the island of Hawai‘i at the Puakō petroglyph preserve, where more than 3,000 petroglyphs may be seen. At the Pu‘uloa site in Puna, there are an estimated 15,000 petroglyphs. Many sites throughout the Hawaiian Islands have petroglyphs numbering in the hundreds, and many more sites with less than 20 petroglyphs. Billowy pāhoehoe lava flows appear to be the most common surface upon which petroglyphs were created. The second most common surface where petroglyphs are found is on boulders, including rounded boulders, as well as on the flat faces formed where boulders have split. These boulders are usually denser and harder than pāhoehoe lava, and the petroglyphs are usually not as deep (about 1/8 inch (3 mm)). Petroglyphs are also found on vertical cliff faces such as some cliff walls in Nu‘uanu Valley, O‘ahu, and at some Maui sites. Petroglyphs are also found along the shoreline on limestone beach shelves. One coastal site where petroglyphs are found is at Keoneloa Beach on Kaua‘i, where a sharp-pointed instrument was used to create smooth, fine-lined petroglyphs. These petroglyphs are usually covered with sand, and only occasionally revealed. Petroglyphs may also be found in lava tubes, such as those in Ka‘ū on the island of Hawai‘i. The Hawaiian Islands have hundreds of known lava tubes and many show evidence of use in ancient Hawai‘i (e.g., as burial sites, shelters, and places of refuge), though very few are known to have petroglyphs.
The Creation and Meanings of Petroglyphs One method used to make petroglyphs utilized a hammer stone along with a sharp stone to peck dots into the lava. Then the dots were connected. Another method involved smashing a stone against the picture area. Sometimes a sharp-edged rock was used to scratch the picture into the basalt. Petroglyphs in the Hawaiian Islands are divided into three categories: descriptive, symbolic, and cryptic. Descriptive petroglyphs may be recognizable subjects, including anthropomorphic images or man-made objects, such as canoes, paddles, sails, and fishhooks, as well as the circles and dots associated with the piko (umbilical cord) ceremony (see below). Symbolic petroglyphs are less recognizable, often consisting of forms carved in an unnatural manner, yet obviously purposefully created, and thus meaningful to the carver. Cryptic petroglyphs are mysterious images that are very different than the descriptive and symbolic petroglyphs. Cryptic petroglyphs are by definition of uncertain meaning and many theories and interpretations have been offered over the years to explain these petroglyphs, yet much uncertainty remains. Some have suggested that certain cryptic or symbolic petroglyphs may be created in such a way as to have secret or double meanings, similar to the kaona (hidden meanings) often used in Hawaiian chants. Petroglyphs may represent a variety of things, including animals, tools, voyaging canoes, and weapons. The most common types of petroglyphs are human figures (including well distinguished male and female figures) as well as dots and circles. Also fairly commonly seen at petroglyph sites are canoes with sails, and sometimes just the sails. Women were often represented by an open triangle, and men by a closed triangle. Some researchers think that petroglyphs are the first efforts of an ancient people to construct a written language. [Illustration: Examples of open and closed triangle petroglyphs]
Petroglyphs also may be related to certain ceremonies and events, and may have been used to infuse mana (divine power) into someone or something. For example, soon after giving birth, parents would place their baby’s navel cord in a simple circle petroglyph for the overnight ritual of the piko (umbilical cord) ceremony. This was done to impart to the child the mana of the sacred site and ensure a long life. Early expeditions to the Hawaiian Islands produced reports of native men and women with tattoo markings, and these may have been related to the symbols in the petroglyphs. Some petroglyphs might represent the specific mark of an individual, like a signature. Some petroglyphs on the island of Hawai‘i are thought to have been inscribed around A.D. 500, and are very similar to petroglyphs found in the Marquesas Islands, the place that is considered the origin of the first Hawaiians. Among the thousands of petroglyphs found on the vast, barren lava fields of the island of Hawai‘i, the earlier petroglyphs were of the linear stick-figure type, and then a more triangular form evolved. An intermediate columnar form is also found at a few locations.
Preservation of Petroglyph Sites When visiting a petroglyph site, it is important to avoid contact with the petroglyphs. Petroglyphs are valuable links to Hawaiian culture, and rubbings, castings and other attempts to duplicate the petroglyphs contribute to the degradation of the ancient rock engravings, and thwart attempts to preserve them for future generations. [Photograph: Petroglyphs]
Kapa barkcloth (also called tapa) was made throughout many tropical areas but the finest kapa was found in Polynesia, and the highest quality kapa in Polynesia was produced in the Hawaiian Islands. The fermentation process and second beating used to produce Hawaiian kapa gave it a homogenous quality that was generally free of defects, with a quality considered superior to kapa made in other locales.
Hawaiian kapa also displayed the greatest variety of design and texture. The intricate geometric designs that Hawaiians stamped onto kapa were found nowhere else in Polynesia.
I hole ‘ia no ka i‘e i ke kau o ka lā. The time to cut designs in a tapa beater is when the sun is high. Do your work when you can do your best. (Pukui: 1164-127)
Kapa barkcloth (also called tapa) was usually made from the bark of the Polynesian-introduced wauke tree (Broussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry). Kapa was also made from various native plants including māmaki (Pipturus species), ma‘aloa (Neraudia melastomifolia), and ‘ākala (Rubus species). When growing wauke, lateral buds were pinched off to ensure the straight, unbranched stems that made better kapa. In 18 to 24 months the plants are harvested to be made into kapa barkcloth
The inner and outer bark was then separated from the stem by making a cut for the whole length of the section and then peeling the bark from the core in a process called pehē. The bark was then flattened by rolling it into coils with the inner bark facing outward. The fibrous inner bark (‘i‘o o loko) was then scraped or peeled from the non-fibrous outer bark (‘ili lepo o waho), producing the bast strips that were then soaked and then beat into kapa.
To make kapa, lengths of wauke stem were cut from the plant, and then a sharp shell was used to separate the dark, outer bark from the desired white inner bark, which is comprised of many long fibers. The strips of inner bark were then soaked in water, pounded with a round beater (hohoa), soaked again and fermented, and then pounded with a square beater (i‘e kuku).
[Illustration or Photo: Hohoa (round beater); i‘e kuku (square beater); kua pōhaku (flat stone); kua kuku (wooden anvil)]
The Kapa-Making Process
The first stage of kapa beating was typically done on a flat stone (kua pōhaku) using a rounded beater (hoahoa), while the second stage of beating was done on a wooden anvil (kua kuku). The yellowish wood of kāwa‘u(Zanthoxylum dipetalum) was especially favored for making the wooden anvils because, when struck by the square kapa beater (i‘e kuku), the wood of kāwa‘u produces resonant tones. These tones sometimes accompanied chants said during the kapa beating process.
Another wood known as kāwa‘u (Ilex anomala, Hawaiian holly) was also used to make kapa-beating anvils. Pūkiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) was also used for making kua kuku, the kapa-beating anvils that were used in the second-stage beatings while making kapa barkcloth.
Kapa beaters were usually made from a particularly hard-wooded species known as koai‘e (Acacia koaia), a species closely related to koa (Acacia koa). Koai‘e (also called koai‘a) is a native tree whose unique characteristics (gnarly trunk, narrower leaves and extremely hard wood) have distinguished it as a separate species.
According to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[4] the tree referred to by the Hawaiian term koai‘e was considered to be a particularly hard-wooded variety of koa, though not distinct enough from Acacia koa to distinguish it as a separate species, or even a subspecies (it was considered a variety of Acacia koa). The Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[5] however, distinguishes Acacia koaia as a separate species. (See Koa section in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
Kapa beaters were also made from other hardwood trees, including uhiuhi (Caesalpinia kavaiensis), ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species), nīoi (Eugenia species), and kauila (Colubrina oppositifolia).
After the first beating, the strips of bark were sprinkled with water and covered with leaves of mai‘a (Musa species, banana) or wrapped in kī (Cordyline terminalis, ti) and then placed in water. The strips of bark were then left to ferment for about ten days.
After maturing, the layers of fibers were finely beaten together into a rectangular piece of velvety soft kapa. The added fermentation process and second beating made Hawaiian kapa superior to kapa produced elsewhere.
Finishing stage beaters were known as i‘e kuku ho‘ōki, and were carved to make various attractive patterns on the finished kapa. The resulting silky fabric was sometimes scented with the leaves of the maile vine (Alyxia oliviformis), the powdered wood of ‘iliahi (Santalum species, sandalwood); the inflorescences (flower clusters) of hala (Pandanus tectorius, screwpine); the orange-blossom scented flowers of kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum, Alexandrian laurel); the underground rhizomes of ‘awapuhi kuahiwi (Zingiber zerumbet, shampoo ginger), the seed capsules and stems of mokihana (Pelea anisata); and the fragrant laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria, a post-contact introduction). The sap of the ‘ama‘u tree fern (Sadleria species) was sometimes sprinkled on the kapa strips during the beating process.
Decorating Kapa
Patterns were stamped onto the finished kapa cloth with blocks of wood carved with designs. In post-contact times, more intricate geometric patterns were created with a highly refined method of printing using bamboo stamps known as ‘ohe kāpala.
The process of decorating the kapa involved dipping the carved wood block or bamboo stamps into a shallow stone bowl containing colored dyes (see Traditional Dyes section below), and then pressing the design onto the kapa. Each impression aligned with the edge of the previous impression, thus forming a pattern. The intricate bamboo stamp printing methods utilized by Hawaiians, though a post-contact technique, was nevertheless found nowhere else in Polynesia.
Traditional Dyes of Ancient Hawai‘i Ind. = Indigenous End. = Endemic
PlantColorSource ‘A‘ali‘i Red Fruit Ind. ‘Akala Pink/Red Fruit End. ‘Ala‘ala Wai Nui Grayish/Green Leaves, stems Ind./End. ‘Alaea Red / Pink/Orange Red ocherous earth Alahe‘e Black Leaves Ind. ‘Ama‘u Red Young fronds End. ‘Awapuhi Kuahiwi Rhizome P.I. Hame Red/Dark Purple Fruit End. Hau Hele ‘Ula Pinkish/Red Flower petals End. Hōlei Yellow Stem bark, roots End.
Huahekili Uka Black Fruit End.
Kalo (varieties) Red Corm P.I. Kamani Brownish Husk of fruit P.I. Kauila Bluish Leaves and bark End. Kō Black Charcoal from leaves and stems P.I. Koa Red Bark End. Koki‘o ‘Ula‘ula Red Flower End. Kōlea Lau Nui Red Sap End. Kōlea Lau Nui Black Charcoal from stem End. Kou Brown Leaves Ind. Kūkaenēnē (‘Aiakanēnē) Yellow Inner bark of stem End. Kūkaenēnē Purple/Black Fruit End. Kukui Grayish Husk of fruit P.I. Kukui Brownish/Red Inner bark of trunk P.I. Kukui Black Soot from burning P.I. Kukui Reddish/Brown Inner bark of root P.I. Mai‘a Black Skin of trunk P.I. Ma‘o Greenish/Gray Leaves Ind. (End.?) Milo Yellowish-Green Shell of fruit P.I. Nānū Yellow Fruit End. Naupaka Kuahiwi Purplish/Black Fruit End. Noni Yellow Inner bark of root P.I. Noni (with lime) Red Inner bark of trunk P.I. Noni Yellow/Red Roots P.I. ‘Ōhi‘a ‘Ai Brown Inner bark of trunk P.I. ‘Ōlapa Bluish-Black Fruit, leaves, bark, roots End. ‘Ōlena Yellow/Gold Underground stem (rhizome) P.I. Pā‘ihi Black Stem bark P.I. (or Ind.) Pala‘ā Brownish-Red Older leaves Ind. Pili Black Charcoal from blades Ind.
Pōpolo Blackish-Purple Fruit Ind.
Pōpolo Green Leaves Ind.
Pōpolo Kū Mai Dark Purple Fruit End.
‘Uki‘uki Purple/Blue Fruit Ind.
‘Uki‘uki (with lime) Blue Berries Ind. ‘Ūlei Lavender/Purple Fruit Ind. ‘Ulu Yellow/Brown Male flower P.I. ‘Ulu Blue P.I. Wana (Invertebrate) Blue Sea urchin (Diadema paucispinum) Ind.
Plants Used to Scent Kapa Barkcloth ‘Awapuhi Kuahiwi Underground rhizomes P.I. Hala Male flower (hīnano) Ind. ‘Iliahi Powdered wood End. Kamani Flowers P.I. Laua‘e Fern (post-contact introduction) Fronds Intr. Maile Leaves End. Mokihana Seed capsules and stems End. ‘Ama‘u Tree Fern Sap (sprinkled on during beating process) End.
Uses of Kapa Kapa had many uses in ancient Hawai‘i. Kapa was used to make clothing as well as sleep coverings (kapa moe). A sleeping cover might consist of several layers of kapa sewn together, with the upper layer (kilohana) often beautifully decorated. Women’s wrap-around skirts (pā‘ū), were also made of kapa, and could be up to ten layers thick. The loin cloth (malo) worn by males was often stamped with two different designs, and then folded lengthwise so that both designs showed. [Illustration or photo: pā‘ū, malo]
Hawaiians also used a triangular kapa strip (puela) on canoes. A kapa-covered stick (pūlo‘ulo‘u) was carried in front of chiefs to signal kapu. Sap of ‘ulu (Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit) was sometimes painted onto kapa to give it a shiny appearance.
Modern attempts to replicate the traditional kapa-making techniques have only approximated the high quality kapa produced by the early settlers of the Hawaiian Islands. Rediscovering the methods used by ancient Hawaiians has given modern crafters a renewed appreciation for this ancient art. [Photograph: Kapa barkcloth with geometric designs]
In ancient Hawai‘i there were many sacred places of worship known as heiau, including shrines to gods and places of refuge. These structures included stone enclosures and platforms as well as earthen terraces. Heiau were also places where offerings and prayers were made to ‘aumākua, personal or family gods, and sacred guardians and protectors that should be respected and even fed. Some heiau included an ‘anu‘u, or oracle tower, which might be covered with white kapa (tapa) barkcloth.
According to tradition, sometime before the year A.D.1200 a Tahitian high priest (kahuna) by the name of Pā‘ao founded a high priest line, known as kahuna nui. Pā‘ao returned to Tahiti and brought back a chief named Pili, who ruled the island of Hawai‘i and sired the royal line leading to King Kamehameha I, beginning a 700-year dynasty.
Before the arrival of Pā‘ao the Hawaiians had built various heiau, but Pā‘ao constructed the first temple of human sacrifice, Waha‘ula Heiau at Puna on the island of Hawai‘i. Pā‘ao also introduced the war god Kūkā‘ilimoku, and Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes.
Pā‘ao initiated the social order that separated ali‘i (royalty), kāhuna (priests and experts in a given profession), maka‘āinana (commoners who were mostly farmers), and the kauā (or kauwā) class, who were the lowest outcast members. There was a system of laws (kānāwai) that determined if something was kapu (sacred or forbidden). Commoners fell prostrate to the ground in the presence of chiefs, who possessed more mana (divine power).
Types of Heiau
There were many kinds of heiau in ancient Hawai‘i. Heiau po‘o kanaka, where human sacrifices took place, were also known as luakini, and honored Kūkā‘ilimoku, the god of war. Also honoring Kūkā‘ilimoku were war heiau known as heiau waikaua.
There were many other types of heiau, including: heiau ho‘oūlu (for offerings to insure good fishing); heiau ho‘oulu ua (to insure rain); and heiau ho‘oulu ‘ai (for increase of food crops). There were once many heiau hō‘ola (for treating the sick) throughout the Hawaiian Islands, signifying the Hawaiians’ advanced state of medicinal healing knowledge, said to be the highest among Pacific people. One of the only surviving heiau hō‘ola is Keāiwa on ‘Aiea Heights.
Many heiau were dedicated to Lono, the god of agricultural fertility. Waihau and unu were agricultural heiau where gifts such as pigs, bananas, or coconuts were offered. Fishermen often placed a kū‘ula, or fish god, atop a stone altar near the coast as a shrine, just as bird catchers in the mountains made offerings at a stone platform, known as a ko‘a.
The kahuna kuhikuhi pu‘uone was the master architect of a heiau, and chose the site on which it was built. The site was chosen for the mana, or spiritual power it possessed. A heiau was usually constructed of lava rock walls built into a rectangular formation on the ground, or raised terrace platforms forming a more substantial structure.
Structures were sometimes built within the heiau, and often were constructed using the wood of ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species) and thatched pili grass (Heteropogon contortus, twisted beardgrass), with cordage woven from olonā (Touchardia latifolia). Wooden carved figures representing gods were known as ki‘i, and were placed in and around heiau. Ki‘i were often carved from the wood of ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species).
There were also images named for particular kāhuna (priests). The proverb “Ho‘okāhi no Hāwa‘e, lauhue Kona,” (“Only one Hāwa‘e, and poisonous gourds grow all over Kona,”)[6] is said to refer to a kāhuna named Hāwa‘e. According to Mary Kawena Pūku‘i, “In Kona on Hawai‘i Island, a priest named Hāwa‘e lived during the reign of Ehukaipo. In every important heiau in that district, an image named for this priest was kept. Many people were sacrificed to these evil namesakes of Hāwa‘e.”[7]
Heiau on the Island of Hawai‘i
In ancient Hawai‘i, the strict sanctions of the kapu system ensured the separation of the classes (see above), and prescribed much of the daily lives of the islanders. Kapu breakers and defeated warriors were subject to immediate death unless they could reach a pu‘uhonua, a place of refuge, where a priest could absolve them. One such place was Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau on the island of Hawai‘i.
On the South Kona coast, Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park encompasses an ancient Hawaiian area that contains royal grounds and heiau as well as a pu‘uhonua (place of refuge). The ancient heiau and pu‘uhonua have now been reconstructed, along with carved images of ancient gods (ki‘i).
Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau also has a 10-foot (3-m) high, 1,000-foot (305-m) long stone wall, a petroglyph site, a loko ‘ia (fishpond), lava tree molds, and a canoe that was hand-carved from koa (Acacia koa). A heiau on the coastal point nearby holds the bones of 23 chiefs. The bones are said to hold the mana (spiritual power) that is imparted to those that come near. Pu‘ukoholā Heiau overlooks the Pacific Ocean about 30 miles (48 km) north of Kailua-Kona on the island of Hawai‘i. The rising warrior Kamehameha constructed this luakini heiau (sacrificial temple) as a result of a prophecy that it would allow him to unite all of the Islands under his rule.
Kamehameha had thousands of his men work to construct the 224-foot (68-m) long, 100-foot (30-m) high structure. A human chain 20 miles (32 km) long passed stones from hand-to-hand all the way to the site. The stones were laid by hand, without mortar. (See Pu‘ukoholā Heiau in Hawai‘iIsland section, Chapter 2.)
Also found at the Pu‘ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site are the ruins of Mailekini Heiau, which was used by King Kamehameha‘s ancestors. Hale o KapuniHeiau, dedicated to a shark god, is now submerged offshore.
Other Heiau of the Hawaiian Islands Many other heiau are found throughout the main Hawaiian Islands as well as on the remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, particularly Necker Island, 310 miles (499 km) northwest of Ni‘ihau. Necker Island has an extensive heiau complex. Nihoa, 130 miles (209 km) from Ni‘ihau, has agricultural terraces and house sites, and likely also heiau. Both Necker and Nihoa were uninhabited when Cook established Western contact in 1778.
Chapter 3 of this book describes numerous heiau throughout the Hawaiian Islands, including:
ØKeaīwa, Kānē‘ākī, Ulopō, and Pu‘u-o-mahuka on the island of O‘ahu.
ØHō‘ai, Hauloa, Hikina-a-ka-lā, Māla‘e, Holoholokū, Poli‘ahu, Hōkū‘alele, Ka-ulu-Paoa, and Ka-ulu-o-Laka on Kaua‘i.
ØKawela and ‘Ili‘ili‘ōpae on Moloka‘i.
ØHalulu and Kahe‘a on Lāna‘i.
ØHaleki‘i-Pihana and Pi‘ilane-hale on Maui.
ØAhu‘ena, Ke‘ekū, Hikiau, Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau, Kaloko-Honokōhau, Pu‘ukoholā, Mailekini, Hale o Kapuni, Pu‘u-o-Mahuka, and Mo‘okini on the island of Hawai‘i.
The Menehune: An Ancient Race [Illustration: Menehune]
The modern myth of the menehune describes an ancient race of Kauaians who were very small, but very skilled, with a supernatural strength. The menehune built many things, including heiau (sacred places of worship), roads, dams, and canals—and they did it all during the night. The menehune population was said to have been around one half-million people. Menehune grew many different foods and fished the sea. Each menehune was a master of a certain craft and had one special function they accomplished with great precision and expertise. The menehune would set out at dark to build something completely in one night. If they failed to complete the project in one night, it would be abandoned.
Wawā ka menehune i Pu‘ukapele ma Kaua‘i, puoho ka manu o ka loko o Kawainui ma O‘ahu. The shouts of the menehune on Pu‘ukapele on Kaua‘i startled the birds of Kawainui Pond on O‘ahu. The menehune were once so numerous on Kaua‘i that their shouting could be heard on O‘ahu. Said of too much boisterous talking. (Pukui: 2920-320)
There remains some mystery surrounding the exact origin of the stories about menehune. Early Westerners seeking information about various structures on Kaua‘i may have been told by native Hawaiians that “menehune” were responsible, possibly referring to an old meaning of the word “manahune,” which is “common people,” thought to refer to common laborers, which were likely the early Marquesan settlers of the Hawaiian Islands, who were later dominated by the Tahitian settlers and made to perform the hardest work, including stonework. The word menehune may have been a reference not to the Marquesan settlers’ small size but instead to their lower status in the social system after the arrival of the Tahitians. This may have led to a myth about a small race of people, and the myth may have been compounded over the years. One version of history recounts how the dominating Tahitians drove the Marquesan descendants north along the island chain, finally to Kaua‘i, where the “menehune” made their last stand. A census in 1820 (Kaua‘i’s first census) stated that 65 people in Kaua‘i’s upper Wainiha Valley claimed their nationality to be menehune. However, no human skeletal remains of a physically small people have ever been found on Kaua‘i or on the other Hawaiian Islands. Of course this doesn’t mean that menehune never existed, and one never knows if, when night falls, menehune may appear to ply their trades.
Māla‘e Heiau at Wailua, Kaua‘i is said to be an example of the menehune trait of forming a single line of people many miles long to pass rocks from one person to the next. They are said to have passed rocks along a line for the length of Kaua‘i. Another site on Kaua‘i attributed to menehune is the Alekoko Fishpond, used by ancient Hawaiians to trap and raise fish. A 900-foot (274-m) wall was built for this purpose at a bend in the river that now flows into Nāwiliwili Harbor. It is said the wall was built by a 25-mile (40-km) long, double row of menehune who passed rocks to each other all the way from the source of the stones, the Makaweli Quarry in Waimea. Makaweli means, “Fearful features.”//**[8]**// Other legends also involve the menehune, such as the origin of Kaua‘i’s famous Sleeping Giant, an outline of a giant figure on the Nounou Ridge skyline visible from near Wailua. It is said that the menehune tried to awaken the giant by throwing stones, but so many stones landed in the giant’s mouth that it gave him an incurable case of indigestion. This has caused the giant to remain there sleeping ever since. [Photograph: Māla‘e Heiau, Alekoko Fishpond]
Captain Cook [Illustration: Captain Cook]
Captain Cook lived to sail the world’s oceans and discover new lands. While searching for the elusive “Northwest Passage,” a northern route from the Pacific to the Atlantic, Cook became the first known European to come to the Hawaiian Islands.
Captain Cook was born in Yorkshire, Britain in 1728. He died in 1779 at Kealakekua Bay when he was attacked on the beach by native Hawaiians who were angry that members of Cook’s crew had killed one of their chiefs.
Navigator and Explorer British navigator and explorer, James Cook is considered one of the world’s greatest explorers. He sailed around the world twice, commanding three major Pacific exploratory expeditions for Great Britain between 1768 and 1779.
Cook made many discoveries during his expeditions, collecting a great deal of information about native people as well as native flora and fauna.
First Contact The crews of Captain Cook’s two ships, the HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first sighted the Hawaiian Islands of O‘ahu and Kaua‘i in the dawn hours of January 18, 1778. Conditions kept them at bay until the next day, by which time they had also sighted Ni‘ihau. When Cook’s ships approached Kaua‘i’s southeast coast on the afternoon of January 19, 1778, natives in canoes paddled out to meet them—and so began Hawai‘i’s contact with Westerners. This first encounter with the Hawaiians took place in the waters near Kipu Kai. The Hawaiians traded fish and sweet potatoes for pieces of iron and brass, which were lowered down from the larger ships to the Hawaiians canoes. Cook sailed along Kaua‘i’s southeastern coast searching for a suitable anchorage. Cook’s ships remained offshore, but Cook allowed a few Hawaiians to come on board on the morning of January 20 before continuing on in search of safe anchorage. On the afternoon of January 20, Cook anchored his ships near the mouth of the Waimea River, and went ashore with three boats accompanied by 12 armed marines. As they stepped ashore, Cook and his men were greeted by hundreds of Hawaiians who offered gifts including kapa barkcloth, pigs, and bananas. Cook went ashore three times that day, walking inland to view Hawaiian hale (houses), heiau (sacred places of worship), and agriculture. Cook’s crew continued to trade iron and other items to the natives, receiving in return the various food items mentioned above as well as chickens and taro corms. Though some speculative evidence (including a Hawaiian legend) exists that Spanish ships visited the Hawaiian Islands in the 1500s, it remains uncertain. The Hawaiians did have two small pieces of iron when Cook arrived, and claimed it “came from the sea,” perhaps meaning that it floated ashore on ocean debris.
At this time the total population of the eight main Hawaiian Islands was about 300,000 (estimates vary from less than 300,000 to more than 700,000). Cook’s men estimated that about 30,000 people lived on Kaua‘i at the time. Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands in honor of his patron, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich.
Cook Leaves and Returns
After a fruitless journey north in search of a Northwest Passage (a northwest route from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean), Cook returned to the Hawaiian Islands. On January 17, 1779, he sailed into Kealakekua Bay on the island of Hawai‘i. Cook’s intention was to restock his ships and let his men recover from their journey so they could press on for further exploration.
Cook was unaware that he was visiting the Islands during the during the ancient Hawaiian harvest festival known as Makahiki, a Hawaiian period of several months (beginning about the middle of October when time is taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility.
When Cook arrived on the island of Hawai‘i during the Makahiki festival, he was greeted by processions and celebrations unlike any he had encountered before. Many historians state that Cook was received as the god Lono, but others disagree (see Appendix 1). Hawaiian beliefs held that Lono had long ago departed from Kealakekua Bay, promising to return.
While accounts vary on whether Cook was indeed thought by the natives to be the god Lono, it is clear that Cook was given preferential treatment. Cook was brought to Hikiau Heiau, a sacred temple where kāhuna (native priests) put sacred red kapa cloth on him and offered sacred chants.
Fatal Encounter
Cook left Kealakekua Bay on February 4, 1779 to survey the other Hawaiian Islands before heading off again on his explorations. However, soon after leaving Kealakekua Bay, a foremast of the HMS Resolution broke, requiring Cook and his men to return to Kealakekua Bay.
On the evening of February 13, one of Cook’s smaller boats (a cutter) was stolen. The next morning Cook went ashore with nine of his men to retrieve the boat. Cook planned to find the ruler of the island, Kalani‘ōpu‘u, and take him hostage in order to demand the return of the boat for the return of the chief.
Cook and his men went ashore and awakened Kalani‘ōpu‘u, and compelled him to come to the ship. Meanwhile, members of Cook’s crew had blockaded the harbor so no one could escape. When a canoe attempted to pass the blockade, Cook’s crew fired on the natives, killing a chief. Learning that one of their chiefs had been killed, the natives gathered in a large crowd near shore. Just then, Cook’s group, including Kalani‘ōpu‘u, reached shore to take their small boat out to the main ship.
In an encounter with the angry native Hawaiians on the shore, Cook and his men fired upon the natives. When Cook’s men paused to reload they were attacked. Cook yelled for his men to “take to the boats!,” but it was too late—Cook was stabbed in the neck and killed, and floated face down in the water. At least four of Cook’s men were also killed. The rest of Cook’s group escaped in their boat that was near the shore. Cook’s men retreated to the main ship, leaving Cook behind along with the other members of his crew that had been killed.
Four marines and an unknown number of native Hawaiians died in the fighting during the following days as hostilities escalated. A stalemate existed over the return of Cook’s remains, which had been taken inland. Eventually Cook’s remains were returned by a procession of Hawaiians bearing white flags and beating drums. The remains were wrapped in kapa barkcloth, and covered by a feather cloak. Within the kapa, however, were only some of Cook’s remains, the rest still being in the possession of native chiefs. Cook’s hands and feet had been preserved with pa‘akai (sea salt), and the rest of his flesh had been stripped from his bones and burned. Current historians note that this treatment was normally reserved for ali‘i nui (high chiefs).
Cook’s crew then held a naval burial service. The ship’s cannons were fired in salute, and Cook’s remains were lowered into Kealakekua Bay. Pressure from the British government eventually resulted in Cook’s remains being returned to his homeland. After Cook’s crew left the Hawaiian Islands, no other Europeans sailed to Hawai‘i’s shores until 1786. Then an increasing number of foreign ships began to visit Hawai‘i, including British Captain George Vancouver’s expeditions in 1792, 1793 and 1794, followed by many others. (See Chapter 11, Timeline of Hawaiian History, Chapter 11.) [Photograph: HMS Discovery or HMS Resolution]
The Hawaiian Flag [Illustration or Photographs: Hawaiian Flag; British Flag (comparison)]
In 1794, Kamehameha I received a gift of a British flag (a Union Jack) from British Captain George Vancouver. Kamehameha and Vancouver were friends, and Kamehameha sought assurance that the Hawaiian Islands would be under British protection. Though King Kamehameha I flew his British flag for the next 22 years at various places where he lived, it is uncertain what meaning he attributed to it, since the apparent cession agreement he had with Vancouver was never ratified by British Parliament. At this time, the British ensign included the cross of St. Andrew and St. George, but not the diagonal cross of St. Patrick, which was added in 1801 (see below).
By 1816, a uniquely Hawaiian flag was created, though there is still much uncertainty regarding its exact origins and the intent of its designers, which included King Kamehameha I. One account states that it was designed around 1808 by an English captain named George Beckley for King Kamehameha I. In any case, it is known that King Kamehameha I had help from one or several people collaborating on the creation of this uniquely Hawaiian flag.
The upper left corner of the Hawaiian flag is a British Union Jack, but it is uncertain if this was intended to represent King Kamehameha’s belief that the Hawaiian Islands were under British protection, or instead simply a sign of Kamehameha’s respect for Vancouver.
Alexander Adams (1780-1870) is believed to be the one who placed the Union Jack at the upper left corner of the flag, inspiring today’s Hawaiian flag. Adams first arrived in the Hawaiian Islands aboard the Albatross in 1810. With the support of John Young (‘Olohana), Alexander was placed in charge of several ships owned by King Kamehameha I. Before the Hawaiian flag was originated, the Hawaiian people had not used flags in the manner of other nations. The Hawaiians did have the kāhili (royal feather standard), and the puela (triangular kapa strip), which was often carried on canoes. They also had the pūlo‘ulo‘u (kapa-covered stick) which was carried in front of the chiefs to signal kapu (sacredness). A letter to the editor of the Hawaiian newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a on January 1, 1862 states: “The Hawaiian flag was designed for King Kamehameha I in the year 1816. As the King desired to send a vessel to China, to sell a cargo of sandal wood, he in company of John Young, Isaac Davis (the younger, known as Aikake [‘Aikake]) and Captain Alexander Adams, (the latter now living at Kalihi, near Honolulu, and aged about eight years), made this flag for the ship, which was a war vessel called the Forester, carrying 16 guns, and was owned by King Kamehameha I. The flag having been made, the vessel sailed for Macao, China where the flag was not credited nor recognized as a government flag...”[9] As commander of the sandalwood trading fleet of King Kamehameha I, Adams sailed to China in 1817 with a load of sandalwood (Santalum species; Hawaiian name: ‘Iliahi) but was refused entry into the harbor at Macao because the flag flown by the ship was not recognized. This was the first time Hawai‘i’s flag was flown on a ship sailing to a foreign port. (For more information about Alexander Adams, see Chapter 11, Timeline: 1810;1817.) It remains uncertain whether the flag flown on the Forester (Ka‘ahumanu) contained the diagonal cross of St. Patrick, which was not part of the British flag until 1801, and so likely was not on the original flag given to Kamehameha by Vancouver, but was added later, after it was put on the British flag. It was a complaint by the Scotch (whose diagonal St. Andrew’s cross was overtaken by the addition of the cross of St. Patrick), that led to the compound saltire on the British flag, but this soon came to be Hawai‘i’s official flag. Hawai‘i’s flag was flown at half mast in 1824 upon the arrival at Honolulu Harbor of the British frigate Blonde, which had come from England with the bodies of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) and Queen Kamāmalu, who had died there of measles. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1824.) In 1843, all of the existing Hawaiian flags were apparently destroyed by Lord George Paulet of Britain after he arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on the frigate Carysfort and used the threat of military might to demand a formal “provisional cession” of the Hawaiian Islands to Britain. King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) acquiesced and the British flag was raised in Honolulu. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1843, Feb. 10.) Appeals to London and Washington resulted in the arrival of Paulet’s superior, Admiral Richard Thomas, on July 26, 1843 on the H.M.S. flagship Dublin. Thomas rescinded the provisional cession and restored the powers of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). (See 1843, July 31.) On July 31, the British flag was lowered and the Hawaiian flag was again raised at the place now known as Thomas Square in honor of Admiral Richard Thomas. Later that day, King Kamehameha III gave a speech at a Kawaiaha‘o Church service, and is said to have spoken the words which later became Hawai‘i’s official state motto: “Ua mau ke ea o ka ‘āina o ka pono” (“The life of the land is perpetuated [preserved] in righteousness”). The date of July 31 was later proclaimed Restoration Day. In 1881, King Kalākaua became the first ruler of any country to sail around the world, calling on 11 heads of state, including the leaders of the United States, Japan and Great Britain. When King Kalākaua visited Japan during this nine-month world tour, 13 warships representing four different nations greeted him. Aboard each ship, cheering crews unfurled flags from many different nations, and atop the mainmast of each ship was a Hawaiian flag. The statutes of 1896, chapter 10, describe the flag as follows: “The national ensign shall consist of eight horizontal stripes, alternating white, red, blue, etc., beginning at the top, having a jack cantoned in the dexter chief angle next to the point of suspension. The jack shall consist of a blue field charge with a compound saltire of alternate tinctures white and red, the white having precedence; a narrow edge of white borders each red side of the saltire. A red cross bordered with white is charged over all. The jack is half the hoist and 7/16 the fly in length. The arms of the red cross with border shall be equal in width to one of the horizontal stripes; the white border shall be one third the width of the red cross.”[10] The eight horizontal stripes of the Hawaiian flag represent the eight main Hawaiian Islands. The colors of the stripes are alternating red, white and blue, with red said to symbolize Hawaiian gods, white symbolizing truth, and blue for the ocean. The Hawaiian flag was first used to represent the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, and then continued to be used after the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893. The flag was retained by the Republic, the Territory, and finally by the State of Hawai‘i. There was originally a ninth stripe (bar), apparently representing the archipelago, but the number of stripes was reduced to eight after statehood. More recently, another Hawaiian flag design has emerged from research done by Honolulu’s Gene Simeona who claims the original flags destroyed by British Navy Captain Lord George Paulet in 1843 were not of the same design of today’s Hawaiian flag. Based on research at the Hawai‘i State Archives, Simeona claims that the original flag had stripes of green, red, and yellow, with a shield at the center composed of a kahili (royal feather standard) and canoe paddles crossed over one another, forming the “...coat of arms of the kanaka maoli.”[11] According to Simeona, “the green in the flag represents the maka‘āinana (commoner) caste, the land and goodness; the red represents the landed konohiki who served the ali‘i, genealogy and strength; and the yellow represents the ali‘i, spirituality and alertness to danger.”[12] Many questions remain to be answered about the original design of the Hawaiian flag, and perhaps further research will unravel the complete story. [Photograph: Hawaiian flag]
The History of Surfing [Illustration: Surfboards]
It seems inevitable that the seafaring Polynesians, so skilled in all aspects of living near and sailing over the ocean, would be among the first people to surf the ocean waves. Today the Hawaiian Islands are a mecca for surfers who come from all over the world to test themselves on Hawai‘i’s large and challenging waves. Increasingly popular in the Hawaiian Islands today, along with traditional surfing, are more modern water sports including tow-in surfing (using powered craft to pull a surfer into a giant wave), kite surfing (the surfer is pulled by a large parachute-like kite), and windsurfing (a sail is attached to the surfboard).
O ‘Awili ka nalu, he nalu kapu kai na ke akua. ‘Awili is the surf, a surf reserved for the ceremonial bath of the goddess. Refers to Pele. There were three noted surfs at Kalapana, Puna: Kalehua, for the children and those just learning to surf; Ho‘eu, for experienced surfers; and ‘Awili, which none dared to ride. When the surf of ‘Awili was rolling dangerously high, all surfing and canoeing ceased, for that was a sign that the gods were riding. (Pukui: 2356-257)
The First Surfers Surfing waves on a surfboard was likely first done in the Society Islands, including Tahiti. It was later in the Hawaiian Islands, however, that surfing really took hold. The Hawaiian term for surfing is he‘e nalu (“to ride the waves”). Hawaiians surfed waves on surfboards hundreds of years ago. They also left petroglyphs of surfers carved into lava rocks, and there are stories of surfing in Hawaiian chants dated to at least 500 years ago (which means Hawaiians were probably surfing long before that).
Surfing in the Hawaiian Islands was part of the Hawaiians’ kapu system, where ali‘i (the ruling class, or royalty) and maka‘āinana (commoners) had different status. The ali‘i, or ruling class, used surfboards that were from 14 to 16 feet (4 to 5 m) long. The boards were carved from the buoyant wood of the wiliwili tree (Erythrina sandwicensis, Hawaiian coral tree). A big surfboard like this made of premium wood was called an olo (also ‘ōwili, paha), and might weigh as much as 175 pounds (80 kg). An ‘ōnini was a board used only by the best surfers. Commoners used a 10- to 12-foot (3- to 3.7-m) board called an alaia (also called an omo), made from the denser, heavier and thus less buoyant wood of koa (Acacia koa), or the wood of the ‘ulu (Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit), which was also less buoyant. A small board was known as a kīoe.
Constructing a Surfboard
To make a surfboard, the craftsman first put a ceremonial fish (kūmū) in a hole near the tree’s roots and then completed a ritual showing respect. The tree was cut down, and a bone, or a stone adze was used to shape the board. ‘Ōahi (rough stone) or pōhaku puna (granulated coral) was used to put a smooth finish on the board, smoothing out the marks from the adze.
O Kua‘ana ka nalu; o Paiaha‘a ka ‘āina. Kua‘ana is the surf; Paiaha‘a the land. Proud were the people of Ka‘ū of the surf of Kua‘ana, where chiefs used to ride the waves to the shore of Paiaha‘a. (Pukui: 2472-270)
For a final coat on the surfboard, the root of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti), pounded bark (hili) of kukui (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut), or stain from the buds of mai‘a (Musa species, banana) was used. A dark stain color was also achieved by rubbing the soot from burned kukui nuts into the wood. Kukui oil was used to give the board a glossy finish.
The papa he‘e nalu (surfboard) was dedicated before taking it in the ocean. Then after each surf session the board was treated with the oil of niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut), and wrapped in kapa (tapa) barkcloth.
“....Hiking into Waipi‘o Valley where they marveled at the skill of native surfers frolicking in the waves. “All ranks and ages seem to be equally fond of it. We have seen Karaimoku and Kaikioeva, some of the highest chiefs in the island, both between fifty and sixty years of age, and large corpulent men, balancing themselves on their narrow board, or splashing about in the foam, with as much satisfaction as youths of sixteen.” William Ellis, 1823
[Photograph: Traditional Hawaiian surfboard]
Duke Kahanamoku (1890-1968) Surfer, Olympian, Movie Star, Sheriff [Illustration: Duke Kahanamoku surfing Waikīkī]
When missionaries from New England began arriving in the Hawaiian Islands around 1820, they discouraged surfing as a waste of valuable time that should instead be spent praying or working. There was some interest in surfing when King Kalākaua took the throne, but with his death in 1891 surfers in the Hawaiian Islands again became scarce. In 1905, Duke Kahanamoku surfed Waikīkī and began the rebirth of Hawaiian surfing.
In 1911, Duke set an American swimming record in the 100-yard sprint, and later went on to set several world records and win medals in four different Olympics: Stockholm (1912), Antwerp (1920), Paris (1924), and Belgium (1932).
‘A‘ohe ia e loa‘a aku, he ulua kāpapa no ka moana. He cannot be caught for he is an ulua fish of the deep ocean. Said in admiration of a hero or warrior who will not give up without a struggle. (Pukui: 145-18)
Duke Kahanamoku was also a Hollywood movie star (1922-1933), and then the Sheriff of the City and County of Honolulu for 26 years (1934-1960). “The Duke” is now considered a Hawaiian legend.
Hui Nalu
A full-blooded Hawaiian and a descendant of Hawaiian royalty, Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku was born in Honolulu on August 24, 1890 to Duke and Julia Kahanamoku. Duke Kahanamoku was named after his father, who was named after the Duke of Edinburgh.
In 1891, Duke’s family moved to the Kālia area of Waikīkī. Duke’s mother’s family, the Paoas, owned a large portion of the 20 acres (8 ha) of land in the Kālia area now occupied by the 2,545-room Hilton Hawaiian Hotel.
Duke’s grandfather, Ho‘olae Paoa, was a descendant of royal chiefs. Ho‘olae Paoa had been deeded land by King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) in the Great Māhele (land division) of 1848. The Paoa ‘ohana (extended family) numbered more than 100 individuals living in the Waikīkī area where they farmed, fished, and spent lots of time in the water.
Duke’s father is said to have taught his children to swim by simply tying a rope around their waists and tossing them in the water to sink or swim. Duke Kahanamoku eventually became one of the most famous of the Waikīkī Beachboys, a group of water sports instructors working on the beaches fronting the Royal Hawaiian and Moana Hotels. (See Historic Waikīkī in O‘ahu section, Chapter 2.)
In 1911, Duke and his friends organized Hui Nalu (Club of the Waves), a swimming, paddling, and surfing club. The main reason for the formation of Hui Nalu was to meet the United States’ requirement that swimmers had to belong to a recognized club if they wanted official sanction for any aquatic records. That same year, in Honolulu Harbor, Duke set three world records in freestyle swimming.
Olympic Champion
Duke Kahanamoku set a world record in the 100-meter freestyle in the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden with a time of 63.4 seconds. Less well known is the fact that Duke overslept during his pre-race nap, which caused him to arrive at the stadium late. Duke barely convinced officials to delay the race as he suited up, and then won the race!
In the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium, Duke won two more gold medals, breaking his own 100-meter freestyle world record. He also helped to set a world record in the freestyle relay, earning yet another gold medal. Hawaiian Pua Kealoha also competed in the 1920 Olympics.
At age 34, in the 1924 Paris Olympics, Duke took the silver medal in the 100-meter freestyle, losing to Johnny Weissmuller, who later became famous as the actor who played Tarzan. Two of Duke’s brothers, David and Sam Kahanamoku, also qualified for the 1924 Olympics. Sam won a bronze medal in the 100-meter freestyle event, placing third behind Duke and Johnny Weissmuller.
In all, Duke Kahanamoku earned a total of six Olympic medals (three gold and two silver, one bronze) in four different Olympics. Other swimming victories for Duke Kahanamoku included 100-meter freestyle victories in the 1916, 1917, and 1920 American Athletic Union Outdoor Championships. Duke was known for his use of the “flutter kick,” which he used instead of the common scissors kick. Duke retired from competitive swimming at the age of 42.
Duke Kahanamoku’s Olympic Medals OlympicsMedalEventComments 1912 (Stockholm, Sweden) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record Silver 4x200-Meter Freestyle Relay Anchored team
1916 (No Olympics) World War I 1920 (Antwerp, Belgium) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record Gold 4x200-meter Freestyle World Record Water Polo Team Fourth Place
1932 (Los Angeles, California) Bronze Water Polo Team Duke’s Age: 42
Duke Kahanamoku—Hawaiian Waterman
Duke is also credited with saving many lives through brave ocean rescues, including a daring rescue in Coronal del Mar, California on June 14, 1925, when he used his surfboard to single-handedly save eight lives from a capsized boat.
He kanaka no kaulu hānai. A man from the top of the cliff. Praise of a hero. (Pukui: 669-75)
Duke Kahanamoku is considered the father of modern surfing and the father of international surfing, having introduced the sport to the eastern coast of the United States (1913), Australia and New Zealand (1914-1915), and California (1915-1932). Duke also introduced surfing to Europe. In 1919, Duke pioneered the sport of tandem surfing, in which (traditionally) a male rider holds a female up in the air while surfing. Duke is also considered the first windsurfer (“the father of windsurfing”) as well as the first to wakesurf (riding on a surfboard while being towed behind a boat). From 1922 to 1933, Duke had a career in Hollywood. He lived in Los Angles during this time, and appeared in about 30 movies. Yet another of Duke’s accomplishments was serving as Sheriff of the City and County Honolulu for 26 years, from 1934 to 1960 (13 consecutive terms). Duke married Nadine Alexander on August 2, 1940. Duke Kahanamoku was a muscular man, standing 6 feet, 1 inch (185.4 cm) tall. With a soft-spoken demeanor, Duke was known for his humility and kindness. He was the victim of prejudice many times in his life, and was sometimes refused entrance to restaurants, clubs, and other places based on his skin color, yet Duke unfailingly responded to prejudice with aloha, and was said to have genuinely felt pity for the prejudiced person rather than anger. Duke strove to break down color barriers. It is notable that in Duke’s first Olympics (in 1912), the track and field competition was dominated by another man who also broke down color barriers, American Indian Jim Thorpe. On the east (Diamond Head) side of the Waikīkī Beach Center at Kūhiō Beach in Waikīkī is a 9-foot (2.7-m) statue of Duke Kahanamoku. (See Statue of Duke Kahanamoku in Waikīkī section, Chapter 2.) A plaque on the Duke Kahanamoku Statue states Duke’s creed: “In Hawai‘i, we greet friends, loved ones or strangers with aloha, which means with love. Aloha is the key word to the universal spirit of real hospitality, which makes Hawai‘i renowned as the world’s center of understanding and fellowship. Try meeting or leaving people with Aloha. You’ll be surprised by their reaction. I believe it and it is my creed. Aloha to you.” [Photograph: Duke Kahanamoku]
Duke was a true Hawaiian waterman, excelling in all types of ocean activities including paddling canoes, surfing, body surfing, swimming, and saving lives in the ocean. To support the United States’ war effort in 1918, Duke traveled throughout the United States Mainland and competed in exhibition races. He continued surfing big waves until the age of 50. At age 60, Duke was still considered the best canoe steersman in Waikīkī.
A legendary but true story about Duke tells of his famous 1917 ride on a huge wave in Waikīkī, at an outer surf spot offshore of Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi). Some call the surf spot Blue Birds because it’s near where the deeper ocean begins, causing the water color to change. Others call the surf spot Steamer Lane because it is near where the large ships pass. The surf spot is far from shore, and the surf only breaks when the waves are very large.
One day in 1917, when the surf was incredibly big, Duke paddled out to Steamer Lane and rode his 16-foot (4.9-m) surfboard on a huge wave that was estimated to be 30 to 35 feet (9 to 11 m) in height. Duke rode the wave for more than 1 mile (1.6 km), through the spots now known as Publics and Queen’s, and possibly as far down the coast as the Royal Hawaiian Hotel. The ride is still considered the longest ride on a wave in Waikīkī, if not the longest ride on a wave anywhere.
The Duke Kahanamoku Stamp A ceremony to dedicate the new United States postage stamp featuring Duke Kahanamoku took place on Saturday, August 24, 2002, which was the 112th anniversary of Duke’s birth. The stamp went on sale to the public the following Monday, including a total of 62.8 million of the stamps on sale across the United States, with two million of the stamps on sale in the Hawaiian Islands. The stamp dedication ceremony took place on the shores of Waikīkī’s Kālia Bay where Duke spent his youth. The voyaging canoe Hawai‘iloa arrived with a 30- by 38-inch (76- by 97-cm) replica of the stamp, and the traditional voyaging canoe was accompanied by a flotilla that included the canoe Makali‘i, and a symbolic 112 surfboards and canoes representing “candles on a cake,” commemorating Duke’s 112th birthday. As the Hawai‘iloa arrived, sounds of the conch shell blowers echoed through the Kālia Bay air when the Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe arrived and anchored offshore, and the poster of the stamp (draped under red velvet) was transported to the beach in the double-hulled canoe Kamiloa. A receiving delegation met the canoe at the beach, where chanters and hula dancers accompanied the unveiling of the stamp image.
Voyaging canoe navigator Nainoa Thompson and others presented a lei (which had been draped across the poster of the new Duke stamp), to Fred Paoa, Duke’s first cousin and oldest living relative, who in turn presented a maile lei to the ceremony officials.
A large group of relatives, friends, notable surfers, and public officials (including U.S. Senator Dan Akaka) all celebrated the occasion, along with Duke’s grand nephew, Alden Paoa, and Joanne Kahanamoku, Duke’s niece. Post office officials were on hand to provide people with the “First Day of Issue” cancellations on various items, including envelopes and post cards. New Orleans artist Michael Deas created the image of Duke for the stamp, which is mainly based on a 1918 photo provided by the Bishop Museum, but also incorporates other images of Duke. The stamp designer and art director for the project was Carl Herrman of Carlsbad, California.
The stamp dedication ceremony in Waikīkī included day-long festivities and was also the founding of “The First Annual Duke Paoa Kahanamoku Waterman Challenge,” which includes the Waikīkī Ocean Mile Swim as well as a canoe race, surfing contest, and tug-of-war competition. There was also a lū‘au, a traditional Hawaiian feast and celebration, where friends of the Duke could share their memories and honor him.
At nearby Kūhiō Beach, a Duke Kahanamoku statue memorializes a man who is seemingly larger than life. (See Statue of Duke Kahanamoku in Waikīkī section, Chapter 2.) The day before the stamp-dedication ceremony, Duke’s statue was draped with 112 lei to commemorate his birthday. One of the lei was a 5-inch (13-cm) thick, 15-foot (4.6-m) long lei of maile (Alyxia oliviformis). As a ho‘okupu (tribute) to Duke Kahanamoku, the maile had been gathered and strung by inmates at the Big Island’s Kūlani Correctional Facility. [Photograph: Picture of stamp]
In August of 2003 the second annual Duke’s Ho‘olaule‘a (Celebration) took place, establishing the celebration as an annual event. The celebration commemorating Duke’s birthday, and his life as the Hawaiian Islands’ “Ambassador to the World,” includes a Beach Boy Celebration, lei making, historical walks, and surfboard water polo. A central part of the event is an ocean swim and Waterman Challenge.
Duke Kahanamoku—Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha” In 1960, Duke Kahanamoku was officially appointed as Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha.” To all who knew Duke, this was just a formality, since Duke was always known as someone who lived his life with aloha, and someone who had always been a generous and caring person. Duke had always been an exemplary ambassador of the aloha spirit, and said to be a “pure soul” who personified aloha. In 1965, Duke became the first person ever inducted into both the Surfing Hall of Fame and the Swimming Hall of Fame. In 1984, Duke was also inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame. In 1999, Surfer Magazine declared Duke Kahanamoku the Surfer of the Century.
I kāhi ‘e no ke kumu mokihana, paoa ‘e no ‘one‘i i ke ‘ala. Although the mokihana tree is at a distance, its fragrance reaches here. Although a person is far away, the tales of his good deeds come to us. (Pukui: 1177-128)
Duke Paoa Kahanamoku passed away on January 22, 1968, at the age of 77. Thousands attended the “Beachboy” funeral ceremony, and Duke’s ashes were scattered in the waters off Waikīkī. His widow, Nadine Kahanamoku passed away on July 17, 1997 at the age of 97. Duke Kahanamoku—Hawaiian waterman, Olympic champion, lifesaver, movie star, sheriff, and “ambassador of aloha”—will forever be remembered as a real-life folk hero for the people of the Hawaiian Islands. [Photograph: Duke Kahanamoku in a movie scene]
Eddie Aikau: Hawaiian Waterman [Illustration: Eddie Aikau surfing]
As a youth, Eddie Aikau amazed the top surfers of Oahu’s north shore when he paddled into giant waves at Waimea Bay. As a lifeguard he went on to save many lives. At age 31 he died trying to save his fellow crew members of the capsized Hōkūle‘a voyaging canoe.
Pu‘uwai hao kila. Heart of steel. Fearless (Pukui: 303:2766)
Born May 4, 1946 in Kahului, Maui, Edward Ryan Aikau was a full-blooded Hawaiian. Born to Solomon “Pops” Aikau and his wife Henrietta, Eddie was the third of six children, including Fred, Gerald, Sol, Clyde, and Myra. Though his family called him by his middle name, Ryan, most people knew of him as Eddie. In 1958, the family moved to Pauoa, O‘ahu where Eddie’s father was the caretaker for the Chinese cemetery. Eddie’s father took the family surfing frequently during Eddie’s childhood, allowing him to improve his surfing skills with a classic 75-pound (34-kg) surfboard. In 1967, Eddie surfed 15-foot (4.6-m) Sunset Beach waves, and on November 19 of that year Eddie startled Hawai‘i’s top surfers by taking off on an estimated 40-foot (12-m) set wave at Waimea Bay. Also in 1967, Eddie took 6th place in the Duke Kahanamoku Classic. That was Eddie’s first major surfing contest. In 1968, Eddie became Waimea Bay’s first lifeguard, and went on to save the lives of many people who otherwise might have drowned in Hawai‘i’s rough ocean waters. Eddie was voted Lifeguard of the Year in 1971. He later appeared in surf movies, and was also a talented musician, writing songs and playing slack-key guitar. He was also interested in celestial navigation. Eddie Aikau married Linda Crosswhite in 1972, and they were divorced in 1978.
The Capsizing of the Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe In 1978, Eddie was chosen to be one of the 16-member crew invited to sail the Hōkūle‘a, a 62-foot (18.9-m) Polynesian voyaging canoe to Tahiti. The Hōkūle‘a had no modern navigation or communication equipment, and was built to reenact the ancient voyages of the Polynesians who first settled the Hawaiian Islands. (See Rediscovering the Past—The Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoes, Chapter 3.) On the night of March 16, 1978, at about 11 p.m., the Hōkūle‘a capsized in large swells and gale-force winds about 12 miles (19 km) off the island of Lāna‘i in the Kaiwi Channel, forcing the 15 crew members to cling to the voyaging canoe’s overturned hull. Eddie Aikau volunteered to paddle his 12-foot (3.7-m) tandem surfboard toward Lāna‘i for help. Eddie was wearing yellow foul-weather pants and a jacket, and had with him a strobe light, a knife, and a bag of sugar cubes. Around his neck he wore a locket containing hair of his nieces and nephews. As he stroked away from the capsized Hōkūle‘a, Eddie stopped and tossed off his life preserver, which was hampering his paddling. Eddie turned and gave the crew a final wave goodbye as he rose to the peak of a wave and then paddled into the distance. He was never seen again. After nightfall, at about 8 p.m., a Hawaiian Airlines plane saw a flare shot up by the crew and circled back, blinking its landing lights before heading toward Honolulu Airport. Within one hour a C-130 plane arrived and dropped phosphorescent lights in the water. Soon a Coast Guard helicopter tossed a metal cage down to the stranded crew of the Hōkūle‘a. Speaking into the one-way radio lowered in the cage, Captain Dave Lyman informed the plane’s crew about Eddie. An intensive air-sea search and rescue effort was launched to find Eddie Aikau. After five days and several injuries to rescuers, the search was called off. Eddie Aikau was 31 years old.
The Eddie Aikau Big-Wave Invitational In 1987, a surf contest was initiated in honor of Eddie Aikau. Officially known as the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau, the big-wave invitational is known locally as “the Eddie.” The contest matches the world’s best big wave surfers against each other in the biggest of waves. One of the prized invitee spots is always left unfilled in honor of big-wave surfer Mark Foo, who died on December 2, 1994 surfing Maverick’s, a big-wave surf spot in California. Before he died, Foo had been a competitor in all of the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau contests Invitees to the surfing contest are put on alert during a waiting period from Dec. 5 to February 28. The surfing contest only commences if the waves reach the 20 to 30 foot (6 to 9 m) heights considered worthy of the Aikau name. To date, the surfing contest has only been held 5½ times: in 1986, 1990, 1995 (1/2 contest), 1999, 2001 and 2002. The first Eddie Aikau Invitational was won by Clyde Aikau, the brother of Eddie Aikau. The 2001 contest was won by Australian Ross Clarke-Jones who took home a $50,000 dollar first place prize, and was the first competitor not from the Hawaiian Islands to win the contest. Clarke-Jones rode the first wave of the day, a 25-foot (8-m) wave that also turned out to be one of the contest’s biggest waves. Hawai‘i’s Shane Dorian took second with an effort that included some punishing wipeouts in the giant surf. Two contestants endured rib injuries, and champion Hawaiian surfer Brian Keaulana shattered an eardrum.
Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau Past Winners DateWinner February 21, 1987 Clyde Aikau January 21, 1990 Keone Downing December 29, 1995 Cancelled half way through day when swell dropped. January 1, 1999 Noah Johnson January 14, 2001 Ross Clarke-Jones January 7, 2002 Kelly Slater Dec. 15, 2005 Bruce Irons
Eddie Would Go At the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau, the participants of the surf contest pay tribute to the memory of Eddie Aikau by paddling their surfboards out into Waimea Bay where they form a circle and set their lei afloat in the sea. Several months after Eddie disappeared, a memorial was erected in his honor at Waimea Bay. In January of 2003, a bronze plaque was placed on the Hōkūle‘a stating, “No greater love has a man that this, that he would lay down his life for his friends.” or was it “Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends.” (John 15:13) Eddie Aikau was a distinguished and respected surfer, lifeguard, and overall Hawaiian waterman. He was also known for his humility, and for never seeking thanks or praise for his many heroic deeds. Today the saying “Eddie Would Go,” is frequently heard in the Hawaiian Islands, and also seen on bumper stickers throughout the Hawaiian Islands. The saying recalls Eddie Aikau’s selflessness and bravery.
He pua no ka wēkiu. A blossom on the topmost branch. Praise of an outstanding person. (Pukui: 923-99)
[Photograph: Eddie Aikau]
Chapter 3—Part 2 Island Flowers and Lei
Island Emblems State of Hawai‘i Pua Ma‘o Hau Hele Hawai‘i Island Pua Lehua Maui Pua Lokelani Moloka‘i Pua Kukui Lāna‘i Pua Kauna‘oa Kaho‘olawe Hinahina O‘ahu Pua ‘Ilima Ni‘ihau Pūpū Ni‘ihau Kahelelani(Leptothyra verruca) Momi(Euplica varians) Laiki(Mitrella margarita).
Island Flowers and Lei Lei Materials and Uses Historical Lei Selling Areas Lei Day and other Lei Events Lei Making Methods Stringing the Lei
Popular and Traditional Lei Flowers Aloalo Pahūpahū Turk’s Cap Hibiscus Intr. ‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o White Ginger Intr. ‘Awapuhi Melemele Yellow Ginger Intr. ‘Ilima ‘Ilima Ind. Kiele Gardenia Intr. Kou Kou Ind. Kukui Candlenut Tree P.I. Kupaloke Tuberose Intr. Lehua Mau Loa Globe Amaranth Intr. Lokelani Damask Rose Intr. Maunaloa Pacific Beach Pea Intr. Maunaloa Sea Bean Intr. Melia Plumeria Intr. Nānū Gardenia End. Nuku ‘I‘iwi Jade Vine Intr. Nuku ‘I‘iwi Nuku ‘I‘iwi End. ‘Ohai Native Sesbania End. ‘Ohai Ali‘i Pride of Barbados Intr. ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua End. ‘Okika Dendrobium Orchid Intr. ‘Okika Vanda Vanda Orchid Intr. ‘Oliana Oleander Intr. Pahūpahū Flame Vine Intr. Pakalana Chinese Violet Intr. Pāneki Pansy Intr. Pīkake Arabian Jasmine Intr. Ponimō‘ī Carnation Intr. Pua Kalaunu Crown Flower Intr. Pua Kenikeni Ten Cent Flower Intr. Pua Kīkā Cigar Flower Intr. Pua Male Stephanotis Intr. Pua Pākē Chrysanthemum Intr. Pua Pihi Zinnia Intr. Pukanawila Bougainvillea Intr.
Other Traditional Lei Materials Lei Niho Palaoa Whale Tooth Pendant Ind.
Island Emblems
Each of the Hawaiian Islands has its own emblem as designated by the Territorial Legislature in 1923. The State of Hawai‘i also has its own emblem. These symbols are all flowers or plants, except for Ni‘ihau’s emblem, which is a seashell. Each Hawaiian Island is also represented by a color associated with its emblem.
The State of Hawai‘i’s emblem is pua ma‘o hau hele, also known as the yellow hibiscus (Hibiscus brackenridgei).
When hibiscus was named the official flower of the Territory of Hawai‘i by the Legislature in 1923, they didn’t specify any particular one of the many varieties of the hibiscus, leading to some confusion. The various colors and types of hibiscus (including numerous introduced species) were said by some to represent the Hawaiian Islands’ unique ethnic mix. Eventually many considered the native red hibiscus or the red Chinese species to be the state flower. Hawai‘i’s State Legislature clarified the issue in 1988 when it named the native yellow hibiscus, Hibiscus brackenridgei, to be the official state flower. (See Aloalo in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) Hibiscus brackenridgei is on the federal endangered species list. [Photograph: Pua ma‘o hau hele lei]
The emblem of the island of Hawai‘i (the Big Island) is pua lehua, the blossom of the native ‘ōhi‘a lehua tree (Metrosideros species). Lehua flowers are tufts of scarlet red, orange, yellow, or white (rarely).
Beautiful lei are woven from the flowers, unopened buds and young silvery leaves (liko) of ‘ōhi‘a lehua. ‘Ōhi‘a lehua is also considered sacred to Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes. (See ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua in Native Plantsof the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) A Hawaiian proverb states, “E mana‘o a‘e ana e lei i ka lehua o Mokaulele” (“A wish to wear the lehua of Mokaulele in a lei”), which is “...a wish to win the maiden. Lei symbolizes sweetheart, and lehua, a pretty girl.”[13] [Photograph: Pua lehua lei]
Maui’s emblem is pua lokelani (Rosa species), the aromatic flower of the small pink damask rose. Pua lokelani, also known as the “rose of heaven,” is a post-contact introduced species that is often used for lei and commonly mixed with other flowers as well as ferns. (See Lokelani in Lei Flowers section.)
[Photograph: Pua lokelani lei] .
Moloka‘i’s emblem is pua kukui, the flower of the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut), which is also Hawai‘i’s official state tree. Kukui’s small white flowers have five petals, grow in clusters, and are covered with a silvery-gray down. The leaves and the flowers are strung into lei, as are the polished kukui nuts. The oil from kukui nuts was traditionally used as a light source, and for various other purposes including numerous medicinal uses. (See Kukui in Lei Flowers and Seed Lei sections, Chapter 3; also see Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
[Photograph: Pua kukui lei]
Lāna‘i’s emblem is kauna‘oa (Cuscuta sandwichiana), a rusty-orange vine that is also known as dodder. Kauna‘oa has tiny round fruits and pointed flowers. The stringy stems are often braided together into strands for lei. (See Kauna‘oa in Lei Flowers section, Chapter 3; and Native Plants of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kauna‘oa lei]
HE
Kaho‘olawe’s emblem is a perennial herb called hinahina(Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum). Hinahina grows on the beach above the high water line, and has hairy, silvery-green leaves and stems, and fragrant white flowers with yellow centers. The leaves and flowers of hinahina are twisted into open-ended garlands. Today the non-native Spanish moss (also called Florida moss, gray beard, and hinahina) is often substituted for the native hinahina. (See Hinahina in Island Flowers and Lei section, Chapter 3; and Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8; also see Spanish Moss in Island Flowers and Lei section, Chapter 3.)
[Photograph: Hinahina lei]
O‘ahu’s emblem is pua ‘ilima, the flower of ‘ilima (Sida fallax). ‘Ilima is a small, thin hibiscus flower that is yellow to orange in color, and about 1 inch (2.5 cm) across with five petals. ‘Ilima is a popular lei flower in the Hawaiian Islands today, just as it was in ancient Hawai‘i.
Honor and respect among dignitaries is often shown with a velvety rope of carefully strung, bright orange ‘ilima petals. ‘Ilima flowers are extremely thin, and a lei may take 700 to 1,000 of the blossoms. ‘Ilima flowers are sometimes interwoven with maile. (See ‘Ilima in Lei Flowers section, Chapter 3; and Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) [Photograph: Pua ‘ilima lei]
Kaua‘i’s emblem is the fruit of the mokihana plant (Pelea anisata), a member of the rue family. Mokihana’s yellowish-green to purplish seed capsules are about ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. A mokihana lei is made by stringing together the seed capsules after piercing them through their centers. Mokihana is often strung together with strands of maile. (See Mokihana in Seed Lei section.)
Mokihana’s seed capsules are leathery to the touch, and have a very strong anise-like fragrance that becomes stronger as the seeds dry. Some people are sensitive to the oily substance from mokihana, which may cause blisters. Traditional lei stringers are proud of the scars on their fingers from stringing mokihana lei. (See Mokihana in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Mokihana lei]
Ni‘ihau’s emblem is the prizedNi‘ihau shell, pūpū Ni‘ihau, which is actually a general term for three different varieties of shells collected on the island beaches and strung into beautiful lei. The three primary types of shells used for the traditional Ni‘ihau shell lei are kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca), momi (Euplica varians) and laiki (Mitrella margarita). The colors of the shells range from deep brown to pearly white. While these shells are also found on other Hawaiian Islands, they lack the rich luster of the prized Ni‘ihau shell lei.
Pūpū Ni‘ihau show many variations caused by waves and sunlight as well as genetic differences. At least 30 different Hawaiian names describe the particular colors and patterns. (See Ni‘ihau Shell Lei section, Chapter 3.)
[Photographs: Kahelelani; momi; and laiki in Ni‘ihau shell lei]
Island Flowers and Lei
The lei is the very symbol of aloha. A Hawaiian proverb states, “E lei no au i ko aloha” (“I will wear your love as a wreath”), meaning “I will cherish your love as a beautiful adornment.”[14] In ancient Hawai‘i, respect and honor was bestowed upon someone by placing a lei upon their head and shoulders, which are considered sacred parts of the body. The Hawaiian goddess associated with lei making is Kukuena, whose daughter Laka may take the form of ‘ilima (Sida fallax). [Illustration: Person presenting another with a lei]
Lei Materials and Uses
Ancient Hawaiians utilized various materials for lei. These lei materials included flowers, ferns, fern allies, vines, seeds, nuts, feathers, wood, shells and teeth (e.g., dog teeth, teeth of palaoa (Physeter macrocephalus, sperm whales), and human hair. Also used in lei were bones, including human finger bones.
In ancient Hawai‘i, lei were often woven to pay paid tribute to the gods, and to show reverence and give thanks for all that was provided by the land and sea. Particular lei had ceremonial and medicinal uses.
After Western contact was established in 1778 many introduced species began to be utilized for making lei. For example, the missionaries who came to convert natives to Christianity also brought roses (Rosa species), and the Chinese who came to work in the sugarcane fields also brought pīkake (Jasminum sambac, Arabian jasmine) and pakalana (Telosma cordata, Chinese violet). From the Philippines came the jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys), from Tahiti came plumeria (Plumeria species), and from Mexico came Bougainvillea (Bougainvillea species)—and all of these blossoms were fashioned into beautiful lei. Later many other flowers were introduced and lei gained even more popularity as a symbol of aloha.
Today the lei remains an important symbol of friendship, love and aloha. The lei is a traditional welcome, and is used on many different occasions, including birthdays, dances, graduations, weddings and anniversaries. Lei are also made and worn for lū‘au, Hawaiian feasts that are often large gatherings of the extended family (‘ohana).
Lei are often given on Secretary’s Day, Father’s Day and Mother’s Day, and to anyone leaving or arriving in the Hawaiian Islands. Lei are also given to honor athletes at the end of a season or career. They are also placed on the bier at funerals, and on gravestones to pay respect to the departed. A lei for the head is known as lei po‘o, while a lei worn around the neck is known as lei ‘ā‘ī. Lei made to be worn on the wrists or ankles are known as kūpe‘e. A lei worn around the neck should be worn not just hanging in the front, but more centered, so both the front and back are comfortably arranged. To show appreciation to the giver of a lei, one may give a kiss and an embrace. It is said that if one makes a lei for another and thinks of that person as they make it, the lei will carry those feelings and expressions of love.
Historical Lei Selling Areas
Before World War II, Honolulu’s Maunakea Street was a traditional lei selling area, a floral center where lei sellers lined the sidewalks. The port of Honolulu Harbor was also a popular lei selling area when the luxury liners of the Matson Company docked and unloaded visitors amidst the hoopla of the Royal Hawaiian band and hula dancers. Lei sellers stood on the pier, lei draped over their arms, selling strands of ‘ilima (Sida fallax), ponimō‘ī (Dianthus caryophyllus, carnation), pakalana (Telosma cordata, Chinese violet) and others for about 25 cents each. As the ships rounded Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi), some departing visitors would throw their lei into the sea, believing that if the lei floated onto the beach it was a sign they too would someday return to the Hawaiian Islands.
In Waikīkī, lei were sold near the big hotels: the Royal Hawaiian, the Moana, and the Halekūlani. In the 1950s the Honolulu Airport became a major lei selling area. On Lagoon Drive near the entrance to the airport, the Territory of Hawai’i allowed lei sellers to offer their products, and even built fifteen thatched huts to accommodate the lei sellers.
[Photograph: Lei stands]
Lei Day and other Lei Events
May Day is Lei Day in the Hawaiian Islands. On May 1, everyone is encouraged to make and wear lei. Mainland visitor Don Blanding, a journalist and poet, helped popularize the concept of Lei Day. Some say the holiday has its origins in 1927 when, on May 1 in downtown Honolulu, some lei lovers gathered. Others consider the beginning of the holiday to be in 1928 when Nina Bowman was chosen as the first Lei Day Queen. 1928 was also the year that Red Hawke penned the song, “May Day is Lei Day in Hawai‘i.”
Lei Day became an official holiday of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1929. In 1934 the Honolulu city government began sponsoring a celebration of the holiday. Most schools celebrate Lei Day with festivals, and there are many events held throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu selects its Lei Day Queen on the first Saturday of March.
On King Kamehameha Day, June 11, the statue of the king who united the Hawaiian Islands is draped with many different types of lei, some more than 26 feet (8 m) long. King Kamehameha’s statue stands in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale, a judiciary building in Honolulu.
The King Kamehameha statue in Honolulu is a replica of the original, cast by American sculptor Thomas B. Gould in Italy in 1883. The original 9-ton (8-mton) statue was lost in transport, and then later found in the Falkland Islands soon after the duplicate statue arrived in Honolulu. The original statue now stands in front of the old Kapa‘au courthouse (now a senior citizen center) on the island of Hawai‘i, near where King Kamehameha was born.
The King Kamehameha Hula Competition celebrates the ancient practice of hula, and many spectacular lei are worn by the participants (the 29th annual competition took place June 22, 2002 at the Blaisdell Center Arena).
Other events in the Hawaiian Islands that are celebrated with plenteous lei include Aloha Week and many local and statewide hula events, such as the Merrie Monarch Festival. Numerous island parades also display plenteous lei, often on pā‘ū riders on horses adorned with extravagant displays of lei and greenery.
The King Kamehameha Floral Parade (the 86th annual parade took place on June 8, 2002) stretches out for nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) from downtown Honolulu to Waikīkī with colorful pā‘ū riders, floats and brass bands, including the Royal Hawaiian Band. Beginning at ‘Iolani Palace, the parade passes by the statue of King Kamehameha and then takes Punchbowl Street to Ala Moana, then following Kalākaua Avenue to Kapi‘olani Park. [Photograph: Floral Parade]
Lei Making Methods
The following are the different ways that lei may be made:
ØWili (twisted),
ØHīpu‘u (knotted),
ØHili (braided),
ØHaku (mounted)
ØHumupapa (sewed onto backing)
ØKui (strung with a needle)
ØMicronesian-style (tied or woven flat)
The wili method (wili means “to twist or wind”) involves winding flowers, leaves, fruits or ferns around a solid core. Traditionally this core was made from a coconut palm midrib, a ti leaf, a piece of a banana plant stalk, lau hala, or more modern material (e.g., pipe cleaners). Wili also refers to the twisting of the material itself or to the process of twisting finished strands together. The hīpu‘u method (also called kīpu‘u) involves knotting stems or vines such as maile into a lei. The hili method involves braiding or plaiting material such as the pala‘ā fern. The hili (braided) method is also used for making ti and maile lei. The haku method is similar to the hili method, but with flowers or fruits added during the plaiting process, or sewn face out onto a wreath of greenery. The haku method is also used with various non-traditional flowers, such as zinnias, roses, chrysanthemums, and pansies. The traditional meaning of haku is “to arrange” or “to compose,” and involves incorporating the lei materials into a braid, securing the blossoms around a central core using ti leaf, a piece of banana stalk, hau, raffia or other material. The humupapa method (also known as kui papa) involves sewing flowers and plant materials onto a backing, traditionally ti leaves that have been folded and deboned, or dried fibers of banana stalk. Humupapa was also one of the methods used for feather lei. The kui method involves stringing flowers (e.g., ‘ilima) or fruits through their centers lengthwise (kui pololei); stringing the blossoms crosswise through the calyx or corolla tube and arranging them around the string facing outwards (kui poepoe); or stringing the blossoms flat or crosswise through the calyx or stem and arranging them alternately on each side of the string (kui lau method, also now called lei maunaloa). The Micronesian-style lei involves tying or weaving the stems and blossoms into a flat collar and securing them with bast or raffia. This plaiting may be done with two, three or four strands.
[Illustration: Lei constructed using wili, hīpu‘u, hili, kui, haku, humupapa and Micronesian-style methods]
Stringing the Lei
For the needle to string together lei materials, ancient Hawaiians often used the nī‘au (midrib) of the leaf of niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut). This coconut leaf needle is known as a mānai. Sometimes a stiff stem of grass was used.
A Hawaiian proverb states, “I mānai kau, i pua ho‘i ka‘u, kui ‘ia ka makemake a lawa pono.” (“Yours the lei-making needle, mine the flowers; so let us do as we wish [-make a complete lei]”), meaning “You, the man and I, the woman; let us satisfy the demands of love. Said by Hi‘iaka in a chant as she embraced Lohi‘au at the rim of Kīlauea to rouse the jealous wrath of her sister Pele.”[15]
Traditional fibers for stringing, tying and sewing lei included fibers of hau (Talipariti tiliaceum) as well as fibers of the stalk of mai‘a lei ‘ula, a variety of the banana plant (Musa species). Lei of ‘ilima (Sida fallax), known as kui ‘ilima, were often made using the fibers of the aerial roots of hala (Talipariti tiliaceum), which were finer than hau fibers.
Popular and Traditional Lei Flowers
End. - Endemic, native to the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else. Ind. - Indigenous, native to the Hawaiian Islands and other places. P.I. - Polynesian Introduced: Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers. Intr. - Introduced to the Hawaiian Islands after Western contact (1778).
Hawaiian NameCommon NameColorsSpecies NameOrigin Aloalo Pahūpahū Turk’s Cap Hibiscus Scarlet Malvaviscus penduliflorus Intr. ‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o White Ginger White Hedychium coronarium Intr. ‘Awapuhi Melemele Yellow Ginger Yellow Hedychium flavescens Intr. ‘Ilima ‘Ilima Orange, yellow, red, greenish Sida fallax Ind. Kiele Gardenia White, yellow Gardenia augusta Intr. Kou Kou Orange Cordia subcordata Ind. Kukui Candlenut Tree Greenish-white Aleurites moluccana P.I. Kupaloke Tuberose White Polianthes tuberosa Intr. Lehua Mau Loa Globe Amaranth Purple,whte,ornge,rose,yllow Gomphrena globosa Intr. Lokelani Damask Rose Pink Rosa species Intr. Maunaloa Pacific Beach Pea Pink, reddish, lavender, white Canavalia cathartica Intr. Maunaloa Sea Bean Blue and white Dioclea wilsonii Intr. Melia Plumeria White, yellow, pink, rose Plumeria species Intr. Nānū Gardenia White Gardenia species End. Nuku ‘I‘iwi Jade Vine Blue-green, red-orange Strongylodon macrobotrys Intr. Nuku ‘I‘iwi Nuku ‘I‘iwi Scarlet Strongylodon ruber End. ‘Ohai Native Sesbania Orange, red, yellow Sesbania tomentosa End. ‘Ohai Ali‘i Pride of Barbados Scarlet, orange, golden yellow Caesalpinia pulcherrima Intr. ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua Red, orange, yellow, white Metrosideros species End. ‘Okika Dendrobium Orchid Prple, yellw, pnk, whte, grn Dendrobium species; hybrids Intr. ‘Okika Vanda Vanda Orchid Lavender-pink Euanthe sanderiana Intr. ‘Oliana Oleander White, pink, red Nerium oleander Intr. Pahūpahū Flame Vine Orange with yellow tip Pyrostegia venusta Intr. Pakalana Chinese violet Yellowish-green Telosma cordata Intr. Pāneki Pansy Yellow, blue, violet, white Viola tricolor Intr. Pīkake Arabian Jasmine White Jasminum sambac Intr. Ponimō‘ī Carnation Red, white, pink, yellow Dianthus caryophyllus Intr. Pua Kalaunu Crown Flower White, lavender Calotropis gigantea Intr. Pua Kenikeni Ten Cent Flower White, orange, yellow Fagraea berteriana Intr. Pua Kīkā Cigar flower Orange to red, with black tip Cuphea ignea Intr. Pua Male Stephanotis White Stephanotis floribunda Intr. Pua Pākē Chrysanthemum White, red, yellow, prple, pnk Chrysanthemum species Intr. Pua Pihi Zinnia Various Zinnia elegans Intr. Pukanawila Bougainvillea Purple, red, orange, whitish Bougainvillea species Intr.
He hi‘i alo ua milimili ‘ia i ke alo, ua ha‘awe ‘ia ma ke kua, ua lei ‘ia ma ka ‘ā‘ī. A beloved one, fondled in the arms, carried on the back, whose arms have gone about the neck as a lei. Said of a beloved child.
(Pukui: 575-67)
Key to Species Classifications: Native—Arrived in the Hawaiian Islands without the aid of humans (indigenous), or evolved in the Hawaiian Islands (endemic). Indigenous—Native to the Hawaiian Islands and other places. Endemic—Evolved in the Hawaiian Islands from an indigenous species; native to the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else. Polynesian Introduction—Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers. Post-Contact Introduction—Brought to the Hawaiian Islands after Western contact (1778). Naturalized—Not native to the Hawaiian Islands, but now growing wild in the Hawaiian Islands.
Aloalo Pahūpahū (Malvaviscus penduliflorus) Common Name: Turk’s Cap Hibiscus Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands. Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family
The Turk’s cap hibiscus reaches heights of about 13 feet (4 m), with bright red, tubular flowers that are about 2 to 2 ½ inches (5 to 6 cm) long with protruding stamens. Several varieties of the pendulous flowers are cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands, where they blossom year round, though not as often from December to February.
The blossoms of the Turk’s cap never fully open, and so they do not wilt as easily as other hibiscus flowers. This makes them ideal for use in lei, which are often assembled Micronesian style, tied or woven into a flat collar. (See Lei Making Methods.) About 90 blossoms are required for a standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei.
The Turk’s cap is also known as the firecracker hibiscus. The term pahūpahū means, “firecracker,” and is a reference to the bright scarlet blooms of the plant. The Hawaiian term aloalo refers to various hibiscus plants, including several native varieties (See Aloalo in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) [Photograph: Turk’s cap hibiscus lei]
‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o(Hedychium coronarium) Common Name: White Ginger
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Zingiberaceae—Ginger Family
Along with the gardenia, the white ginger flower is symbolic of love and romance. The fragrant flowers grow to about 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter, with broad-lipped main petals and smaller side petals that give the flower a moth-like appearance. The plant may bloom year round, particularly in late spring and fall.
White ginger lei are sometimes referred to as evening lei because they are often strung in the evening to be worn that night. With a sweet, delicate aroma and orchid-like configuration, the blossoms are woven into the finest of lei, usually strung Micronesian style, tied or woven into a flat collar. (See Lei Making Methods.) About 125 buds are required for a standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei.
The white ginger plant grows to about 6½ feet (2 m) tall. The plant is widely cultivated, and is also found growing wild along some windward highways. It is also widely cultivated.
[Photograph: White ginger lei]
‘Awapuhi Melemele(Hedychium flavescens) Common Name:Yellow Ginger
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Zingiberaceae—Ginger Family
Yellow ginger is naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, growing in moist areas, particularly the montane forests on all the main Hawaiian Islands, with the exception of Lāna‘i. Yellow ginger is similar to white ginger (‘awapuhi ke‘oke‘o) but with yellow flowers. Yellow ginger is also said to have a more “nutty” fragrance than the white ginger.
Yellow ginger often forms dense entanglements. The plant was likely introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by Chinese immigrants.
[Photograph: Yellow ginger lei]
‘Ilima (Sida fallax)
Indigenous
Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family
Mentioned in Hawaiian legends and traditionally woven into lei for ancient royalty, the ‘ilima lei is the official emblem of the island of O‘ahu. (See Island Emblems section.)
The delicate, 5-petalled flowers of ‘ilima are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. The color of the blossoms varies from light yellow to deep yellow, orange, greenish, dull red or even copper colored.
The ‘ilima is a popular lei flower in the Hawaiian Islands today, just as it was in ancient Hawai‘i. It is often stated that ‘ilima lei were reserved for the upper class, or ali‘i (chiefs and royalty) in ancient Hawai‘i, but other accounts state that ‘ilima was utilized more widely as a lei flower.
Ola no i ka pua o ka ‘ilima. There is healing in the ‘ilima blossoms. The ‘ilima blossom is one of the first medicines given to babies. It is a mild laxative. Hi‘iaka, goddess of medicine in Pele’s family, used ‘ilima in some of her healings. (Pukui: 2489-272)
Stringing a single ‘ilima lei may take 700 or more than 1,000 of the tissue paper-thin ‘ilima flowers. The domesticated form of ‘ilima is known as ‘ilima lei, and is the most common variety used in lei. Traditionally used on the ends of the ‘ilima lei were the soft, green fruit of ma‘o(Abutilon grandifolium, hairy abutilon), or the cap-like calyx of the ‘ilima flower. ‘Ilima blossoms are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) ‘Ilima flowers are sometimes interwoven with maile. Growing commonly in coastal areas, ‘ilima is a low-lying plant that may reach heights of more than 5 feet (1.5 m) ‘Ilima blooms year round, particularly during summer. (See ‘Ilima in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
The Hawaiian goddess associated with lei making is Kukuena, whose daughter Laka may take the form of ‘ilima. According to legend, ‘ilima was also the flower lei worn by the goddess Hina when she escaped from the cave of the monster eel Kuna Loa with the help of the god Māui.
[Photograph: ‘Ilima lei]
Kiele(Gardenia augusta) Common Name: Gardenia Post-Contact Introduction: Native to southern China.
Family: Rubiaceae—Coffee Family
Symbolic of love and romance, the gardenia’s Hawaiian name is kiele, meaning, “to emit fragrance.” Introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by early Chinese settlers, gardenias prefer wet and warm lowland habitat, rich acid soil, and shelter from wind. A Hawaiian proverb states, “Ke kololio ka hau o uka, ko mai ka nae ‘a‘ala o ke kiele” (“When the dew-laden breeze of the upland creeps swiftly down it brings with it the fragrance of the gardenias”), which is “...said of one who comes with happy tidings.”[xvi]
The wonderfully fragrant ornamental variety of gardenia common in the Hawaiian Islands,Gardenia augusta, is native to China. The plant produces blossoms that are 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) in diameter with a tubular corolla. The flowers bloom from March to June and occasionally in the fall.
A standard 40-inch (100-cm) gardenia lei requires about 40 flowers, which are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) Before the blossom is strung, the calyx and lower part of the flower tube is removed.
A related species, Gardenia taitensis, is known as tiare. Tiare is native to the Society Islands and a favorite lei flower of Tahitians in the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian Islands also have three native gardenia species, which are referred to as nānū. (See Nānū section.)
[Photograph: Gardenia lei]
Kou (Cordia subcordata)
Indigenous (reclassified in 2001, previously classified as Polynesian Introduction)
Family: Boraginaceae—Borage Family
Kou was a traditional lei flower of the ancient Hawaiians, who also had medicinal uses for the plant. Until 2001, it was widely believed that kou was first brought to the Hawaiian Islands on the voyaging canoes of the early Polynesian settlers. However a recent discovery of subfossil seeds caused the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i[xvii] to reclassify kou as indigenous, even though kou also was likely brought to the Hawaiian Islands on the Polynesian’s voyaging canoes.
The crepy, bright orange flowers of kou grow in small clusters. The 5- to 7-lobed, tubular flowers are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) in diameter, with a 3- to 5-toothed, enlarged calyx that contains the fruit. The fruit is about 1½ inches (4 cm) in diameter and contains 1 to 4 white seeds. (See Kou in Seed Lei section; and Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kou lei.]
Kukui (Aleurites moluccana) Common Name: Candlenut Tree
Polynesian Introduction; Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Euphorbiaceae—Spurge Family Kukui is the official emblem of the State of Hawai‘i. (See Island Emblems section.) Small, greenish-white male and female flowers (pua kukui) grow in clusters at the ends of the kukui’s branches. In each of the clusters, about five or more fruits develop. In ancient Hawai‘i, the creamy white flowers of kukui were strung into lei, as were the leaves and the polished nuts. One common method of making a lei kukui was to braid the leaves with the stems and then insert the flower clusters. (See Lei Making Methods.) It was said that kukui flowers seen floating in streams signaled bad weather arriving from that direction. A Hawaiian proverb states, “He kiu ka pua kukui na ka makani.”(“The kukui blossoms are a sign of wind.”)[xviii] (See Kukui in Island Emblems section; Seed Lei section; and Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.) [Illustration: Kukui flower lei.]
Kupaloke (Polianthes tuberosa) Common Name: Tuberose
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico.
Family: Liliaceae—Lily Family
The creamy, white flowers of tuberose are wonderfully fragrant, making them a favorite for use in lei. The elongated flowers are tubular and somewhat star-shaped, spreading open at the mouth. The flowers bloom on a spike atop the plant stem, which rises to a height of about 3 ft (1 m). Tuberose blooms year round, particularly from February to October. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 40 to 50 blossoms, which are usually strung using the kui pololei method, lengthwise through the flowers’ centers. (See Lei Making Methods.) [Photograph: Tuberose lei]
Lehua Mau Loa (Gomphrena globosa) Common Name:Globe Amaranth
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Southeast Asia and the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Amaranthaceae—Amaranth Family
Lehua mau loa has papery, ball-shaped blossoms that are about ¾-inch (2 cm) in diameter. Also known as lehua pepa (“paper lehua”) or leihua (“ball lei”), the blossom of lehua mau loa is actually a mass of small overlapping bracts (modified leaves) similar to a protea or artichoke. Japanese settlers called this flower “bozu,” which means “bald head.”
The most common color of lehua mau loa is purple, but the flower may also be violet, pink, rose, orange, white or yellow. The plant grows to about 24 inches (60 cm) and blooms year round.
Lehua mau loa means “Everlasting lehua,” referring to the flower’s ability to last a long time in a lei without wilting. Lei may be strung with fresh or dried blossoms, and are often strung in single strands (kui pololei) and may be arranged into a spiral pattern (kui poepoe). A double lei requires about 280 blossoms. [Photograph: Lehua mau loa lei]
Lokelani (Rosa species) Common Name: Damask Rose
Post-Contract Introduction: Hybrid cultivars.
Family: Rosaceae—Rose Family Pua lokelani, the red flower of lokelani, is also known as the pink damask rose, or the rose of heaven. The fragrant lokelani blossom has a rich, velvety texture. The flowers are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) An introduced species, the lokelani was brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the missionaries in the 1820s. Other names for lokelani include the China rose and Maui rose. Pua lokelani is the official island emblem of Maui. (See Island Emblems section.) [Photograph: Lokelani lei]
Maunaloa (Canavalia cathartica) Common Name:Pacific Beach Pea
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to East Africa, India and Polynesia; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family A coastal plant, the maunaloa vine grows in sandy and rocky areas and produces mildly fragrant white and pink, reddish, or lavender colored flowers that are about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 4 cm) long. Maunaloa blooms year round, particularly from May to October. Making a maunaloa style lei involves threading the pea-like flattened flowers (picked unopened) through the calyx. The flowers are strung with the keel extending outwards, and alternating sides (kui lau method). (See Lei Making Methods.) The keel and wing petals are alternated with the top petal bent back flat. The maunaloa lei may be constructed with several spirals of colors in what is known as a composite lei, or‘oni. The blossoms are sometimes strung into a double lei, which is strung in a circular pattern using the kui poepoe method and requires about 165 blossoms. The seeds of maunaloa were also used for lei. (See Maunaloa in Seed Lei section.) It should be noted that the Hawaiian term maunaloa also refers to Dioclea wilsonii, whose common name is the sea bean. The sea bean is known to have had medicinal uses among early Hawaiians. It is thought to be a post-contact introduced species, though further research may reveal it to be native. The blue and white flowers of Dioclea wilsonii were also used in lei. Dioclea wilsonii is naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands. [Photograph: Maunaloa (Canavalia cathartica) lei; maunaloa (Dioclea wilsonii) lei] Melia(Plumeria species) Common Name: Plumeria
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Central America.
Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family
Introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the 1800s, plumeria’s fragrant, star-like (5-petalled) blossoms (pua melia) are among Hawai‘i’s most popular lei flowers. The flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter. Aside from their wonderful fragrance, the plumeria is popular because it is long-lasting, easy to string and readily available.
Plumeria vary in color, and may be white, red, pink, yellowish, or combinations of these colors. There are numerous natural and cultivated hybrids of plumeria, with many variations in the blossoms’ size, color and fragrance.
Plumeria blooms primarily from March to October, and then the tree goes dormant during the winter months. The blossoms are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 45 to 55 blossoms.
Plumeria’s deer-antler-like branches grow readily when they are broken off and simply stuck into the ground. The milky sap of the plant is poisonous and should be avoided. Plumeria is named after Charles Plumier. Also known as the “temple tree,” plumeria is considered sacred in Sri Lanka and India.
[Photograph: Plumeria lei]
Nānū(Gardenia species) Also called: Nā‘ū Common Name:Gardenia
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Rubiaceae—Coffee Family
There are three native species of gardenia (all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands), and they are all referred to by the Hawaiian word nānū, or nā‘ū. The three species of native gardenia are G. brighamii, G. mannii, and G. remyi. All three are quite rare in the Hawaiian Islands, and the first two are on the federal endangered species list.
Nānū is a small tree, reaching heights up to about 20 feet (6 m), and a trunk diameter of about 12 inches (30 cm). Nānū has shiny, dark green leaves and fragrant flowers that are smaller than the non-native Tahitian gardenia (see Kiele above). Known for its delicate scent, nānū was prized lei flower, and legends tell of nānū wound with maile (Alyxia oliviformis) and given to King Kamehameha as a tribute.
Nānū’s round, fleshy fruits are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter encasing many small seeds. A yellow dye (used for kapa barkcloth) was made from the fruit of nānū. The tree’s wood was traditionally used to make the kua kuku (wooden anvil) used during the second stage of kapa beating to separate and soften the bast fibers. G. remyi’s glutinous leaf buds were used as an adhesive.
As of 2002, G. brighamii had been reduced to less than 20 trees in six populations (on Moloka‘i, O‘ahu, and Lāna‘i), and G. manni was reduced to about 85 plants in 27 populations in mesic (moist) and wet forests on O‘ahu. G. remyi is not currently listed as endangered, and grows in mesic (moist) to wet forests on Maui, Moloka‘i, and Kaua‘i. On the island of Hawai‘i, G. remyi grows in the Puna and Hilo districts.
[Photograph: Nānū lei]
Nuku ‘I‘iwi(Strongylodon macrobotrys) Common Name:Jade Vine
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Philippines.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The thickly textured blue-green or turquoise flowers of the jade vine are referred to as “beaked” flowers, due to their pointed beak-like shape, which is also sometimes described as horn-like. The blossoms of nuku ‘i‘iwi are about 3 to 3½ inches (7 to 9 cm) long, and grow in long clusters up to 18 inches (46 cm) long. The flowers usually bloom just for a few weeks between February and June, though they sometimes bloom as late as November.
Nuku ‘i‘iwi flowers turn from blue-green to a lavender color, and are often woven into flattened maunaloa style lei, with the flowers threaded crosswise using the kui lau method, alternating their direction in a back and forth pattern. (See Lei Making Methods.) A standard 40-inch 100-cm) lei requires about 90 to 100 blossoms.
Nuku ‘i‘iwi is a twining climber that may exceed 70 feet (21 m) in length. A red-orange variety of nuku ‘i‘iwi is a new arrival in the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Nuku ‘i‘iwi (Strongylodon macrobotrys) lei]
Nuku ‘I‘iwi(Strongylodon ruber)
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The beautiful scarlet flowers of nuku ‘i‘iwi are narrow and curved, coming to a point. The flowers resemble the shape of the beak of the ‘i‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea), an endangered native Hawaiian honeycreeper bird (nuku means “beak”).
Nuku ‘i‘iwi plants still survive at the lower elevations where ‘i‘iwi birds once lived, though avian malaria and other causes have now restricted the bird’s range to higher elevations. (See Nuku ‘I‘iwi in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Nuku ‘I‘iwi(Strongylodon ruber) lei]
‘Ohai (Sesbania tomentosa) Common Name:Native Sesbania
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
‘Ohai’s flowers are about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 3.8 cm) long, and orange to salmon red in color ( rarely yellow), growing in clusters in the axils of the leaves. ‘Ohai is an endangered, endemic Hawaiian species that was once common along the shorelines of the Islands. It is a coastal species that also grows at elevations up to 2,700 feet (825 m). ‘Ohai is generally a low-growing woody shrub, though it may grow as a small tree, reaching heights of more than 20 feet (6 m). (See ‘Ohai in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: ‘Ohai lei]
‘Ohai Ali‘i(Caesalpinia pulcherrima) Common Name: Pride of Barbados
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical America.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
‘Ohai ali‘i is an ornamental shrub that usually grows to about 8 feet (2.4 m) but may reach heights of 20 feet (6 m). Also called dwarf poinciana, ‘ohai ali‘i has prickly, coarse leaves comprised of numerous leaflets, each about ¾-inch (2 cm) long. The tree also produces scarlet and golden flowers, including a darker red variety and a yellow variety. The flowers are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long.
The vibrant yellow and crimson flowers were said to remind the ancient Hawaiians of their colorful ‘ahu ‘ula (royal capes and cloaks) and mahiole (feather-crested helmets), so they gave the plant its Hawaiian name, which means, “royal ‘ohai.”
‘Ohai ali‘i lei are often strung using the kui poepoe method, which involves stringing the flowers crosswise and arranging the flowers around the string. (See Lei Making Methods.)
[Photograph: Pride of Barbados lei]
‘Ōhi‘a Lehua(Metrosideros species)
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Myrtaceae—Myrtle Family Beautiful lei are woven from the flowers, unopened buds, young silvery leaves (liko lehua) and seed capsules (hua lehua) of the ‘ōhi‘a lehua tree. The most common species of ‘ōhi‘a lehua is M. polymorpha, easily recognized by its bright red blossoms (the stamens), which look like scarlet pompoms. ‘Ōhi‘a lehua blossoms may also be pale red, salmon-colored, orange or yellow (M. macropus). These bright-colored pompom-like structures are the flower’s many stamens (the male organs). The flower also has one pistil (the female organ). One rare variety, ‘ōhi‘a lehua puakea (or ‘ōhi‘a kea), produces blossoms that are a creamy white color. Other flowers in the Metrosideros genus used for lei in ancient Hawai‘i include M. rugosa, which was known as lehua papa, and M. tremuloides, known as lehua ‘āhihi. (See ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) A Hawaiian proverb states, “‘Opihi kauwawe lehua o Hōpoe” (“‘Opihi covered by the lehua blossoms of Hōpoe”), meaning “...the fringes of lehua at Hōpoe fall into the sea, and are washed up over the rocks, hiding the ‘opihi.”[xix] [Photograph: ‘Ōhi‘a lehua lei]
‘Okika (Dendrobium species; hybrids) Common Name: Dendrobium Orchid Also Called: Thailand Dendrobium; Red Soniya.
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India, Asia, and Pacific islands. Family: Orchidaceae—Orchid Family The dendrobium orchid is one of the primary commercially produced lei flowers in the Hawaiian Islands. It is also imported from Thailand. The flowers bloom year round, and may be lavender purple in color (probably the most popular) or yellow, yellow-brown, pink, white or green. The blossoms, often produced in large sprays, are about 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) long. Dendrobium orchid lei are strung in various manners, including folding the petals or removing the petals and stringing only the sepals. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 45 to 55 flowers, which are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) There are at least 1,500 species of dendrobium orchids as well as many hybrids. The plant has a long flowering season and is also easily cultivated, making it very popular. Tough purple or white hybrids are the most commonly grown varieties for the cut-flower trade in the Hawaiian Islands. [Photograph: Dendrobium orchid lei]
‘Okika Vanda (Euanthe sanderiana) Common Name: Vanda Orchid Also Called: “Miss Joaquim.” Post-Contact Introduction: Hybrid of species native to Philippines.
Family: Orchidaceae—Orchid Family Vanda orchid blossoms are about 2½ inches (6 cm) in diameter, with three lavender-pink (purplish) petals and two white sepals. The vanda orchid first came to the Hawaiian Islands around 1930 and was first entered in the Honolulu May Day contest in 1938. Then in 1949 a vanda orchid lei won the contest. Vanda orchid lei are often constructed maunaloa-style. After the lateral petals are removed, the blossoms are strung alternately from side to side using the kui lau method. (See Lei Making Methods.) The blossoms are also strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. The flowers are sometimes strung with the petals left on, or just the petals (cast offs) may be strung). The ‘okika vanda was first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands around 1930. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 45 to 55 flowers. The flowers once accounted for nearly half of the cut flower and lei flower market in the Hawaiian Islands. Vanda orchids bloom year round, particularly during the summer months, with most of the production occurring in Puna and Hilo. [Photograph: ‘Okika vanda lei]
‘Oliana(Nerium oleander) Common Name: Oleander Post-Contact Introduction: Cultivar; originally native to southwestern Asia and northern Africa. Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family The blossoms of oleander may be white, pink or red, and are sometimes strung into lei. Oleander is a poisonous plant. The oleander lei was a favorite of the Hawaiian Princess Ke‘elikōlani, a stout woman whose strong character was said to have made her unafraid of the toxic nature of the flowers. [Photograph: Oleander lei]
Pahūpahū (Pyrostegia venusta) Common Name: Flame Vine
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to South America Family: Bignoniaceae—Bignonia Family A small bright-reddish, slender flower with a yellow tip, the pahūpahū blossom is often strung back-and-forth using the kui lau method. The blossoms are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and bloom year round. The plant’s scientific genus name, Pyrostegia, means “Charming fire,” while the plant’s Hawaiian name, pahūpahū, means “firecracker.” The flowers are often strung in a circular pattern using the kui poepoe method. (See Lei Making Methods.) A 40-inch (100-cm) double lei requires about 450 pahūpahū blossoms. [Photograph: Pahūpahū lei]
Pakalana(Telosma cordata) Common Name: Chinese Violet Post-Contact Introduction Family: Asclepiadaceae—Milkweed Family Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by early Chinese immigrants, the yellowish-green, 5-petalled flower buds of pakalana are quite fragrant. The pakalana lei is associated with love, and has a lemon-like fragrance. The ½-inch (13-mm) long, tubular blossoms of pakalana are traditionally strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method, and also sometimes through their sides. (See Lei Making Methods.) About 150 of the small pakalana flowers are required to string one strand. A lei usually consists of several strands, which may be worn on the head or around the neck. The blossoms are most abundant from May to October. Though its common name is the Chinese violet, the pakalana flower is actually not a violet. Along with lei of carnations and ‘ilima, pakalana was one of the most common lei sold before World War II at the port of Honolulu Harbor where the luxury liners of the Matson Company docked and unloaded visitors. [Photograph: Pakalana lei]
Pāneki(Viola tricolor) Common Name: Pansy
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Europe and Asia.
Family: Violaceae—Violet Family Pansies were first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by Hawai‘i Island (Big Island) cattleman Jack Purdy, who planted them in the 1850s in Waimea on Hawai‘i Island. Pansies grow well at the cool, higher elevations of the Big Island cattle ranches, and today remain a favorite flower for the haku hat and neck lei of the traditional Hawaiian cowboys, who are known in Hawaiian as paniolos after the Spanish word, Españoles.
The Hawaiian word for pansies is pāneki, though the Kohala (paniolo) name for the flowers is pua po‘okanaka, which means, “flower like a human face.” The plants grow from 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 m) tall and produce blossoms of various colors including yellow, blue, violet and white.
[Photograph: Pansy lei]
Pīkake(Jasminum sambac) Common Name: Arabian Jasmine
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India.
Family: Oleaceae—Olive Family
Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by early Chinese immigrants, the wonderfully fragrant pīkake remains a popular lei flower for many special occasions, including weddings.
The flowers of pīkake are about ¾-inch (2 cm) long and about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter when fully opened. The flowers may be single or double. The single flowered form is known as pīkake lahilahi, and has about nine petals. The double flowered form is known as pīkake pupupu, and displays a dense group of petals that appear more rose-like.
Pīkake blossoms are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method when making a single strand lei, or in a circular pattern using the kui poepoe method when a thicker lei is desired. (See Lei Making Methods.) Pīkake blooms year round, though less so during the winter months. A 40-inch (100-cm) lei strung using the kui pololei method requires about 100 pīkake blossoms. Pīkake is the Hawaiian word for peacocks, and later came to be the Hawaiian name for the white Arabian jasmine flower because the blossom was a favorite of the last Hawaiian princess, the young Princess Ka‘iulani, who was heir to the throne before she died at the age of 23. Princess Ka‘iulani had many peacocks (known by the Hawaiian word pīkake), which roamed the gardens of fragrant, white Arabian jasmine flowers at her Waikīkī estate known as ‘Āinahau, which was the palace of her uncle, King Kalākaua. Princess Ka‘iulani was in England attending boarding school when the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in 1893. Princess Ka‘iulani, just 17 years old, left England and went to Washington D.C. to appeal to President Grover Cleveland, who ordered that the monarchy be restored (though this never occurred). In 1899, Princess Ka‘iulani died at ‘Āinahau, where her favored flowers grew and where her peacocks roamed.
He pua laha ‘ole. A flower not common. One who is as choice and highly prized as a very rare blossom. An expression much used in chants and songs. (Pukui: 920-99)
Though Ka‘iulani’s death was attributed to a fever, many believe she died of a broken heart. On the night she died the pīkake (peacocks) are said to have made loud vocal displays of their grief. From its association with the young princess, the Arabian jasmine flower is now also known by the Hawaiian term pīkake. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1875, Oct. 16 for more information about Princess Ka‘iulani.)
Some follow the belief that giving someone a gift of one or two pīkake lei is a symbol of friendship, three or four implies romance, and five or six is a testament of love. Even more pīkake are given to one’s bride. Princesses and queens of pageants and parades also commonly wear pīkake lei.
Pīkake has long been used to make jasmine tea—it takes about 4 pounds (1.8 kg) of flowers to scent about 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of tea. Pīkake is also the national flower of Indonesia and the Philippines.
[Photograph: Pīkake lei]
Ponimō‘ī(Dianthus caryophyllus) Common Name: Carnation
Post-Contact Introduction: Cultivar, originally from the Mediterranean region.
Family: Caryophyllaceae—Pink Family
Originally brought to the Hawaiian Islands in the mid-1800s by Protestant missionaries, carnations are known for their spicy fragrance and bright colors, and are a popular lei flower. The white carnation lei is usually worn by women, while the red carnation lei is usually worn by men.
Carnation blossoms are about 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter, consisting of about 30 petals. The flowers are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) A standard 40-inch (102-cm) lei requires about 70 blossoms. The Hawaiian name for the carnation is ponimō‘ī, which also means “coronation,” referring to the crowning of a king or queen. The flower gained this name as a result of a confusion between the English words carnation and coronation. The carnation was a favorite flower of King Kalākaua, who became the first Hawaiian king to have a coronation. Carnations bloom year round though not as commonly during the winter months. [Photograph: Carnation lei]
Pua Kalaunu (Calotropis gigantea) Common Name: Crown Flower
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical and subtropical regions, particularly Africa.
Family: Asclepiadaceae—Milkweed Family
The crown flower was a favorite of Queen Lili‘uokalani, who was known to wear long strands of the blossoms, particularly the lavender-purple form. The fragrant flower consists of five twisted (curled-back) petals and a waxy, crown-like center that resembles a small, ivory royal crown (kalaunu means “crown”).
The flower corollas of pua kalaunu are pale violet to lavender or pale greenish-white in color and about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 4 cm) in diameter. The crown flower is a favorite of butterflies, and the plant’s large leaves are thick and hairy, and contain a milky sap that is distasteful to butterfly predators.
Lei made from pua kalaunu may use just the crowns or the complete flowers. The crowns may be strung through their centers using the kui pololei method, or a round lei is strung using the kui poepoe method. (See Lei Making Methods.) The crown flower blooms year round, particularly in summer. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 60 to 70 blossoms.
A sacred flower in India, the crown flower is associated with Kama, the Indian God of Love. It is most commonly seen today in hot, lowland areas. The lavender-purple variety was brought to the Hawaiian Islands in 1888, and the white-flowered variety was brought from India around 1920.
Like Cupid, Kama is known to shoot his arrows (one of them tipped with a crown flower) into the hearts of humans causing those being shot to fall in love with one another. The crown flower is often displayed in Indian temples, and is used in Thailand for weddings and for offerings.
[Photograph: Crown Flower lei]
Pua Kenikeni(Fagraea berteriana) Common Name: Ten Cent Flower
Post-Contract Introduction: Native to South Pacific region and Southeast Asia.
Family: Loganiaceae—Logania Family The wonderful fragrance of pua kenikeni blossoms makes them a favorite for use in lei as well as for scenting coconut oil. The 5-petalled, tubular flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) long, and grow in clusters at the end of the tree’s branches. The tree may reach a height of about 15 feet (4.6 m), and has quadrangular branches and blunt-tipped leaves. The tree also produces orange or red berries that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide. Pua kenikeni flowers are creamy white, changing to yellow and then orange by day’s end, while still maintaining their delicious scent. The plant’s name means “ten cent” flower, referring to the former price of the blossoms, which was much higher than other flowers. Pua kenikeni blooms from April to November, and standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 40 to 50 flowers, which are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) [Photograph: Pua kenikeni lei]
Pua Kīkā(Cuphea ignea) Common Name: Cigar Flower
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico and West Indies; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Lythraceae—Loosestrife Family
The cigar flower gets its name from its small, tubular, orange-red flowers, which have six black/grey-tipped teeth that also display a bit of white at the tip (similar to the ash at the tip of a burning cigar or cigarette). Pua kīkā lei are often made using the kui poepoe method by piercing the flowers crosswise and then stringing the lei round. (See Lei Making Methods.) Kīkā is a shrub that usually grows to about 24 inches (60 cm) tall with stems that are 12 to 20 inches (30 to 50 cm) long and slender flowers that are about ½ to 1 inch (2 to 2.5 cm) long. Kikā’s small, bright green leaves are elliptical in shape, measuring about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 4 cm) long and 1/5 to ½-inch (5 to 13 mm) wide. The scientific name of the plant, Cuphea ignea, means “Curved fiery red,” describing the flowers. The cigar flower blooms year round, but infrequently during July and August. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) double lei is often made using the kui poepoe method, stringing the blossoms crosswise and arranging them around the string facing outwards. (See Lei Making Methods.) This may require more than 1,700 blossoms. [Photograph: Cigar Flower lei]
Pua Male(Stephanotis floribunda) Common Name: Stephanotis
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical regions of Africa, Madagascar and Asia.
Family: Asclepiadaceae—Milkweed Family The Hawaiian name for the stephanotis flower is pua male, which means “marry flower.” A popular lei flower for weddings, stephanotis blossoms are tubular and waxy, with widely flared white lobes. The fragrant, 5-petalled flowers are about 1 to 2½ inches (2.5 to 6 cm) long and grow in clusters. Pua male blooms from March to November. A lei may require about 250 blossoms, which are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. The pua male lei may also be made with the kui poepoe method, stringing the blossoms across the corolla and then arranging them in a circular pattern. (See Lei Making Methods.) Stephanotis has oval, leathery leaves that are deep green in color and may have a waxy appearance. Sometimes referred to as Madagascar jasmine or creeping tuberose, stephanotis is a member of the milkweed family, though it is not typical of other milkweeds. A vine and not a bushy plant, stephanotis also produces mango-like fruits that appear unusually large given the modest stature of the plant. [Photograph: Stephanotis]
Pua Pākē(Chrysanthemum species) Common Name: Chrysanthemum
Post-Contact Introduction: Cultivars, originally native to eastern Asia.
Family: Asteraceae—Sunflower Family There are thousands of different chrysanthemum cultivars and they produce a wide range of blooms. The flowerheads may be from 1 to 6 in (2.5 to 15 cm) wide, growing in a variety of colors, most commonly yellow, white and pink. Chrysanthemum plants may grow up to about 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, though they are usually shorter, with leaves that are about 3 inches (8 cm) long. The leaves are bluntly lobed with a gray felt-like material on the underside. The Hawaiian term pua Pākē refers to all species in the genus Chrysanthemum (about 200 species). A naturalized species formerly known as Chrysanthemum leucanthemum (as documented in the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[xx] was reclassified as Leucanthemum vulgare in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i.[xxi] [Photograph: Chrysanthemum lei]
Pua Pihi(Zinnia species) Common Name: Zinnia
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico; two species naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Asteraceae—Sunflower Family
Pua pihi means “button flower” and refers to all types of zinnias, but the most common is Zinnia elegans, which grows to a height of about 30 inches (75 cm) with flowers that bloom in various shades of orange, yellow, purple, red and white.
Two post-contact introductions of zinnia now grow wild in the Hawaiian Islands. These naturalized species are: Z. palmeri, which grows on O‘ahu’s Koko Crater; and Z. peruviana, found on Maui, Lāna‘i and Kaho‘olawe. [Photograph: Zinnia lei]
Pukanawila(Bougainvillea species) Common Name: Bougainvillea
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Brazil.
Family: Nyctaginaceae—Four-O’Clock Family
Bougainvillea is a woody vine that produces three tiny whitish, tubular flowers within three larger colorful, papery bracts (modified leaves). The flowers are 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long, and may be various shades of red, purple, orange and white. Bougainvillea has a lengthy flowering period, making it popular as cultivated plant.
Bougainvillea lei may be constructed using the kui pololei method, stringing the flowers straight through their centers (hundreds are required), or attaching the flowers together in bunches. (See Lei Making Methods.) A 40-inch (100-cm) double lei strung using the kui poepoe method (arranged in a circular pattern) requires about 70 to 80 blossoms.
Another Hawaiian term for bougainvillea is pua kepalō, which means “devil flower,” in reference to the plant’s thorns (some say the red colors symbolize hell). Bougainvillea has been cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands since about 1827, and is named after renowned world navigator Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811), who discovered B. spectabilis, a dark, purple-red Brazilian species. In the Hawaiian Islands, B. spectabilis and B. glabra (and their hybrids and cultivars) are the most commonly cultivated bougainvillea species.
[Photograph: Bougainvillea lei]
Other Traditional Lei Materials
Lei Niho Palaoa(Whale Tooth Pendant)
The lei niho palaoa was a prized necklace in ancient Hawai‘i and was only worn by ali‘i (chiefs and royalty). Woven using tightly braided human hair, the highly-valued lei niho palaoa held a hook-shaped pendant carved from the niho (tooth) of a palaoa (Physeter macrocephalus, sperm whale).
[Photograph: Lei niho palaoa
Ferns
Fronds of various ferns were traditionally used in lei. These ferns included the endemic pala‘ā (Sphenomeris chinensis), commonly known as the lace fern; palapalai (Microlepia strigosa); pala (Marattia douglasii), which was often used as an offering to the gods; and in post-contact times the fragrant laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria). (See Hula and Mele section, Chapter 3; also see Pala‘ā and Palapalai in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) A Hawaiian proverb states, “Mōhala maika‘i ke oho o ke kupukupu” (“Unfolded well are the fronds of the ferns”), which was “...said of a handsome person.”[xxii] [Photographs: Pala‘ā, palapalai, pala, laua‘e: used in lei]
Fern Allies
Fern allies (more primitive than ferns) were also used in lei, and these include the native moa (Psilotum nudum) and wāwae‘iole (Lycopodium cernuum), a tropical club moss that grows up to 5 feet (1.5 m) tall.
[Photographs: Moa; wāwae‘iole: used in lei]
Plants Hinahina(Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum)
Endemic
Family: Boraginaceae—Borage Family Hinahina often grows on the beach above the high water line. The plant has hairy, silvery-green leaves and stems, and small clusters of fragrant, white flowers with yellow centers, on 1 to 2 inch (2.5 to 5 cm) stems. The leaf clusters and flowers of hinahina are often twisted into open-ended garlands. Today the non-native Spanish moss (also called Florida moss, gray beard and hinahina) is often substituted for the native hinahina. (See Hinahina in Island Emblems section; and in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8; also see Spanish Moss section below.) [Photograph: Hinahina lei]
Kauna‘oa(Cuscuta sandwichiana) Common Name: Hawaiian Dodder
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Cuscutaceae—Dodder Family Kauna‘oa (Cuscuta sandwichiana) is a wiry, thread-like, golden-orange to yellow-orange vine that twists and wraps around other plants. Kauna‘oa also has tiny round fruits and tiny pointed, white flowers. The plant is not green, and doesn’t need to photosynthesize because it gets its chlorophyll from other plants through sucker-like roots known botanically as haustoria. Kauna‘oa first roots in the ground and then attaches to other plants, parasitically thriving on the host plant. The stringy stems of kauna‘oa are often braided together into strands for lei, as was done by ancient Hawaiians. Kauna‘oa is also the official emblem of Lāna‘i. (See Island Emblems section; and Kauna‘oa in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) [Photograph: Kauna‘oa lei]
Kī(Cordyline fruticosa) Common Name:Ti
Polynesian Introduction
Family: Agavaceae—Agave Family
In ancient Hawai‘i, ti was known as kī, and its lā‘ī (leaves) were revered for their healing power. To ward off evil spirits, braided ti leaf lei were worn horseshoe style.
Ti’s oblong leaves are smooth and waxy, and may be 1 to 4 feet (30 cm to 1.2 m) long and from 3 to 6½ inches (7 to 16 cm) wide. An open-ended 60-inch (152-cm) lei, made using the wili method (twisted), requires about 12 to 14 large ti leaves. (See Lei Making Methods; for more information see Kī in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kī lei]
Limu (Seaweed)
Limu was gathered off the coastal reefs and sometimes woven into lei. Ancient Hawaiians gathered many varieties of limu from the ocean as well as from fresh water ponds and streams.
Edible varieties of both saltwater and freshwater limu were used for food as well as for medicinal, spiritual and ceremonial purposes. (See Limu in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Limu lei]
Maile (Alyxia oliviformis)
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family
The fragrance of maile leaves and bark has been described as spicy, and vanilla-like. Long after a maile lei dries, its woodsy scent remains.
The shiny, dark green, leathery leaves of maile are ½-inch to 4 inches (1 to 10 cm) long, growing in pairs. The leaves are oval-shaped, coming to a point.
A maile lei should be given as a single strand, open-ended, and then the receiver of the lei should connect the ends—this is a metaphor for the unending love of an intricately woven relationship.
In ancient Hawai‘i, maile was important in hula, and sacred to Laka, the goddess of hula, who was also considered the goddess of maile. Laka was said to be able to assume the form of the maile plant, and when she departed the scent would remain. Maile was one of the five primary plants placed in Laka’s hula altar.
A maile lei is constructed by first knotting the leaves (kīpu‘u method) and then twisting the strands (wili method). (See Lei Making Methods.) Up to 15 vines are required for a lei. Maile is often strung with lei flowers such as pīkake (Jasminum sambac, Arabian jasmine), ‘ilima (Sida fallax), or with berries of mokihana (Pelea anisata).
In ancient Hawai‘i, long garlands of maile were also a symbol of peace between warring chiefs. It is said the chiefs would meet in a heiau (sacred place of worship), and peace would be officially established only when they had finished weaving maile together.
Today maile is used customarily at the opening of a new building or road, and is often used in place of a ribbon for the ceremonial opening. After a blessing, the maile is untied rather than cut. (See Maile in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Maile lei]
Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides) Also Called: Florida Moss; Gray Beard; Hinahina; ‘Umi‘umi-o-Dole (Dole’s Beard).
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Bromeliaceae Spanish moss consists of gray, thread-like, repeatedly branching stems and finely curled leaves. Silvery-white scales densely cover the leaves. The Spanish moss lei is made by twisting the plant together or braiding shorter lengths together. Spanish moss is often substituted for Kaho‘olawe’s island emblem, the heliotrope known as hinahina (Heliotropium anomalumvar. argenteum). Spanish moss is an air plant (epiphytic and rootless), often seen hanging from tree branches and growing from hanging baskets. Spanish moss is sometimes referred to as ‘umi‘umi-o-Dole, or Dole’s beard (whiskers) because the plant was said to resemble the bushy gray beard of Sanford B. Dole, who was the first President of Provisional Government after the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. Dole was later President of the Republic of Hawai‘i (from 1895 to1898), and then the first Governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i (from 1898 to 1903). Spanish moss was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands around 1920. Spanish moss produces tiny flowers that are greenish-yellow or pale blue in color, usually blooming during summer.
[Photograph: Spanish moss lei]
‘Uala—Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas) Common Name: Sweet Potato
Polynesian Introduction; Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Convolvulaceae—Morning Glory Family
In ancient Hawai‘i, vines of ‘uala (sweet potato) were woven into lei used to bring an increase of something the wearer desired. For example, a mother would use the lei to increase the flow of breast milk, fishermen would slap the water with the lei to increase their catch of fish, and surfers might use the lei to increase the size of the waves. (See ‘Uala, Chapter 9.)
[Photograph: ‘Uala lei]
Shells from the island of Ni‘ihau are known as pūpū Ni‘ihau. The shells are delicately strung into stunningly beautiful necklaces known as lei pūpū Ni‘ihau, or Ni‘ihau shell lei. Ni‘ihau shell lei have a rich tradition in Hawaiian culture. Both Queen Emma (1836-1885) and Queen Kapi‘olani (1834-1899) were known to wear long loops of Ni‘ihau shell lei. Queen Emma was wearing a Ni‘ihau shell lei when she met the Queen of England. Queen Lili‘uokalani (1838-1917), Hawai‘i’s last monarch, became an admirer of the necklaces during her visit to the island of Ni‘ihau in 1891. Queen Lili‘uokalani’s collection of Ni‘ihau shell lei may now be seen on display in ‘Iolani Palace as well as at Washington Place in Honolulu. In Charles E. King’s song entitled, “Na Lei o Hawai‘i” (The Lei of Hawai‘i), a flower is named as an emblem of each Hawaiian Island except Ni‘ihau, which is represented by the pūpū (shell). These island emblems were formalized in the 1920s when Governor Wallace Rider Farrington made them official. (See IslandEmblems section.)
Finding the Shells Every winter, the northern shores of the Hawaiian Islands are pounded by large waves that are created by winter storms far north of the Islands, which generate swells. The large ocean waves disturb nearshore reef areas and deposit shells along the northern shores. From October to March are the main months when Ni‘ihau shells are found. Shells of the kahelelani variety are also found in summer. The prized Ni‘ihau shells are also found on other islands (and still referred to as Ni‘ihau shells), particularly Kaua‘i, which is across the Kaulakahi Channel from Ni‘ihau. However, nowhere are the shells as plentiful as on Ni‘ihau. Shells are most often found along a debris line on the beach where the water deposits them. A shell picker may lie down on the ground to look very closely at the sand for the precious shells. A day’s pickings may yield about one cup of shells or, on a good day, about 16 ounces (.45 kg).
Ni‘ihau Shell Varieties The three primary types of shells used for the traditional Ni‘ihau shell lei are kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca), momi (Euplica varians) and laiki (Mitrella margarita). At least 30 different Hawaiian names describe particular shells, which show many color and pattern variations that are caused by waves and sunlight as well as genetic differences. The shell pickers also collect sundials and cowries, which are used to fasten together the ends of the Ni‘ihau lei strands. Live shells are not collected. Below are detailed descriptions of the three primary types of pūpū Ni‘ihau that are used to construct Ni‘ihau shell lei.
Momi (Euplica varians) Also Called: Momi O Kai (“Pearl of the Sea”). The Hawaiian word momi means “pearl,” and the shiny oval shells are also called momi o kai, which means “pearl of the sea.” Momi shells show many different variations in patterns and colors, from white to dark brown or almost black. Momi shells may be slightly flared, and are about 2/5 inch (10 mm) in length. Momi’s species name, “varians,” is a reference to the shell’s great variability. Light colored momi shells are known as ‘āhiehie, which means “faded.” Shells that are not white but also not very dark are known as maika‘i, which means “good.” The darkest momi shells are known as ikaika, which means “strong.” The darkest shells and those with dark markings may also be referred to as ‘ele‘ele, which means “black.” Different varieties of momi shells are named for their colors and patterns, such as momi lenalena (lenalena means “yellow”), and momi kua‘ula waha ‘ula‘ula, which has a red spot at the tip of the shell (‘ula means “red”).
Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca) Kahelelani shells were named after an ancient ruler of Ni‘ihau. Like momi shells, kahelelani shells show many different variations in patterns and colors, from pink to brown or blackish. Measuring just 1/8- to 1/5-inch (3 to 5 mm), kahelelani shells are the smallest of the three varieties of Ni‘ihau shells. Kahelelani shells are also the most difficult to find and string into lei, and thus they are the most expensive to purchase. Like momi shells, kahelelani shell varieties are named for their colors and patterns, such as kahelelani ‘ākala pua (pink flower), and kahelelani maku‘e (brown kahelelani).
“Ni‘ihau a Kahelelani,” “Ni‘ihau, land of Kahelelani.” “Kahelelani was the name of an ancient ruler of the island of Ni‘ihau. The tiny seashell that is made into the finest lei on the island now bears the name of Kahelelani.” (Pukui: 2312-252)[xxiii]
Laiki (Mitrella margarita) Also Called: Rice Shells (Laiki means “Rice”). Laiki shells are usually whitish in color with a smooth surface that has a lustrous appearance. About ¼-inch (7 mm) long, the laiki shell is about the same size as a grain of rice, and also the same color. Laiki shells are a favorite for wedding lei (particularly on Ni‘ihau), and are traditionally collected by the bride-to-be along with her family and friends. Strands of the shells may be about 5 feet (1.5 m) in length, and a lei may consist of up to 20 of these strands. Like momi and kahelelani shells, laiki shells are described by various suffixes related to their appearance. The purest white shells, which are used for wedding lei, are known as laiki ke‘oke‘o. Shells of a less pure white or off-white with brownish markings are known as laiki kua‘ula. Laiki lenalena are yellowish to beige in color, also with brownish markings.
Making the Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Methods and Styles After the Ni‘ihau shells are gathered, they are sorted according to size, type and color, and then strung together. As many as one-third of the fragile shells don’t make it through the piercing process and must be discarded. From one to four nylon threads are used to string the shells. The end of the thread is hardened using beeswax or quick-drying glue and then pushed through the opening in the shell. Ni‘ihau shell lei are woven using various styles and techniques, some of which are traditional while others are new and more innovative. Some stringing styles are modeled after particular flowers, such as lei helekonia, which is made using two threads and utilizes both kahelelani and momi shells. The finished product resembles the shape and color of the heliconia flower (Heliconia species). The lei kui pīkake is also made using both momi and kahelelani shells, and has an appearance similar to the pīkake flower(Jasminum sambac, Arabian jasmine). The “crown flower” style (also called “Lili‘u” in honor of Queen Lili‘uokalani) creates a lei with an appearance similar to pua kalaunu (crown flower, Calotropis gigantea). When making a lei kui poepoe, momi shells are pierced in a particular manner that gives the final product an appearance similar to that of a tightly wound rope (this style uses two threads). Lei wili (wili means “to twist or wind”) are often quite short, and are traditionally used for hats and chokers. Lei wili are made by stringing kahelelani shells singly onto threads, which are then wound around a foundation. A strategic selection of shell colors results in an attractive pattern in the finished lei. Another method of stringing Ni‘ihau shell lei is known as lei kipona, and uses a mixture of different shell types and colors. Particular lei makers are known for their distinct lei kipona, which may be constructed using different styles, such as lei pīkake or lei pololei. The finest of the Ni‘ihau shell lei may sell for more than $10,000. Ni‘ihau shell lei are worm primarily by women. The paniolos (Hawaiian cowboys) of Ni‘ihau often wear lei ‘ālīlea, which are made from Strombus maculatus, a thick-shelled species that may measure up to ½-inch (14 mm) in length.
Seed Lei — Lei Hua
A‘e (Soap Seed) Soapberry (Sapindus saponaria)
Indigenous Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family
A‘e produces clusters of 5-parted chartreuse flowers at the ends of the branches, and round, brown-skinned fruits that are about ¾-inch (2 cm) in diameter. The fruits contain a soapy, yellowish pulp as well as a seed that is about ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. The round, black to brown, shiny seeds of a‘e are strung into lei.
Also referred to as mānele, a‘e usually grows as a small tree, but may reach more than 80 feet (24 m) in height, particularly at higher elevations. A‘e has a whitish-colored trunk, and compound, light green leaves with three to six, mostly paired leaflets. Each leaflet is about 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 cm) long. Mature leaves take on a slightly winged shape, curving at the leaf’s axis. (See A‘e in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) [Photograph: A‘e seed lei]
‘Ākia Wikstroemia species
Endemic
Family: Thymelaeaceae—‘Ākia Family
The Hawaiian term ‘ākia refers to 12 endemic Hawaiian species in the Wikstroemia genus. ‘Ākia produce fleshy one-seeded fruits that are less than ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. The small berries may be yellow, red, or orangish in color. In ancient Hawai‘i the berries were strung into lei known as lei ‘ākia ha‘a ha‘a.
‘Ākia grows in a variety of Hawaiian habitats, particularly in dry habitat at low elevations. (For more information see ‘Ākia in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: ‘Ākia seed lei]
Ali‘ipoe (Canna Lily) Canna indica Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands Family: Cannaceae—Canna Family Also known as Canna Indian shot, the Canna lily grows from about 2 to 5 feet (.6 to 1.5 m) tall, with narrow leaves that are about 12 to 24 inches (30 to 60 cm) long. Forms cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands are commonly yellow-flowered or red-flowered. In addition to being strung into lei, ali‘ipoe seeds are also used in the calabash hula rattle made from the fruit shell of la‘amia (Crescentia cujete). ‘Ali‘ipoe’s three-parted seedpods are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long, with a warty surface, and contain numerous small round seeds that are dark brown to black in color and notably hard. [Photograph: Ali‘ipoe seed lei]
‘Ēkoa (Lead Tree) False Koa (Leucaena leucocephala)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the Neotropics.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
‘Ēkoa is also known as koa haole, and usually grows up to about 30 feet (9m) tall, with trees recorded up to 66 feet (20 m). ‘Ēkoa has leaves up to 12 inches (30 cm) long that are comprised of three to eight pairs of oblong leaflets (pinnae). The plant also produces round, pale green to yellowish-white flowers that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter.
‘Ēkoa’s oblong, brown seedpods are about 6 inches (15 cm) long, growing in clusters. The pods encase numerous glossy, dark brown seeds that are oval in shape and laterally flattened.
[Photograph: ‘Ēkoa seed lei]
Hala (Screwpine) Pandanus tectorius
Indigenous
Family: Pandanaceae—Screw Pine Family Hala fruits are produced by the female trees, and are about 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) in diameter. The fruits are comprised of numerous smaller fruitlets, known as keys or phalanges. The unripe hala keys were traditionally strung into colorful necklaces. Since post-contact times, fronds of the laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria, a post-contact introduction) are often woven between the hala keys. It takes about 50 or more hala keys to string a standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei. The keys are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method.
Lei hala were worn during the Makahiki, an ancient harvest festival, to symbolize the passing of the year’s bad luck and habits. During the Makahiki, which began about the middle of October and lasted several months, time was taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility. The name hala also means “mistake, slip, or error,” and the hala lei was thought of as good luck during the Makahiki, an ancient harvest festival, when the old year “slips away.” The unripe hala fruitlets (keys) were used for colorful lei that symbolized the passing of the year’s bad luck and bad habits, though the lei could be considered unlucky if worn at other times. (See Hala in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) A Hawaiian proverb states, “Pala ka hala, ‘ula ka ‘ā‘ī” (“When the hala ripens, the neck is brightened by them”), which means, “People are very fond of hala lei. From a name chant of Kuali‘i.”[xxiv] [Photograph: Hala lei]
Hua Weleweka (Velvet Seed) Mgambo (Majidea zanquebarica)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family
Mgambo is a small tree with leaves that grow alternate to one another. Small flowers grow in clusters at the branch ends. The flowers are greenish-yellow with just a bit of red in the very center. The tree also produces red seedpods that break open upon maturity revealing three fuzzy, gray seeds.
[Photograph: Velvet seed lei]
Kā‘e‘e (Sea Bean) Mucuna gigantea subsp. gigantea Indigenous
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
In ancient Hawai‘i, kā‘e‘e seeds were strung into lei and continue to be used for seed lei today. The plant is a high-growing, woody vine that usually reaches lengths of about 26 to 49 feet (8 to 15 m) but may measure more than 260 feet (80 m).
The large, oblong, dark brown seedpods of kā‘e‘e are about 4 inches (10 cm) long and covered with stinging, orangish-brown hairs that may be extremely unpleasant and irritating to the skin and eyes. The seedpods hold from one to four (usually two or three) round, flattened seeds, called pēka‘a. Each seed is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter and about 1/3-inch (8 mm) thick.
The seeds vary in color from light to dark brown, often mottled or streaked with black. A black band rings the seed for about three-quarters of the way around the outside. Keep an eye out for them while walking along Hawaiian beaches, especially near river mouths, as the seedpods commonly wash up on shore, providing a nice surprise to the casual beachcomber. In the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[xxv] this indigenous Hawaiian plant was classified as the species Mucuna gigantea. An update in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[xxvi] reclassifies the Hawaiian plant as the subspecies Mucuna gigantea subspecies gigantea. (See Kā‘e‘e in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kā‘e‘e seed lei]
Kākalaioa (Gray Nickers) Caesalpinia bonduc
Indigenous
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
Kākalaioa is a shrubby tree or climber reaching lengths of up to 100 feet (30 m), with paired oblong to round leaflets that are about ½ to 1 inch (1.3 to 2.5 cm) long. The plant also produces small yellow flowers that grow in clusters on racemes (unbranched inflorescences, or flower clusters).
Kākalaioa’s prickly, oblong seedpods are 2½ to 3½ (6.5 to 9 cm) long, holding one to three seeds. The roundish to oval seeds are about ½ to ¾-inch (15 to 20 mm) in diameter, and are pale gray in color turning to olive gray as they ripen.
Kākalaioa grows in dry coastal areas up to elevations of about 750 feet (230 m). The seeds have medicinal uses (as a purgative) and are used in seed lei. The seeds also may have been used by children for games (similar to playing with marbles). A related species, C. major, is known as yellow nickers and Hawaiian pearls, and has yellowish instead of gray seeds. C. major is considered naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, but there is a possibility that it is actually a native Hawaiian species—this has yet to be determined conclusively.
[Photograph: Kākalaioa seed lei; yellow seeds of C. major]
Kamani (Punnai Nut) Alexandrian Laurel(Calophyllum inophyllum)
Polynesian Introduction: Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Clusiaceae—Mangosteen Family
The kamani tree bears green fruits that are about 1½ inches (3.8 cm) in diameter. The fruits become yellowish to light brown as they dry, and then are strung into lei. Within the fruit is a bony shell around an oily, white kernel.
Kamani also produces fragrant, white flowers that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) across, with four sepals and four to eight petals, and a yellow stamen. The flowers grow in clusters. The kamani tree grows from 26 to 66 feet (8 to 20 m) in height. The tree’s large leaves are leathery and shiny, with parallel side veins, and grow up to 8 inches (20 cm) long and 3½ inches (9 cm) wide. (See Kamani in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kamani seed lei]
Keko (Cycad) Sago Palm(Cycas circinalis)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Cycadaceae—Cycas Family
The sago palm is a wide-trunked short palm-like tree with smooth, fern-like leaves that curve downward. The leaves are composed of numerous narrow, pointed leaflets. Male trees produce long and narrow, erect cones, while female trees have modified leaves that are furry and indented, ringing the trunk apex and producing six to ten egg-like seeds that become reddish-yellow as they ripen.
Inside the mature orange fruit of the sago palm is a large oval seed that is strung into lei. The seed’s kernel is toxic if consumed.
[Photograph: Sago palm seed lei]
Keli Kepania (Spanish Cherry) Pogada (Mimusops elengi)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family—Sapotaceae
Spanish cherry is an evergreen tree with smooth, dark green leaves that are about 4 inches (10 cm) long, and oval in shape. The tree also produces fragrant white flowers that are about ½-inch (13 mm) long and grow in clusters at the leaf axils.
Spanish cherry produces green to orange-colored, ovoid (roundish, elongated) fruits that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and enclose yellow pulp and a flat, oval brown seed.
[Photograph: Keli kepania seed lei]
Kou (Cordia) Cordia subcordata
Indigenous (reclassified from Polynesian Introduction, 2001).
Family: Boraginaceae—Borage Family
Kou’s dried, round fruits are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, and contain from one to four seeds. In ancient Hawai‘i, kou seeds were strung into lei, as were the flowers. The seeds of the tree were also eaten.
The kou tree may reach a height of more than 30 feet (9.1 m). The tree’s crepy, bright orange flowers grow in small clusters. The 5- to 7-lobed, tubular flowers are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) in diameter, with a 3- to 5-toothed enlarged calyx that contains the fruit, which is about 1½ inches (3.8 cm) in diameter. The fruit is green when young, but turns grayish-brown and becomes dry as it matures. (See Kou in Lei Flowers section;and in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kou seed lei]
Kukui (Candlenut Tree) Aleurites moluccana
Polynesian Introduction: Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Euphorbiaceae—Spurge Family
The kukui nut consists of a hard, bony outer shell that is blackish in color and slightly furrowed. The shell is flat (blunt) on one end and slightly domed on the other end with a small projection known as the nose. The nut encases a whitish inner kernel. For kukui nut lei, the inside of the nut is removed through a hole in one end, and then the outer surface is finished.
A traditional method of finishing nuts for lei kukui involves filing numerous lengthwise grooves into the outer surface of the nutshell. In ancient Hawai‘i, spines of wana (Echinodermata, sea urchin) were used for files, and sanding was done using the skin of the kala fish (e.g., Naso species, surgeonfish) or skin of manō (Carcharhinus species, sharks), and pumice, or ‘ana (Leiodermatium, siliceous sponge). A piece of kapa (tapa) barkcloth was used to apply kukui nut oil to the finished nutshells. Polished kukui nuts remain popular for use in lei. (See Kukui in Island Emblems section; Lei Flowers section; and in Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.) [Photograph: Kukui nut lei]
Kukui Hele Pō Kina (Chinese Lantern) Hernandia nymphaeifolia Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the tropics. Family: Hernandiaceae—Hernandia Family
The Hawaiian word for lantern is “kukui hele pō,” while Kina is the word for China. The Chinese lantern plant, also known as “Jack in the Box,” is a tall evergreen tree with broad, shiny leaves that are ovate in shape and about 8 inches (20 cm) long. The tree produces small, greenish-yellow flowers and clusters of hollow, red fruits that are flattish and roundish in shape, and about 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter with an opening at the bottom. Within each fruit is a black seed.
[Photograph: Chinese lantern tree seed lei]
Loulu Hiwa (Pritchardia Palm) Fan Palm (Pritchardiamartii)
Endemic
Family: Arecaceae—Philodendron Family Loulu refers to 19 endemic Hawaiian species in the genus Pritchardia. Loulu hiwa is the Hawaiian term for the species Pritchardia martii, a thick-trunked fan palm found in the wet forest areas and moist valleys of O‘ahu’s Ko‘olau Mountains and cultivated elsewhere. Though other Pritchardia species may reach heights of more than 130 feet (40 m), loulu hiwa grows only to about 52 feet (16 m). With large fan-shaped leaves and yellow flowers that grow in clusters on spikes that are about 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 cm) long. The ovoid-shaped fruits are green to purplish-black in color and about 1½ inches (4 cm) long with a fibrous husk that encloses a single thin-shelled nut. (See Loulu in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) [Photograph: Loulu-hiwa seed lei]
Maka Hipa (Sheep’s-Eye) Mucuna sloanei
Indigenous; Endemic
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
Also known as the cow-itch plant and sheeps-eye, the seeds of Mucuna sloanei are similar in shape and size to the previous mentioned plant known as kā‘e‘e (Mucuna gigantea subspecies gigantea). The maka hipa plant is a vine reaching lengths of up to 30 feet (9 m) in valleys and on mountain slopes. The plant’s leaflets are 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 cm) long. The red and yellow flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) long, growing in clusters.
The thick, oblong seedpods of maka hipa are dark brown in color and covered with yellowish-brown hairs that may cause extreme irritation to the eyes and skin. The seedpods encase usually one or two seeds, each about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide with a dark band ringing the seed for about three-quarters of the way around the outside. Mucuna sloanei was formerly classified as Mucuna urens, and listed as questionably naturalized (possibly indigenous), in the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition.[xxvii] An update in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[xxviii] renames Mucuna urens as Mucuna sloanei, and distinguishes two varieties: Mucuna sloanei variety persericea (endemic to a region between Makawao and Wailua Iki on East Maui; and Mucuna sloanei variety sloanei, an indigenous variety found on Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and O‘ahu.
[Photograph: Maka hipa seed lei]
Makekomia (Macadamia Nut) Macadamia integrifolia
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Proteaceae—Protea Family
Many macadamia nut trees have been planted in the Hawaiian Islands over last two decades as part of an increasing macadamia nut industry, primarily on the island of Hawai‘i. The medium-sized trees have dark green, oblong leaves, somewhat wavy with widely separated prickles on the side.
The whitish flowers of the macadamia nut tree are about 7 inches (18 cm) long, growing in tassels. The roundish nut is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, forming within a leathery case that opens upon maturity. The related species M. tetraphylla is also grown commercially.
[Photograph: Makekomia seed lei)
Māpala Polū (Blue Fig) Blue Marble (Elaeocarpus grandis)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical and subtropical regions.
Family: Elaeocarpaceae—Elaeocarpus Family
The deeply wrinkled seeds of māpala polū are roundish and light brown. The blue fig tree grows relatively tall, with whitish flowers and bright blue fruits enclosing the furrowed seeds.
[Photograph: Māpala polū seed lei]
Maunaloa (Pacific Beach Pea) Canavalia cathartica
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to East Africa, India and Polynesia.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family The thick seedpods of maunaloa contain about six oval brown to black seeds. The plant also produces flowers of various colors, including white, pink, reddish and lavender. The coastal plant is a fast-growing vine that likes sandy and rocky areas. Seeds of maunaloa were used for lei, as were the flowers. (See Maunaloa in Lei Flowers section.)
[Photograph: Maunaloa (Canavalia cathartica) seed lei]
Milo (Portia Tree) Thespesia populnea
Polynesian Introduction
Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family
The fruits of milo are flattened, roundish capsules, brown and woody, about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, with five compartments, each of which contains a wooly seed. In ancient Hawai‘i, the seeds of milo had medicinal uses, and were consumed for their laxative effect. The shells of the fruit were used to produce a yellowish-green dye. The fruit should not be eaten.
The milo tree may grow to heights of more than 66 feet (20 m), with thick, gray corrugated bark and a trunk diameter that may exceed 2 feet (61 cm). The leaves of milo are shiny, yellowish-green and heart-shaped, and are about 2 to 12 inches (5 to 30 cm) wide, coming to a narrow point.
Milo also bears pale yellow bell-shaped flowers that have a diameter of about 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5 cm), with a reddish-purple (maroon) spot at the base. Milo’s flowers bloom most of the year, and usually shrivel and turn a purplish-pink by late in the day. (See Milo in Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
[Photograph: Milo seed lei]
Mokihana Pelea anisata
Endemic to Kaua‘i
Family: Rutaceae—Rue Family
Mokihana’s yellowish-green or purplish-green, cube-shaped seed capsules are about ½-inch (13 mm) wide, and leathery to the touch, with a very strong anise-like fragrance that becomes stronger as the seed capsules dry, and this scent may remain with the seed capsules for months and even years.
Considered among the most treasured of seed lei, a mokihana lei is made by stringing together the purplish-green seed capsules after piercing them through their centers. Mokihana is also often strung together (kui) with strands of maile that are knotted (kīpu‘u), as the two distinct scents complement each other.
It is said that traditional lei stringers are proud of the scars on their fingers from stringing mokihana lei. A standard 40-inch (102-cm) lei requires about 100 of the mokihana capsules. Mokihana is also the official emblem of Kaua‘i. In ancient Hawai‘i the capsules were used as a sachet stored with garments of kapa barkcloth. The season for harvesting mokihana seed capsules is from May to September. (See Mokihana in Island Emblems section; and in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Mokihana seed lei]
Nīoi Pekela (Betel Nut Palm) Areca Palm (Areca catechu)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Arecaceae—Palm Family
This palm tree may reach heights of more than 100 feet (30 m) with leaves about 4 feet (1.2 m) long, with 1- to 2-foot (61-cm) long leaf divisions. The palm’s fragrant, yellowish-white flowers blossom atop the trunk but beneath the leaf sheaths. The flowers are about 1/3-inch (8 mm) long.
The palm’s red to orange, egg-shaped fruits may exceed 2½ inches (6.35 cm), and have a fibrous husk enclosing fleshy material and a channeled seed.
[Photograph: Nīoi pekala seed lei]
Niu Keko (Monkey Nut) Queen Palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Arecaceae
Also known as feathery coconut, the queen palm is an ornamental tree with a thin, straight trunk reaching a height of up to 60 feet (18 m). The trees leaves are up to 15 feet (4.6 m) long, arching downward. Near the lower leaves a 3 to 6 foot (1 to 2 m) cluster of yellow flowers hangs down. The tree’s ovoid-shaped yellowish-orange fruits are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and filled with pulpy fiber that encloses a nut. One end of the nut has three pores.
[Niu Keko seed lei]
Nohomālie (Lucky Nut) Yellow Oleander (Thevetia peruviana)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family
Nohomālie means, “Be still,” in reference to the fact that a common name for the yellow oleander is the be-still tree. The light brown, split triangular seeds of nohomālie are about 1¼ inches (32 mm) long by ½-inch (13 mm) wide.
The Be-still tree was first brought to the Hawaiian Islands in the early 1900s as an ornamental shrub. Quite common in the Hawaiian Islands today, the tree has long, narrow leaves and produces trumpet-shaped yellow flowers that bloom year round. Some trees produce pinkish blossoms.
All parts of nohomālie are poisonous if consumed, containing a heart toxin comprised of the cardiac glycosides peruvoside and thevetin A and B. The seeds have the highest concentration of the dangerous toxin—about nine seeds could kill an adult. The seeds should never be eaten, and skin exposed to the sap of the tree should be washed thoroughly.
[Photograph: Nohomālie seed lei]
‘Ohai (Monkeypod) Rain Tree (Samanea saman)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Neotropics; naturalized in some disturbed areas.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The monkeypod tree reaches heights up to 80 feet (24 m), and is a common lowland tree in the Hawaiian Islands. The rounded, broad-spreading crowns of the monkeypod tree as well as its lacy foliage and pink blossoms make it an appealing landscaping tree.
The tree monkeypod tree has compound leaves divided into four to eight pairs of pinnae, each divided into two to ten pairs of oblong leaflets that are about 1½ inches (4 cm) long. The whitish-pink tufted flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter, and have long pink stamens.
The dark brown seedpods of the tree are about 7 inches (18 cm) long, holding many brown seeds that are oval in shape. The former scientific name of the monkeypod tree is Pithecellobium, which means “Monkey’s ear-rings,” implying the bulbous, pea-like seedpods would make nice jewelry for a monkey. In the Hawaiian Islands, the monkeypod trees grow wild in some disturbed areas up to about 300 m (980 ft).
[‘Ohai seed lei]
‘Ohai Ali‘i (Pride of Barbados) Dwarf Poinciana (Caesalpinia pulcherrima)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical America.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The brown seedpods of ‘ohai ali‘i are about 4 inches (10 cm) long, and hold from six to eight seeds. ‘Ohai ali‘i is an ornamental shrub that usually grows to about 8 feet (2.4 m) but may reach heights of 20 feet (6 m). Also called dwarf poinciana, ‘ohai ali‘i has prickly, coarse leaves comprised of numerous leaflets, each about ¾-inch (2 cm) long. The tree also produces scarlet and golden flowers, including a darker red variety and a yellow variety. (See Lei Flowers section.)
[Photograph: ‘Ohai ali‘i seed lei]
Paina (Ironwood) She Oak(Casuarina equisetifolia)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Australia; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Casuarinaceae—She-Oak Family
Ironwood trees usually grow to about 66 feet (20 m) tall (sometimes much taller) with long, drooping branches. The tree’s roundish to oval-shaped cones are about ¾-inch (2 cm) long, flattened at each end. Each of the hardened bracts of the cones contains a flat, 1-winged seed.
[Photograph: Paina seed lei]
Pepeiao ‘Elepani (Ear Seed) Elephant’s Ear (Enterolobium cyclocarpum)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
Elephant’s ear is a tall tree with a gray trunk and twice-divided leaves composed of four to nine pairs of pinnae, which each have 10 to 30 pairs of leaflets. The plant produces roundish, white flowers that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter.
Pepeiao’s shiny, dark brown seedpods are about 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10.2 cm) in diameter, and resemble the shape of an elephant’s ear. Pepeiao is the Hawaiian word for “ear,” while ‘elepani means, “elephant.” The dark brown seeds of elephant’s ear have a darker oval marking surrounded by a lighter ring. Pepeiao ‘elepani is in the Fabaceae sub-family Mimosoideae.
[Photograph: Pepeiao seed lei]
Pilikai(Wood Rose) Yellow Morning Glory (Operculina tuberosa)
Post-Contact Introduction: Pantropical
Family: Convolvulaceae—Morning Glory Family
The wood rose is a perennial vine with brown, flower-shaped fruiting capsules, each of which contains from 1 to 4 black, wooly seeds. The wood rose also produces yellow flowers that are about 2 inches (5 cm) long. The vine’s leaves have five to seven lobes, and are about 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter. The rose-shaped fruiting capsules and deep yellow flowers makes this a common ornamental plant in the Hawaiian Islands. The plant also goes by the species name Merremia tuberosa.
[Photograph: Pilikai seed lei]
Pili-Nut (Java Almond) Canarium vulgare
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Burseraceae—Torchwood Family
The java almond is a tall gray-barked tree with leaves that are about 12 inches (30 cm) long and comprised of three to five pairs of oval leaflets, with one leaf at the tip. The tree also produces small, yellowish-white, 3-parted flowers and oval, blackish-blue seeds that are about 2 inches (5 cm) long. Each seed contains a 3-sided brown nut.
[Photograph: Pili-Nut seed lei]
Pōniu (Heart Seed) Balloon Vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to southern United States and the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family
Pōniu’s thin-shelled, brown fruits enclose three black, roundish seeds that are about ¼-inch (6 mm) in diameter with a white heart-shaped scar (aril). The vine’s 3-parted leaves are finely subdivided and about 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) long. The plant also produces small, white flowers. A post-contact use for pōniu was as a remedy for dizziness. The whole plant was worn as a lei and then a small amount was eaten and the lei was tossed into the ocean.
[Photograph: Pōniu seed lei]
Pūkiawe (Bead Vine) Black-Eyed Susan (Abrus precatorius)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical Asia, Africa and Pacific; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The oval seeds of pūkiawe are bright red with a black patch, or “eye.” Also known as the rosary pea, pūkiawe is cultivated for its seeds, which are sometimes made into rosaries as well as lei.
Pūkiawe is a shrub whose stems grow to about 30 ft (9 m) long. The plant is also known as the rosary pea. The plant’s green seedpods turn brown when they ripen, and then open and drop from four to eight seeds.
The seeds of pūkiawe are poisonous if ingested, and a single seed, if chewed, could potentially kill a person. Lei stringers should also be careful not to get a needle-prick while making a lei, as it may cause severe sickness. When the toxin (abrin) is absorbed into the bloodstream it may cause nerve damage as well as severe bleeding lesions and kidney, adrenal and liver damage.
[Photograph: Pūkiawe seed lei]
Pū‘ohe‘ohe (Job’s Tears) Coix lacryma jobi
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Asia; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Poaceae—Grass Family
Pū‘ohe‘ohe is a branched grass that may reach heights of 10 feet (3 m). The blades are 4 to 20 inches (10 to 50 cm) long and 8 to 20 inches (20 to 50 cm) wide, with a heart-shaped base. The plant also produces papery, white flowers that grow on the leaf axils. The flowers are about 1 to 4 inches (2.5 to 10 cm) long.
Pū‘ohe‘ohe’s teardrop-shaped bead-like seeds are popular for use in lei. The seeds may be green, gray, black or almost completely white in color, and are borne at the tip of the flower stem. Pū‘ohe‘ohe grows along stream banks and in other moist areas at elevations up to about 2,000 feet (610 m).
[Photograph: Pū‘ohe‘ohe seed lei]
Waina Kai (Sea Grape) Coccoloba uvifera
Post-Contact Introduction:
Family—Polygonaceae—Buckwheat Family
Sea grape produces an abundant amount of roundish fruits that are about ¾-inch (2 cm) long and grow in clusters. Each fruit holds three small, brown seeds that are somewhat heart-shaped.
The sea grape is often planted in coastal areas, sometimes as a windbreak. The tree reaches a height of up to 30 feet (9 m). Sea grape’s glossy, leathery leaves are green, though new leaves are an attractive, translucent bronze color. The leaves are nearly round, about 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter, and have prominent pinkish to white veins. Sea grape’s small but fragrant, white flowers grow on spikes that rise up 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm).
[Photograph: Waina Kai seed lei]
Wī ‘Awa‘awa (Tamarind) Tamarindus indica
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Tropical Africa; possibly Asia
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family.
Tamarind’s seedpods are up to 8 inches (20 cm) long, enclosing brown pulp and a few flat, roundish, brown seeds. The green seedpods turn brown as they ripen and the shells become brittle.
The tamarind is an evergreen tree may that reach a height of 80 feet (24 m). With broad branches and a spreading crown, the tree’s dense foliage makes it a nice shade tree. Tamarind’s brown bark has a shaggy appearance, and the tree’s green compound leaves are almost fern-like, comprised of 10 to 20 pairs of leaflets, each of which is about ½-inch (13 mm) long.
Tamarind’s small, orange to cream-colored, 3-petaled flowers are veined with red and grow in clusters. The tree’s wood is valued and the fruit pulp is eaten and made into a beverage.
[Photograph: Tamarind seed lei]
Wiliwili (Hawaiian Coral Tree) Erythrina sandwicensis
Endemic
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The name wiliwili means, “twisting,” which refers to the twisting action of the tree’s seedpods as they release one to three red to yellowish-orange, oblong seeds that are about the size of kidney beans. Ancient Hawaiians strung wiliwili’s bright seeds into beautiful lei.
Wiliwili is a deciduous tree that loses its leaves in the dry season (summer), when flowers adorn the tree’s bare branches. Blooming in mid to late August, wiliwili’s flowers vary from light to deep-colored orangish-apricot to red-orange, chartreuse, pale golden yellow, or white. The flowers grow in clusters at the branch tips, and new leaves grow after the pastel-colored flowers open, attracting pollinating birds and insects.
The soft, light wood of the wiliwili tree was traditionally used to make papa he‘e nalu (surfboards) as well as fishnet floats and outriggers for canoes. (See Wiliwili in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Wiliwili seed lei]
Wiliwili Haole (Common Coral Tree) Erythrina crista-galli
Post-Contact Introduction: Widely planted along roadways.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The oblong seeds of the coral tree are dark brown in color with light streaks. The common coral tree’s leaves are composed of three shiny oval leaflets. The tree’s oblong flowers that are about 2 inches (5 cm) long, dark red in color, and grow near the ends of the branches. Seeds of the tree are encased in a long, curved and swollen pod. Erythrina variegata is a closely related species, also referred to as wiliwili haole and commonly planted in the Hawaiian Islands. E. variegata produces blackish, white or dark pink or purple seeds, sometimes with black markings.
[Photograph: Wiliwili haole seed lei]
E lei kau, e lei ho‘oilo i ke aloha. Love is worn like a wreath through the summers and the winters. Love is everlasting. (Pukui: 332-40)
Chapter 3 Source Notes
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published. See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
[Note: This list is still in progress and being updated.] About the Polynesian Voyaging Society. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/aboutpvs.html. Adams, Wanda. Navigator, mediator, hero...Eddie: Eddie Aikau, Hawai‘i’s legendary surfer, is recalled by those who knew him best. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/01/2002. Aguiar, Eloise. Big turquoise waves create perfect ‘Eddie.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/08/2002. Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Relatives recall his humble personality. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002. Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Volunteers and experts tackle extensive Hokule‘a repairs. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002. All About Hawaii (1948-1949): Thrum’s Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Publications Division: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1949. A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings II. Edited by Alison Kay. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999. Ancient chants and hula at Historical Society dinner. The Garden Island, 5/26/1994. Anderson, George William. Excerpts from Captain Cook’s Third and Last Voyage. The Garden Island, 11/10/1999. Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001. Ariyoshi, Rita. The National Geographic Traveler: Hawaii. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2000. Atlas of Hawai‘i: Second Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983. Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Ma‘ohauhele (Hawaii’s State Flower). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/13/2002. Beletsky, Les. Hawaii: The Ecotravellers’ Wildlife Guide. London: Academic Press, 2000. Bishop Museum—Hawai‘i Maritime Center: Home of the Hokule‘a and Falls of Clyde. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/hmc/, 7/28/2002. Borg, Jim. Catching the wave. San Francisco Examiner, 3/3/1996. Borg, Jim. Genetic research offers intriguing new view of Polynesian migrations. Hawaii Magazine, February, 1997. Bornhorst, Heidi. Crown flower thrives in heat, sun. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/02/2002. Bornhorst, Heidi. Native hibiscus gains a following. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/02/2000. Bornhorst, Heidi. Wiliwili variety of erythrina native to Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002. Burlingame, Burl. Eddie: Riding on the crest of the myth. Honolulu Star-Bulletin Features, http://starbulletin.com/98/03/09/features/story1.html, 2/02/2001. Bushnell, O.A., and Daws, Gaven; Illustrated by Feher, Joseph. The Illustrated Atlas of Hawaii. Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1970. Captain James Cook: British Navigator and Explorer. Internet site: http://www2.lucidcafe.com/lucidcafe/lucidcafe/library/95oct/jcook.html. Ciaffardini, David Aldo. Eddie would go, has gone and is still going: A wild, occasional big-wave surf meet honors the memory of a homegrown hero. Hawaii Magazine, December, 1996. Coleon, Shayna. Duke stamp creates sales swell. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/27/2002. Clark, Joan. The etiquette of lei: The gift of flowers carries a varied symbolism. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1995. Closing the triangle: A quest for Rapa Nui. Polynesian Voyaging Society: History and Heritage. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/rapanui/heritage.html. Coleon, Shayna. Beach Boys share memories of Duke: Surfing legend remembered for ‘spreading aloha.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/24/2002. Cox, J. Halley, with Stasack, Edward. Hawaiian Petroglyphs. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 60, 1970. Culliney, John L. Islands in a Far Sea. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988. Daws, Gavan. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968. Day, A. Grove. A Biographical Dictionary: History Makers of Hawaii. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1984. Degener, Otto. Plants of Hawaii National Parks: Illustrative of Plants and Customs of the South Seas. Braun-Brumfield, Inc., 1973. Dixon, Susan. Anthropologist seeks support for Polynesian canoe project. Kauai Times, 9/11/1996. Dixon, Susan. Hokule‘a sets sail for Kaua‘i: Ceremony Saturday to mark arrival of voyaging canoe. The Garden Island, 9/18/1996. DNA tests trace Polynesians to China origins. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/1998. Duke Kahanamoku and the Dawn of Australian Surfing: at the “Boomerang Camp” Freshwater Beach, Sydney in the Southern Summer of 1915. Internet site: http://www.magna.com.au/c.prfbrown/the_duke.html, 2/18/2001. Duke Kahanamoku gets own stamp next year: Surfing legend latest U.S. icon feted by Postal Service. The Garden Island, 11/07/2001. Duke Kahanamoku—The legendary Hawaiian waterman and his influence on Kaua‘i: The Duke sends a surfboard to a Kaua‘i boy. The Garden Island, 8/23/2002. Duke put Hawaii on map. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/19/2003. Duke’s Fans Make Stamps a Big Sell. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/29/2002. Event celebrates Duke’s legacy: 3-day ho‘olaule‘a to be staged in Waikīkī. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/2003. Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002. Fornander, Abraham. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1996. Fujimori, Leila. Duke’s Day: Stamp’s unveiling honors 112th birthday. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002. Friary, Ned, and Bendure, Glenda. Hawaii: 5th Edition. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., 3/2000. Fryer, Gerard. The most dangerous wave. The Sciences, July/August, 1995. Gima, Craig. Mix-up leads to cleanup of Duke’s lei: Lei had been put on the waterman’s statue for his 112th birthday. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002. Gon III, Dr. Sam. Hawaiian culture and conservation: I ka mole o ka ‘aina (at the root of the land). Honolulu: Nature Conservancy of Hawaii Newsletter, 1995. Gordon, Mike. People make Duke stamp a reality: Thousands of signatures help successful effort. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/04/2002. Gordon, Mike. Surf-forecast buoys sinking in Washington’s red ink: North Shore already hit without warning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/18/1996. Handy, Emory, Bryan, Buck, Wise and Others. Ancient Hawaiian Civilization: A Series of Lectures Delivered at the Kamehameha Schools. Mutual Publishing: Honolulu, Hawaii, 1999. Handy, E.S. Craighill, and Handy, Elizabeth Green, with the collaboration of Mary Kawena Pukui. Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972. Hargreaves, Dorothy and Bob. Tropical Blossoms of the Pacific. Hargreaves Company, Inc., 1970. Hargreaves, Dorothy and Bob. Tropical Trees of the Pacific. Hargreaves Company, Inc., 1970. Hawaiian heritage on parade. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/09/2002. Hawaiian Native Plant Genera. University of Hawai‘i Botany Department. Internet site: http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/natives.htm, 5/03/2002. Hawai‘i Data Book: A Statistical Reference to Hawai‘i’s Social, Economic and Political Trends. Edited by Robert C. Schmitt. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2002. Hawaii’s greatest sportsman earns his stamp in history. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/24/2002. Heathcote, Sheila. Sailing the Hawaiian way: KCC professor learns ancient skills aboard Hokule‘a, Hawaii Loa. The Garden Island. Heckman, Marsha. Lei Aloha: Flower Lei of Hawai‘i with Instructions. Waipahu, Hawai‘i: Island Heritage Publishing, 2001. He‘e Nalu: Surfing’s Early Years. Adventure West Magazine, November/December, 1995. Hettena, Seth. Where no dude has gone before: Surfers pursue the 100-foot wave. West Hawai‘i Today, 7/25/2001. Hilo Area: Merrie Monarch Festival. Internet site: http://expedia.msn.com/wg/north_america/united_states/p20080.asp. Hiroa, Te Rangi (Peter H. Buck). Arts and Crafts of Hawai‘i II: Houses. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1957. Hiroa, Te Rangi (Peter H. Buck). Arts and Crafts of Hawai‘i VIII: Games and Recreation. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1957. Hirschmann, Fred. Rocks of ages. Adventure West, July/August, 1995. Hoover, Will. Honoring the legacy of Duke Kahanamoku. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/25/2002. Hoover, Will. Kamehameha parade conquers all: Kama‘āina fans mix with malihini. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/09/2002. Hoover, Will. Lei Queen contest? Let’s party!. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/03/2002. Houston, James D. Hula Renaissance. San Francisco Chronicle, 2/28/1993. Houston, Victor. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988. Hula exhibit opens at museum. The Garden Island, 9/06/2000. Human DNA analysis points to African origin: Study performed on complete genome. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/7/2000. Hurley, Timothy. Another nastier lizard found. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/19/2002. Ide, Laurie Shimizu. Hawai‘i’s Flower Lei: An Identification Guide to over 50 of Hawai‘i’s Favorite Lei. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2001. Ide, Laurie Shimizu. Hawai‘i’s Seeds and Seed Lei. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2000. Ii, John Papa. Fragments of Hawaiian History. Translated by Mary Kawena Pukui; Edited by Dorothy B. Barrère. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1959. Seiden, Allan. Hawai‘i: The Royal Legacy. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1992. Kaeppler, Adrienne L. Kapa: Hawaiian Barkcloth. Hilo Bay, Hawai‘i: Boom Books, 1980. Kahanamoku stamp to get symbolic debut. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/10/2002. Kamakau, Samuel Manaiakalani. Ka Po‘e Kahiko: The People of Old. Translated from the Newspaper Ke Au ‘Oko‘a by Mary Kawena Pukui. Arranged and edited by Dorothy B. Barrère. Bishop Museum Special Publication 51. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991. Kāne, Herb Kawainui. Ancient Hawai‘i. Captain Cook, Hawai‘i: The Kawainui Press, 1997. Kane, Herb Kawainui. Pele: Goddess of Hawaii’s Volcanoes. Captain Cook, Hawaii: The Kawainui Press, 1987. Kane, Herb Kawainui. The Kamehameha-Vancouver legacy—Hawaiian attitudes toward Britain and Cook—A contradiction reported. The Garden Island, 11/10/1999. Kauaians train for a cultural voyage. The Garden Island, 8/18/1996. Kauai’s Menehune: Mysteries of the Hawaiian Islands. Internet site: http://www.europa.com/edge/mene.html, 8/17/2000. Kawaharada, Dennis. The Settlement of Polynesia, Part 1. Polynesian Voyaging Society. Internet Site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/mirgrationspart1.html. Kepler, Angela Kay. Hawai‘i’s Floral Splendor: A Friendly and Color Identification Guide to Native and Introduced Flowers of All the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1997. Kirch, Patrick Vinton. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1985. Kirch, Patrick V., and Sahlins, Marshall. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Volume One: Historical Ethnography (Marshall Sahlins, with the Assistance of Dorothy B. Barrère). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992. Kirch, Patrick V., and Sahlins, Marshall. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Volume Two: The Archaeology of History (Patrick V. Kirch). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992. Krauss, Beatrice H. Native Plants Used as Medicine in Hawai‘i. Honolulu: Harold L. Lyon Arboretum, 1981. Krauss, Beatrice H. Plants in Hawaiian Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993. Krauss, Beatrice H. Plants in Hawaiian Medicine. Honolulu: The Bess Press, 2001. Krauss, Bob. Pacific migration theory disputed: Polynesians may be from Indonesia. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/18/2000. Lei of the Land: Hula halau take to the hills for authenticity. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/16/1995. Life in Early Hawai‘i: The Ahupua‘a—Third Edition. 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Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1997. Scott, Susan. Plants and Animals of Hawai‘i. Honolulu: Bess Press, 1991. Soboleski, Hank. History Makers of Kaua‘i; Captain James Cook. The Garden Island, 11/18/2001. Stamp to honor Kahanamoku. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/07/2002. Surfer, swimmer, Olympian and ambassador of aloha. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/24/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Eddie’s Sacrifice: Surfer’s search for help during a stormy 1978 Hōkūle‘a voyage ensured his legacy—and the canoe’s mission. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/17/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Hawaiian spellings catch on but slowly: Luddites afraid of diacritical mass. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/16/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Hawai‘i: Land of Volcanoes. Honolulu: Mutual Press, 1999. The Duke stamp—on sale Monday. The Garden Island, 8/23/2002. The First Circumnavigation of the Globe. Library of Congress. Internet site: http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/portam/first.html, 7/11/2002. The Kumulipo: A Hawaiian Creation Chant. Translated and edited with commentary by Martha Warren Beckwith. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Facsimile reproduction of first edition, University of Chicago Press, 1951. Including Foreword by Katharine Luomala, The University Press of Hawaii, 1972. The little people. Discover Kaua‘i Magazine, Island Heritage Publishing, 1999. The Plant Book: The World of Plants in a Single Volume. Australia: James Mills-Hicks, Random House Australia Pty Ltd., 2001. Varez, Dietrich. Kapa. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1994. Varez, Dietrich. Stamp printing. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1995. Viotti, Vicki. Envoys of the dance: A halau performed for villagers in New Caledonia as part of a Pacific arts festival. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/17/2000. Viotti, Vicki. Preserving the poetry and protocol of hula. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/02/2001. Viotti, Vicki. The elements of the chants. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/12/2000. Viotti, Vicki. The lei of the land. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/16/1995. Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002. Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volume 1. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999. Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volume 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999. Waikiki Beachboys Canoe Club. Internet site: http://www.waikikibeachboys.com/about.htm, 2/18/2001. Waikiki Historic Trail. Internet site: http://www.waikikihistorictrail.com/index.html, 2/18/2001. Wichman, Fredrick B. Kaua‘i: Ancient Place-Names and Their Stories. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998. Wilhelm, Kalani. Event celebrates Duke’s legacy: 3-day ho‘olaule‘a to be staged in Waikīkī. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/2003. Wright, Walter. Restored Hōkūle‘a ready for new voyages. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/20/2003.
[1] p. 137, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1261. [2]DNA tests trace Polynesians to China origins. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/1998. Borg, Jim. Genetic research offers intriguing new view of Polynesian migrations. Hawaii Magazine, February, 1997. Human DNA analysis points to African origin: Study performed on complete genome. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/7/2000. Krauss, Bob. Pacific migration theory disputed: Polynesians may be from Indonesia. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/18/2000. Matisoo-Smith, E., Roberts, R.M., Irwin, G.J., Allen, J.S., Penny, D. and Lambert, D.M. Patterns of prehistoric human mobility in Polynesia indicated by mtDNA from the Pacific rat. Anthropology, Vol. 95, pp. 15145-15150, December, 1998. Matsunaga, Mark. Scientists still fish for migration answer: Canoes ready to test theory of the fishhooks. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/16/1995. [3] p. 76, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 683. [4] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999. [5] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002. [6] p. 114, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1072. [7] p. 114, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1072. [8] p. 142, Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [9] Translation by J.C. Lane, as cited in: Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988. [10] Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988. [11] Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001. [12] Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001. [13] p. 43, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 352. [14] p. 41, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 333. [15] p. 134, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1234. [xvi] p. 188, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1754. [xvii] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002. [xviii] p. 77, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 695. [xix] p. 277, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2534. [xx] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999. [xxi] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002. [xxii] p. 237, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2180. [xxiii] p. 252, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2312. [xxiv] p. 285, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2589. [xxv] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999. [xxvi] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002. [xxvii] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999. [xxviii] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002.
Part I. Polynesian Origins and Traditions of Ancient Times
Part II. Island Flowers and Lei
Ēwe hānau o ka ‘āina.
Natives of the land.
People who were born and dwelt on the land.
(Pukui: 387-47)
[Illustration: Ancient Hawaiian village; pili grass houses]
Part I.
First Polynesians, First Hawaiians
The First Polynesians
Celestial Navigation and Non-Instrument Wayfinding
The Role of Birds as Guides to Navigation
The First Hawaiians
Rediscovering the Past: The Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoes
The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe
The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe
DNA Research on Polynesian Origins and Migrations
Mitochondrial DNA—Three Main Subgroups of Polynesians
Y Chromosomes Study
Origins of the First Hawaiians
The Hawaiian Language
Hawaiian Becomes a Written Language
Refinements to the Written Hawaiian Language
Pronunciation
The Top 150 Hawaiian Words Most Commonly Used in the Islands
Hula and Mele
‘Auana and Kahiko
Mele Oli and Mele Hula
The Artistry of Chants: Microtonal Inflection and Kaona
Hula and Mele—Carrying on the Hawaiian Culture
Forest Plants Used in Hula
Traditional Instruments
Petroglyphs
The Creation and Meanings of Petroglyphs
Preservation of Petroglyphs Sites
Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth
The Kapa-Making Process
Decorating Kapa
Traditional Dyes of Ancient Hawai‘i
Plants Used to Scent Kapa Barkcloth
Uses of Kapa
Heiau: Hawaiian Sacred Places
Types of Heiau
Heiau on the Island of Hawai‘i
Other Heiau of the Hawaiian Islands
The Menehune: An Ancient Race
Captain Cook
Navigator and Explorer
First Contact
Cook Leaves and Returns
Fatal Encounter
The Hawaiian Flag
The History of Surfing
The First Surfers
Constructing a Surfboard
Duke Kahanamoku
Hui Nalu
Olympic Champion
Duke Kahanamoku’s Olympic Medals
Duke Kahanamoku—Hawaiian Waterman
The Duke Kahanamoku Stamp
Duke Kahanamoku—Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha”
Eddie Aikau
The Capsizing of the Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe
The Eddie Aikau Big Wave Invitational
Past Winners of the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau
Eddie Would Go
Chapter 3—Part II
Island Flowers and Lei
Island Emblems
State of Hawai‘i Pua Ma‘o Hau Hele
Hawai‘i Island Pua Lehua
Maui Pua Lokelani
Moloka‘i Pua Kukui
Lāna‘i Pua Kauna‘oa
Kaho‘olawe Hinahina
O‘ahu Pua ‘Ilima
Ni‘ihau Pūpū Ni‘ihau
Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca)
Momi (Euplica varians)
Laiki (Mitrella margarita)
Island Flowers and Lei
Lei Materials and Uses
Historical Lei Selling Areas
Lei Day and other Lei Events
Lei Making Methods
Stringing the Lei
Popular and Traditional Lei Flowers
Aloalo Pahūpahū Turk’s Cap Hibiscus Intr.
‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o White Ginger Intr.
‘Awapuhi Melemele Yellow Ginger Intr.
‘Ilima ‘Ilima Ind.
Kiele Gardenia Intr.
Kou Kou Ind.
Kukui Candlenut Tree P.I.
Kupaloke Tuberose Intr.
Lehua Mau Loa Globe Amaranth Intr.
Lokelani Damask Rose Intr.
Maunaloa Pacific Beach Pea Intr.
Maunaloa Sea Bean Intr.
Melia Plumeria Intr.
Nānū Gardenia End.
Nuku ‘I‘iwi Jade Vine Intr.
Nuku ‘I‘iwi Nuku ‘I‘iwi End.
‘Ohai Native Sesbania End.
‘Ohai Ali‘i Pride of Barbados Intr.
‘Ōhi‘a Lehua ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua End.
‘Okika Dendrobium Orchid Intr.
‘Okika Vanda Vanda Orchid Intr.
‘Oliana Oleander Intr.
Pahūpahū Flame Vine Intr.
Pakalana Chinese Violet Intr.
Pāneki Pansy Intr.
Pīkake Arabian Jasmine Intr.
Ponimō‘ī Carnation Intr.
Pua Kalaunu Crown Flower Intr.
Pua Kenikeni Ten Cent Flower Intr.
Pua Kīkā Cigar Flower Intr.
Pua Male Stephanotis Intr.
Pua Pākē Chrysanthemum Intr.
Pua Pihi Zinnia Intr.
Pukanawila Bougainvillea Intr.
Other Traditional Lei Materials
Lei Niho Palaoa Whale Tooth Pendant Ind.
Ferns
Pala‘ā (Lace Fern) Sphenomeris chinensis Ind.
Palapalai Microlepia strigosa End.
Laua‘e Phymatosorus scolopendria Intr.
Pala Marattia douglasii End.
Fern Allies
Moa Psilotum nudum Ind.
Wāwae‘iole (Tropical Club Moss) Lycopodium cernua Ind.
Plants
Hinahina (vine) Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum End.
Kauna‘oa (Hawaiian Dodder) (vine) Cuscuta sandwichiana End.
Kī (Ti) (leaves) Cordyline fruticosa P.I.
Limu (Seaweed) Various species End.
Maile (leaves) Alyxia oliviformis End.
Spanish Moss (leaves) Tillandsia usneoides Intr.
‘Uala (Sweet potato vines) Ipomoea batatas P.I.
Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Pūpū Ni‘ihau
Finding the Shells
Ni‘ihau Shell Varieties
Momi Euplica varians
Kahelelani Leptothyra verruca
Laiki Mitrella Margarita
Making the Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Methods and Styles
Seed Lei—Lei Hua
A‘e (Soapberry) Sapindus saponaria Ind.
‘Ākia Wikstroemia species End.
Ali‘ipoe (Canna Lily) Canna indica Intr.
‘Ēkoa (Lead Tree) Leucaena leucocephala Intr.
Hala (Pandanus) Pandanus tectorius Ind.
Hua Weleweka (Velvet Seed) Majidea zanquebarica Intr.
Kā‘e‘e (Sea Bean) Mucuna gigantea subsp. gigantea Ind.
Kākalaioa (Gray Nickers) Caesalpinia bonduc Ind.
Keli Kepania (Spanish Cherry) Mimusops elengi Intr.
Kamani (Punnai Nut) Calophyllum inophyllum P.I.
Keko (Cycad) Cycas circinalis Intr.
Kou (Cordia) Cordia subcordata Ind.
Kukui (Candlenut Tree) Aleurites moluccana P.I.
Kukui Hele Pō Kina (Chinese Lantern) Hernandia nymphaeifolia Intr.
Loulu Hiwa (Pritchardia Palm) Pritchardia martii End.
Maka Hipa (Sheep’s-Eye) Mucuna sloanei Ind.; End.
Makekomia (Macadamia Nut) Macadamia integrifolia Ind.
Māpala Polū (Blue Fig) Elaeocarpus grandis Ind.
Maunaloa (Pacific Beach Pea) Canavalia cathartica Ind.
Milo (Portia Tree) Thespesia populnea P.I.
Mokihana Pelea anisata End.
Nīoi Pekela (Betel Nut Palm) Areca catechu Intr.
Niu Keko (Monkey Nut) Syagrus romanzoffiana Intr.
Nohomālie (Lucky Nut) Thevetia peruviana Intr.
‘Ohai (Monkeypod) Samanea saman Intr.
‘Ohai Ali‘i (Pride of Barbados) Caesalpinia pulcherrima Intr.
Paina (Ironwood) Casuarina equisetifolia Intr.
Pepeiao ‘Elepani (Ear Seed) Enterolobium cyclocarpum Intr.
Pilikai (Wood Rose) Operculina tuberosa Intr.
Pili-Nut (Java Almond) Canarium vulgare Intr.
Pōniu (Heart Seed) Cardiospermum halicacabum Intr.
Pūkiawe (Bead Vine) Abrus precatorius Intr.
Pū‘ohe‘ohe (Job’s Tears) Coix lacryma jobi Intr.
Waina Kai (Sea Grape) Coccoloba uvifera Intr.
Wī ‘Awa‘awa (Tamarind) Tamarindus indica Intr.
Wiliwili (Hawaiian Coral Tree) Erythrina sandwicensis End.
Wiliwili Haole (Common Coral Tree) Erythrina crista-galli Intr.
First Polynesians, First Hawaiians
[Illustrations: Voyaging Canoe; Map of Pacific Islands]
Picture a group of brave sailors on a double-hulled voyaging canoe, alone on a vast ocean. For days upon weeks they sail across the sea, searching for land until finally they come upon eight tiny islands surrounded by thousands of miles of ocean. This discovery occurred more than 1,500 years ago. The sailors were the Polynesian voyagers who became the first Hawaiians.
Poho pono na pe‘a heke a ku ana.
A well-filled topsail helped him to arrive.
Said of a fast traveler.
(Pukui: 2681-293)
The First Polynesians
The story of the Polynesians began about 6,000 years ago when a seafaring people traveled from Asia or Melanesia to the islands of Samoa and Tonga. Their descendants eventually sailed east to Tahiti and the Marquesas Islands. Later they sailed south to New Zealand, east to Easter Island, and north to the Hawaiian Islands. By A.D. 1200, the ancient Polynesians voyagers had settled nearly every habitable island over some ten million square miles (30 million sq. km) of the Pacific Ocean.
[Illustration: Migration map]
The first settlers of the Hawaiian Islands likely came from the Marquesas Islands some time between A.D. 200 and A.D. 500. The Marquesas Islands are a ring of ten steep volcanic islands about 2,500 miles (4,023 km) southeast of the Hawaiian Islands, 740 miles (1,191 km) northeast of Tahiti, and 3,700 miles (5,955 km) west of Peru.
The ancient Polynesian navigators who discovered the Hawaiian Islands likely began their west-to-east journeys when westerly winds replaced the prevailing easterly trade winds. If they failed to find land, then they could wait for the trades to return and carry them home.
Celestial Navigation and Non-Instrument Wayfinding
Seafaring Polynesians navigated the oceans guided only by the clues that nature provided, such as the positions and movements of the sun, moon, stars, and constellations, as well as prevailing winds and seas.
The star that Westerners call Polaris (also called the North Star) was used by the Polynesians to determine the direction toward the Hawaiian Islands. The ancient navigators called this star Hōkūpa‘a, or “Fixed Star,” because it is located due north and appears “fixed” in the sky. The Earth spins to the east, so to an observer looking north, the star doesn’t change position, as do all the other stars in the sky.
The star Hōkūle‘a (hōkū means “star”, and le‘a means “happiness,” or “joy”) was also important to ancient Polynesians trying to navigate their voyaging canoes to the Hawaiian Islands. The name Hōkūle‘a refers to the star that Westerners call Arcturus. Voyagers sailing to the Hawaiian Islands from the Marquesas or Tahiti needed to determine how far north to sail. They knew that at the latitude of the island of Hawai‘i the star Hōkūle‘a would be directly overhead (a zenith star). At the high point of its nightly arc across the sky, Hōkūle‘a points the way to the Hawaiian Islands.
The Polynesian voyagers utilized many different types of navigational clues. For example, they knew that clouds tend to pile up over islands, revealing land in the distance. Land also reflects light, and so the color of the sky above islands may reveal their location. Even phosphorescence on the water at night is said to have helped guide the Polynesian navigators.
The Role of Birds as Guides to Navigation
Ancient Polynesian ocean navigators also relied on their knowledge of the daily and seasonal cycles of birds. Migratory birds, such as the kōlea (Pluvialis fulva, Pacific golden plover) and the ‘akē‘akē (Arenaria interpres, ruddy turnstone) revealed to the mariners that somewhere to the north or northeast there was land. The birds winter on islands in the Central Pacific and then head back to their arctic breeding grounds in April or May.
Also helpful to the sailors were the flight directions of pelagic (oceanic) birds, such as petrels, shearwaters and albatross. These pelagic birds spend most of their time over the ocean seeking fish, squid and crustaceans, and then return to land during the nesting season.
Non-pelagic birds such as ‘a (boobies), noio (terns) and koa‘e (tropicbirds) all feed over the sea by day but return each night to their island homes. Navigators watched for these species at dusk, because sighting them meant land was near at hand. Sightings of birds congregating over feeding areas also revealed locations where fishing would be productive.
I wawā no ka noio, he i‘a ko lalo.
When the noio make a din, there are fish below.
When the people gossip, there is a cause.
(Pukui: 1267-137)
The First Hawaiians
When the seafaring Polynesians finally reached the Hawaiian Islands, they practiced agriculture in the lowlands and also lived off the sea. They cleared the lowland forests to plant kalo (Colocasia esculenta, taro), the staple of their diet, which they pounded into poi. The taro was grown in lo‘i kalo (taro patches), which consisted of earth-lined and rock-terraced fields with networks of irrigation channels.
The Polynesian settlers brought at least 24 (and probably more than 26) useful species of plants with them on their voyaging canoes. (See Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.) These plants included milo (Thespesia populnea, portia) and kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum, Alexandrian laurel) for wood, kalo (Colocasia esculenta, taro) and ‘uala (Ipomoea batatas, sweet potato) for food, ‘awapuhi kuahiwi (Zingiber zerumbet, shampoo ginger) and noni (Morinda citrifolia, Indian mulberry) for medicine. The Polynesian-introduced wauke (Broussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry) and māmaki (Pipturus species) were used for making kapa (tapa) barkcloth.
Animals brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers included pua‘a (pigs), moa (chickens) and ‘īlio (dogs). Stowaways on the voyaging canoes included the mo‘o ‘alā (geckos), skinks, and ‘iole (rats).
Other important plants brought by the first settlers include: niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palms), pia (Tacca leontopetaloides, Polynesian arrowroot), ‘ōlena (Curcuma longa, turmeric), uhi (Dioscorea alata, yam), the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana), ti (Cordyline fruticosa, ti), kō (Saccharum officinarum, sugarcane) and mai‘a (Musa species). (See Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
The Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands caught a variety of fish and shellfish from the ocean, and they ate honu (Chelonia mydas, sea turtles) as well as various species of limu (seaweed). In the coastal shallows they built large loko i‘a (fishponds), which they kept well stocked with ‘ama ‘ama (Mugil cephalus, mullet), and awa (Chanos chanos, milkfish).
Hale pili, the houses of the Hawaiian Islands’ early inhabitants, were made of pili grass (Heteropogon contortus, twisted beardgrass) placed over a wooden frame. More information regarding the lives of ancient Hawaiians is presented throughout this text.
[Photograph: Fishpond]
Rediscovering the Past: The Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoes
[Illustration: Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe]
The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe
In the 1970s, members of the Polynesian Voyaging Society constructed a voyaging canoe called the Hōkūle‘a. Built to show that migrating Polynesians were able to sail east against the prevailing winds, the Hōkūle‘a was launched on March 8, 1975, and completed its first voyage, to Tahiti, in 1976.
The Hōkūle‘a has two 62-foot (18.9-meter) long hulls (kuamo‘o), eight crossbeams (‘iako) joining the two hulls, as well as decking (pola), and two masts (kia). The voyaging canoe weighs about 8 tons (7.3 mtons) and may reach speeds up to 12 knots. The Hōkūle‘a can carry more than 5 tons (4.5 mtons), including 12 to 16 people with supplies.
Hele ‘e ka wa‘a.
The speed of a canoe.
Said of a fast traveler.
(Pukui: 736-81)
When Nainoa Thompson led the crew that sailed the Hōkūle‘a to Tahiti and back in 1980, he became the first Hawaiian to navigate a voyaging canoe in more than 600 years. Many more Hōkūle‘a voyages have now been completed, including a voyage to the Marquesas and back in 1995.
The Hōkūle‘a crew sailed around the Hawaiian Islands in 1996-1997, allowing thousands of school children to visit or sail on the vessel. There was also a 1999 journey to Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Voyagers have now sailed the canoe well over 90,000 nautical miles (166,700 km), including 6 major continental and Pan-Pacific voyages.
A tragic incident in 1978 occurred when the Hōkūle‘a capsized off Moloka‘i. The crew was eventually rescued, except for 31-year-old Eddie Aikau who paddled a surfboard toward land to get help and was never seen again. A respected lifeguard and surfer who had saved many lives, Eddie Aikau lost his own life trying to save others. Eddie Aikau’s bravery is now immortalized in the saying, “Eddie Would Go.” (See Eddie Aikau section.)
The Hōkūle‘a recently underwent a complete restoration, which was finished in January of 2003 after nearly a year of work. The restoration included replacing the approximately 5 miles (8 km) of ropes and cordage holding the canoe together.
In September of 2003 the Hōkūle‘a sailed to Nihoa, 150 miles (240 km) from Hanalei, Kaua‘i Nihoa was inhabited in ancient times, but was not inhabited at the time Captain Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. The site of ancient Hawaiian agricultural terraces and home sites, Nihoa rises to 903 feet (275 m), making it the tallest of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. (See Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 2.)
[Photograph: Hōkūle‘a]
The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe
The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is named after an ancient voyager who, according to legend, was the first discoverer of the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is 57 feet (17.4 m) long, and is the first of the voyaging canoes to be built almost entirely out of traditional materials.
The Hōkūle‘a voyaging canoe was built to be as performance accurate as ancient Hawaiian voyaging canoes, but was built with modern materials. The crews of the Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa recovered the art of non-instrument wayfinding used by ancient Polynesian voyagers.
In ancient times, koa (Acacia koa) was the wood preferred for making canoes, while the outriggers were traditionally made of wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis, coral tree) and hau (Talipariti tiliaceum). The builders of the Hawai‘iloa, however, had to acquire old growth Sitka spruce trees from southeast Alaska because there were no longer any koa trees in the Hawaiian Islands large enough. The use of Sitka spruce may also be considered traditional, since ancient Hawaiians sometimes used drift logs to make canoes, and those driftlogs may have come from Alaska.
The tools used to construct voyaging canoes and their various components included the stone adze and the bone gouge. Coral files were also used, as well as sharkskin for sanding. Though modern tools were used in the construction of the Hawai‘iloa, traditional materials were used whenever possible. Every attempt was made to build an accurate replica of a traditional voyaging canoe.
[Photograph or illustration: Stone adze; bone gouge; coral file]
The Sitka spruce used for the Hawai‘iloa’s hulls (kuamo‘o) came from two 400-year-old trees, each about 200 feet (61 m) tall and 7 feet (2.1 m) in diameter. Koa wood was used for the bow and stern pieces (manu) as well as for the sideboards (mo‘o), braces (wae), and the steering paddle and steering blades. The seven crossbeams (‘iako) were made from ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species), as were the two masts (kia), the two spars (‘ōpe‘a), and the two booms (pumi). The wood of hau (Talipariti tiliaceum) was used to construct the railings.
Due to safety concerns, synthetic cordage was used for the lashings and riggings. There were attempts to recreate the sennit cordage Polynesians once made from olonā (Touchardia latifolia) as well as from the fiber of the husk of the niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut), but the skills of creating these traditional products have yet to be duplicated to the quality level of the ancient sailors. Traditional lau hala sails were woven and tested, but modern materials were eventually used.
Nakaka ka pua‘a, nahā ka wa‘a; aukāhi ka pua‘a mānalo ka wa‘a.
The pig cracks, the canoe breaks; perfect the pig, safe the canoe.
Whenever a new canoe was launched, a pig was baked as an offering to the gods.
If the skin of the roasted pig cracked, misfortune would come to the canoe;
but if it cooked to perfection the canoe would last a long time.
(Pukui: 2227-243)
The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe was launched in 1993, then modified and launched again in 1994, making its first voyage in 1995. With no navigational instruments, the crew sailed the boat more than 6,000 miles (9,660 km), from the Hawaiian Islands to Tahiti and the Marquesas, and then back to the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Hawai‘iloa]
DNA Research on Polynesian Origins and Migrations
[Illustration: DNA strand]
We carry our histories within us, in our genes and in our DNA. New techniques of DNA analysis are now allowing researchers to learn more about human history, including the migration paths of the ancient Polynesians who sailed their double-hulled voyaging canoes over the largest ocean in the world to become the first Hawaiians.
It has long been a question of science exactly how and when Earth’s continents and islands were first inhabited by humans. An ancient proverb referring to the Hawaiian’s ancestors states, “I ulu no ka lālā i ke kumu” (“The branches grow because of the trunk”).[1]
Scientists have traditionally relied on fossils and linguistic similarities to trace back through time and discover the history of ancient humans. This research has been revolutionized by recent studies[2] on strands of hair and human cells containing the DNA that reveals to scientists clues about our distant past.
DNA studies are also pinpointing the very earliest of human origins. One recent study of a complete human genome concluded that humans first migrated out of Africa into Europe and Asia about 52,000 years ago. Genetic analyses have also led to new discoveries in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, and paleontology, supplementing traditional evidence such as fossils, artifacts, and site excavations.
[Illustration: Human migration graphic]
A study led by Dr. Geoffrey Chambers of Victoria University concluded that the ancestors of Polynesian people first migrated from Taiwan and China to the Philippines and Indonesia, then to West Polynesia and East Polynesia, and then to New Zealand. Chambers analyzed DNA data that had originally been collected for a study on genetics and alcoholism.
The DNA profiles in Chamber’s study showed that there is less genetic diversity in Polynesians than in other groups. For example, the probability of finding two individuals with the same DNA profile is 1 in 112 million for Asians, and 1 in 47 million for Caucasians, but only 1 in 6.7 million for Polynesians.
Researchers theorize that these lower rates of genetic diversity are a result of the fact that Polynesians, sailing voyaging canoes to inhabit remote Pacific islands were very isolated from other races. There are more than 20,000 islands throughout the Pacific Ocean, which is 25% larger than all the world’s land combined. The Polynesians settled many of these distant and isolated islands.
Mitochondrial DNA—Three Main Subgroups of Polynesians
Another recent genetics project was led by University of Hawai‘i scientist Rebecca Cann. Cann’s study analyzed mitochondrial DNA, unlike the Victoria University study, which used nuclear DNA. Mitochondrial DNA is inherited only from the mother.
Analyzing hair samples gathered from people all around the Pacific, the researchers concluded that there are three main subgroups of Polynesians. The study found that 95% of all Hawaiians are in one of these three sub-groups, along with 90% of Samoans and all the Tongans sampled. Interestingly, this genetic marker that distinguished the Polynesian sub-groups was also found in some Native Americans.
A second genetically distinct sub-group of Polynesians contains a small minority of Hawaiian people as well as people from Samoa and the Cook Islands. A third group doesn’t seem to show up at all in the Hawaiian Islands, but appears to link Samoans to Indonesians. Cann’s research also concluded that it is likely that Polynesians first sailed to South America, rather than the other way around, as many researchers had previously asserted.
Cann’s genetic study traces the Polynesian expansion from the Southeast Asia mainland to some time around 6,000 years ago. Cann theorizes that there were several waves of migrations from Asia, and that Micronesia was settled after Polynesia, contrary to what most anthropologists have claimed.
Y Chromosomes Study
A research project at the University of Texas Health Science Center studied the Y chromosomes of 551 men from Southeast Asia and the Pacific. The Y chromosome is passed only from fathers to sons, and so it is specific to males (unlike the mitochondrial DNA in the previous study). This University of Texas research found that aboriginal Taiwanese carried distinctly different genetic markers than eastern Pacific Polynesians or southwestern Pacific Micronesians.
The Texas study also found that the Micronesians/Polynesians were more closely related to Southeast Asians than Taiwanese. These findings cast doubt on the previous reigning theory that Taiwan was the ancestral origin of Polynesians. The history of Polynesian migration will become clearer as new genetic analysis techniques are refined.
Origins of the First Hawaiians
Before DNA research began yielding new clues to Polynesian origins, information about the first Hawaiian settlers came predominantly from archaeological and linguistic evidence. The oldest evidence from Hawaiian archeological sites links the Hawaiian Islands to the Marquesas Islands, an archipelago about 2,500 miles (4,020 km) southeast of the Hawaiian Islands.
Fish hooks found in both places are also remarkably similar, including the particular notching of the shank of the hook. Research has also shown that the language of the ancient Hawaiians is more closely linked to the Marquesan language than to any other Polynesian language or dialect.
The same DNA techniques that genetic anthropologists are using to discover ancient family lineages of Hawaiians are being used to study the spread of diseases among endangered Hawaiian bird species. Another application of DNA studies helps scientists with the captive breeding of endangered Hawaiian birds, including the native honeycreepers.
[Photograph: Endemic Hawaiian bird]
The Hawaiian Language
[Illustration: A public sign using Hawaiian words on it (e.g., Komo mai!, or street sign)]
Hawaiian is one of about 30 languages comprising the Polynesian language family. The Hawaiian language has a soft, smooth cadence, and a melodic, song-like quality that has been described as spoken music.
Linguists note that the Hawaiian language is most similar to the language of the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti and less so to Samoan and Tongan. The Hawaiian language also bears a relationship to languages of the Philippines, Indonesia, Madagascar and Fiji.
Mai ka ā a ka w.
From A to W.
The alphabet of Hawaiian.
(Pukui: 2056-223)
Hawaiian Becomes a Written Language
Hawaiian was a spoken language but not a written language when Captain Cook first visited the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Cook’s best linguist expert aboard the Resolution, Surgeon William Anderson, compiled a list of 250 words, writing down as best he could in English what the native Hawaiians were saying.
The First Missionary Company arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1820. Missionary scholars (trained in mathematics, sciences, humanities, as well as Latin and other languages) weighed different options on formalizing a native Hawaiian language. One might say that Hawaiian officially became a written language in 1829 when missionaries voted to select the 12-letter alphabet. They outlined a structure for a written Hawaiian language that adopted five vowels (a, e, i, o, and u) and seven consonants (h, k, l, m, n, p, and w). The new written language was modeled after the oral Hawaiian language, attempting to accurately represent the sounds with English letters.
The missionary scholars provided some rules for the ordering of words in clauses and phrases. In the Hawaiian language, mood, case, and tense are shown with particles rather than inflection. Typically a sentence will begin with a verb, followed by a subject, object and prepositional phrase.
From the time Captain Cook’s linguist expert compiled a list of Hawaiian words until 1865, there were at least 12 more lists made by various people, though they all contained less than 400 words, with the exception of Lorrin Andrews’ 1836 list of 5,700 words. Andrews (1795-1868) was head of Maui’s Lahainaluna School, which was founded in 1831 by American Protestant missionaries as a seminary of advanced education for young Hawaiian men, with an overarching missionary goal of advancing Christianity.
Andrews’ 1836 publication of 5,700 words was the first significant Hawaiian-English vocabulary. Andrews also published a grammar of the Hawaiian language in 1854, and then in 1865 he published a list of about 15,000 words in his Dictionary of the Hawaiian Language. In 1845, the Lahainaluna Seminary Press published the first English-Hawaiian Dictionary, which was prepared by Artemas Bishop (1795-1872) and Joseph S. Emerson (1800-1867).
Refinements to the Written Hawaiian Language—Diacritical Marks
Refinements to the written Hawaiian language were made over the years, and symbols (diacritical marks) were developed to represent stresses and accents. The reverse apostrophe symbol (‘) is called an ‘okina (also known as a hamzah), and represents a “glottal stop,” which is a slight pause similar to the stopping of sound in the English “oh-oh!” A horizontal line above a vowel (e.g., ā), is called a macron, or kahakō, and is used to show long, stressed vowels, or glides.
In 1957, the first edition of Pukui and Elbert’s Hawaiian-English Dictionary was published. Pukui and Elbert’s Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition, published in 1986 contains more than 26,000 Hawaiian words, and is the definitive source for Hawaiian word spellings (e.g., diacritical marks), meanings, and pronunciation.
Of course the first source for the Hawaiian language is the Hawaiian elders themselves. The number of native speakers of Hawaiian today is probably less than 10,000 people. These native speakers are mostly elder citizens who speak Hawaiian to each other, and they maintain a critical knowledge that is threatened with extinction. A new generation, however, is now learning the language with the hopes of keeping the Hawaiian culture alive. Music written and sung in the Hawaiian language has also made a popular resurgence.
Ke ho‘i a‘e la ka ‘ōpua i Awalau.
The rain clouds are returning to Awalau.
Said of a return to the source.
(Pukui: 1698-183)
Pronunciation:
A general guide for pronouncing the vowels in Hawaiian words is to pronounce:
a as in about, or above
e as in wet, or let
i as in sweet, or the y in pity
o as in rope, or hole
u as in root, or moon
The vowels above are listed as they are pronounced when unstressed. When stressed, they sound much the same, but the “e” is pronounced more like the “ay” in play rather than like the e in wet.
There are exceptions to the above rules, especially when vowels are combined with other vowels to form diphthongs. Also, if a w is after an i or an e, it is usually pronounced like a lax v, but after u and o it is usually pronounced like the English w.
Many Hawaiian words have been integrated into the daily lives of English speaking residents of the Hawaiian Islands. For example, “mahalo” is said to express thanks. The word “aloha” is often used to express hello as well as goodbye, and also expresses affection and love. An ancient proverb states, “He kēhau ho‘oma‘ema‘e ke aloha,” which translates to “Love is like a cleansing dew,” and is said to mean, “Love removes hurt.”[3]
In the Hawaiian Islands, most place names (an estimated 86%) are Hawaiian, including names of streets, towns, mountains, and valleys. Ancient Hawaiians also named many rocks and trees (sometimes representing ancestors or gods) as well as taro patches, heiau (sacred places of worship), and fishing sites. In the Hawaiian Islands today, many buildings and stores are also given Hawaiian names.
Residents of the Hawaiian Islands, including those of foreign ancestry as well as Hawaiian ancestry, commonly use many Hawaiian words during their daily lives. In addition it is estimated that in 2003 there were about 3,000 people speaking the Hawaiian language out of the State’s population of about 1.3 million people.
The following section of this text is a listing of the words most commonly used by all residents of the Hawaiian Islands today.
[Photograph: Hawaiian elders]
The Top 150
Hawaiian Words
Most Commonly Used in the Hawaiian Islands
Note: The following list includes words commonly heard in the Hawaiian Islands today, and thus these are words that are useful to know for all those living in or visiting the Hawaiian Islands. Hundreds of other Hawaiian words are used throughout the text of this book, including names of plants, birds, place names, and many terms not commonly heard among most residents.
‘a‘ā rough lava
‘ahi yellowfin tuna (very ono)
ahupua‘a natural watershed land division extending from the mountains to the sea
‘āina land, earth
akamai smart, clever, knowledgeable
‘alalā Hawaiian crow
akamai knowledgeable, clever, smart
ali‘i chief, chiefess, royalty of ancient Hawai‘i
aloha hello, good bye, love, affection
aloha kakahiaka good morning
ānuenue rainbow
‘aumakua family or personal god, guardian, ancestral spirit (plural: ‘aumākua)
auwē (or aue) expresses wonder, fear pity, scorn, or a groan (e.g., oh dear!)
E komo mai! come in, welcome!
haole Caucasian
hapa haole of mixed blood, part Caucasian, part Hawaiian
hālau place for hula instruction, or canoes; group
hale house
Hana bay, valley
hānai adopted foster child
haole formerly any foreigner; now refers primarily to those of Caucasian ancestry
hapa haole half haole, half Hawaiian
Hau‘oli Lā Hānau Happy Birthday
Hau‘oli Makahiki Hou Happy New Year
he‘e nalu surfing, to ride a surfboard
heiau sacred temple, ancient Hawaiian place of worship
hōkū star
honu turtle
Hono- valley or bay (e.g., Honolulu)
honu sea turtle
honua land, earth
hui group, organization
hukilau a group pulling a fishing net (huki) ashore (lau)
hula a Hawaiian dance, cultural practice, art form
imu an underground earthen-oven using hot rocks; traditional for lū‘au
ka the
kāhili feather standard used by royalty
kahuna spiritual guide, priest, expert in a profession (plural: kāhuna)
kai sea
kakahiaka morning
kalo taro
kālua cooked underground, baked (e.g., kālua pig at a lū‘au).
kama‘āina native born, (means “child of the land”), also long-time resident
kanaka maoli native Hawaiian
kāne man or boy, male (Kāne is a Hawaiian god)
kapa cloth made from bark (also called tapa)
kapu sacred, forbidden
kaukau food
keiki child, offspring (also kama)
kīpuka vegetation surrounded by lava flow
koholā humpback whale
kōkua help, assistance
kona leeward side, leeward winds
konohiki rights native land or fishing rights
ko‘oloau windward
kuleana responsibility, right, small land parcel
ku‘u ipo sweetheart
kumu teacher
kūmū goatfish (Parupeneus porphyreus)
kupuna ancestor, grandparent, relative
lānai porch, shed
lani sky, heaven
lau hala leaf of hala tree, used to weave many items
laulima cooperation, working together
le‘a joy, happiness
lei strands or garlands of flowers, seeds, ferns, shells, feathers or other materials.
liliko‘i passion fruit
limu seaweed (many types are edible)
lo‘i, lo‘i kalo irrigated taro terrace
lomilomi masseur, masseuse (lomi—to rub, massage)
lomilomi salmon mixed with onions and seasoning
lū‘au Hawaiian feast (also means “young taro leaves”)
mauna mountain, peak
mahalo thank you
mahalo nui loa thank you very much
mahimahi dolphin fish (not dolphins)
mahina moon
maika‘i fine, good
makai toward the sea
mālama to care for, support, preserve
malihini newcomer, visitor
mana spiritual or divine power, wisdom
mana‘o thought, idea, opinion
manō shark
mauka toward the mountains, inland
mauna mountain
Mele Kalīkimaka Merry Christmas
mele song or chant, to sing, merry
menehune legendary small race of ancient Hawaiians
moana ocean
mo‘i king
mo‘i wahine queen
moku island, islet
mu‘umu‘u loose-fitting dress (introduced by missionaries)
nai‘a dolphin
nalu wave
nani pretty, beautiful
nēnē native goose, Hawai‘i’s state bird
nō ka ‘oi the best! (e.g. Maui nō ka ‘oi—Maui is indeed the best)
‘ohana family, extended family—named after the ‘ohā (offshoots) of kalo (taro)
‘okole buttocks
‘ono delicious (also the name of wahoo fish)
‘ō‘ō digging stick, digging implement
pāhoehoe smooth, ropy lava
pali steep cliff or precipice
paniolo Hawaiian cowboy
papa he‘e nalu surfboard
pau finished, done (pau hana—end of work day, job finished, etc.)
piha full
pilikia trouble
poi taro root pounded into edible paste
pono correctness, morality, goodness
pua flower, blossom, garden
puhi eel
puka hole, door, opening
pūpū appetizer, hors d‘oeuvre
pu‘u hill, mound
tapa cloth made from bark (also called kapa)
tūtū grandmother, aunt
‘ukulele small, guitar-like instrument
wahine woman
wai water, stream, river
wikiwiki speedy, hurry, quick
Hula and Mele
[Illustration: Hula]
According to legend, the first hula occurred when Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes, wanted her sisters to entertain her with song and dance. Only Pele’s youngest sister, Hi‘iaka, would comply. Hi‘iaka performed gracefully and powerfully for Pele to the amazement of all. Today hula is a beautiful art form and culturally significant practice that embraces and perpetuates Hawaiian history, legend and culture.
Kuhi no ka lima, hele no ka maka.
Where the hands move, there let the eyes follow.
A rule in hula.
(Pukui: 1868-201)
With no written language, the ancient Hawaiians recorded their histories, genealogies, legends, and the phenomena of their gods through the creation and memorization of chants, known as oli, and dances called hula. Mele is a more general word that refers to any type of song or chant. An oli is a chant that traditionally was not accompanied by dance. Often long phrases were chanted in a single breath, with each phrase ending with a trill (‘i‘i).
Hula dancers are trained by a hula master, or kumu hula, in a school called a hālau. The dancers are trained not only in the dance movements but also in the philosophy of the hula. In ancient Hawai‘i, one who trained from childhood in the art of chanting was known as haku mele, a prestigious accomplishment that gave the person a high ranking status in the society.
Considered a narrative movement, hula embraces the meanings of the chants while releasing the grace and spirit of the dancer. The essence of hula is to go inward, to touch one’s center. Dancers are especially aware of their feet touching the earth, and of the earth itself, which is felt to be the source of the power of the dance.
‘Auana and Kahiko
The two main forms of hula are ‘auana (also spelled ‘auwana) and kahiko. ‘Auana is the more modern style of hula, which is characterized by undulating movements and is usually accompanied by a Hawaiian band. Kahiko (which means “ancient”), is the older and more traditional form of hula.
In kahiko, an invocation precedes each dance, and the women often wear knee-length skirts made from flat green ti leaves. They may wear a necklace made from the polished nuts of the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut) or draping vines or flowers (lei ‘ā‘ī). Bracelets of ferns around their wrists and ankles are known as kūpe‘e. The lei po‘o encircles the dancer’s head, which is traditionally graced with long, dark flowing hair.
Mele Oli and Mele Hula
The two general classes of chants, mele oli and mele hula, serve different purposes. Oli is a non-metered chant that is used for specific occasions and when addressing formal subjects, but not for dancing. Mele hula is more rhythmic chant with a broader tonal range.
Mele oli may use just two or three notes, while the lines usually do not rhyme. Instead, the chants often have what is known as “linked assonance,” in which the end of one line has a sound-alike word or some associated meaning with the beginning of the next line.
Mele hula is accompanied by hula, and possibly musical instruments as well. Mele oli is never accompanied by dance or music, though may be accompanied by rhythmic instruments such as gourd drums (pā ipu).
In mele oli, the words usually revolve around a principal tone, which is pronounced with more emphasis than other tones of the mele. The principal tone occurs over and over, and several subordinate tones may also be repeated, though with less emphasis and frequency.
Mele hula is a relatively free melody, with more tones and larger intervals between tones. The range and pitch of mele oli is more restricted, while the melody is more confined and less voiced.
Mai pa‘a i ka leo, he ‘ole ka hea mai.
Do not withhold the voice and not call out [a welcome].
From a password chant used in hula schools. It was often used by one who would like a friendly invitation to come into another’s home.
(Pukui: 2082-226)
The Artistry of Chants: Microtonal Inflection and Kaona
Chants may use an inflecting tone that momentarily varies from the principal or subordinate tone and then immediately returns. Microtonal inflection involves very quick, small alterations of the pitch, each time quickly returning to the main note. This creates a fluctuating or trilling sound. Chants rarely use melody, the variations in pitch that are so common in Western style songs.
The inflecting tones and the weaving up and down sounds of microtonal inflection provide much of the artistry of chants. Also integral to chanting is the use of kaona, or hidden meanings, concealed references, or double meanings that may allow the chants to be interpreted several ways.
Chants are typically metaphorical rather than literal. For example, the word lehua may refer to one’s lover, or may refer to the lehua flower blossom, or to Pele’s younger sister, the goddess Hi‘iaka (the lehua was her sacred flower). In ancient times certain meanings were known only by the haku mele, and a chant may be telling two or more stories at the same time. Deciphering the symbolism of a chant was considered part of the enjoyment, sort of an intellectual game.
The style used for a particular mele depends on the chant’s purpose, which resides in the meaning of its words. Some types of mele include mele ipo (love chant), mele inoa (name chant) and mele kahi (place chant). Hula ‘ili‘ili (pebble hula) is a form in which smooth water-worn stones are used as clappers (castanets).
Different vocal techniques are required for different styles of mele, such as ‘oli‘oli (joyous), ho‘oipoipo (romantic), ‘ai ha‘a (vigorous), and ho‘aēae, a style of chanting with short phrases and prolonged vowels, often used in love chants. Different chanting styles require tones that may be tremulous, staccato (rapid fire), or more lyrical.
Hula and Mele—Carrying on the Hawaiian Culture
Hula and mele chants are the ancient way that Hawaiians tell their stories, pay reverence to nature, and unite mind, body and spirit with all of creation. Hula and mele are also a celebration of the beauty of the heart of the Hawaiian people, their love and aloha.
Traditionally, hula and mele have helped Hawaiians remember their origins and give thanks for all of the many natural wonders that enrich their world, including the animals, birds, fish, flowers, trees, mountains, streams, ocean, wind and sky. Chants are enhanced by hula, and both are integral parts of Hawaiian spirituality that carry on the ancient legends and history of the Hawaiian people and help Hawaiians retain a connection to their past.
Hula brings forth the meanings of the chants, similar to how the form of poetry may give life to a poem. Performed by those trained in the art, hula and mele are infused with all the power and history of the Hawaiian people.
Hawaiian chants and hula recount the origins of the Hawaiian people and the islands on which they live, as well as the origins of the universe. There are tales of migrations, genealogies, myths, customs and traditions. There are stories of longing for loved ones and stories of grief over deaths, stories of heroic explorations and stories of love. There is acknowledgement of the ‘āina (the land) and the history of the Hawaiian culture, a culture sustained by an oral tradition captured in the lyrics of the chants.
Forest Plants Used in Hula
On the morning before performing, dancers traditionally walk up the mountain trails into the rainforest. There, with humility and reverence for the ‘āina, they take into their hands the verdant leaves and gently begin to weave and braid them into the strands of lei that will soon encircle their heads, necks and arms.
The dancers may gather the lacy pala‘ā fern (Sphenomeris chinensis, lace fern), and most frequently the palapalai fern (Microlepia strigosa) and in post-contact times the hardier laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria). The forest plants they use are symbolic—the palapalai fern is a representation of the hula goddess Laka; pala‘ā is an incarnation of Pele’s sister, Hi‘iaka; blossoms of ‘a‘ali‘i (Dodonaea viscosa) symbolizes strength.
Hula students also learn about the ‘āina, and how to respect and care for the ferns and flowers. Plants are conserved for future generations, and never taken by the roots. The dancers give thanks to the source of the plants, the fragrant maile (Alyxia oliviformis) and leaves of ti (Cordyline fruticosa, ti) and woodland ferns, and ask permission for their use, paying reverence to Laka, the goddess of the forest and hula, as well as other ancient (kahiko) Hawaiian gods. Today many hālau also thank the god of Christianity.
Traditional Instruments
Traditional instruments that accompany hula include the pahu hula, a drum made from the trunk of a coconut or breadfruit tree, with a sharkskin drumhead. Drumming sticks to keep beat are called lā‘au ho‘okani pahu. Also used are pū‘ili (split bamboo rattles) and the ‘ulī‘ulī, a gourd rattle that contains seeds and is adorned at the top with colorful feathers.
I le‘a ka hula i ka ho‘opa‘a.
The hula is pleasing because of the drummer.
The lesser details that one pays little attention to are just as important as the major ones. Although the attention is given to the dancer, the drummer and chanter play an important role in the dance.
(Pukui: 1225-133)
The Rebirth of Hula—King Kalākaua, the Merrie Monarch
Beginning in 1820 when the First Company of American missionaries came to the Hawaiian Islands on the Thaddeus, missionaries exerted a steady influence on the native Hawaiians, discouraging traditional cultural and religious beliefs and practices, including hula.
Hawaiians were required to learn English, forbidden to speak Hawaiian, and made to wear Western-style clothes. Hula stayed alive only in secret, and the knowledge was passed along by those devoted to keeping this integral part of Hawaiian culture alive.
Public displays of hula were not revived until the reign of Hawai‘i’s last king, David La‘amea Kalākaua, which began in 1874. King Kalākaua had a coronation ceremony for himself in February of 1883 at the newly built ‘Iolani Palace in Honolulu. Hawaiian men chanted and pounded on gourd drums (pā ipu) and women in traditional dress performed hula.
King Kalākaua later came to be known as the Merrie Monarch for his revival of hula and other Hawaiian customs, despite protests of the era’s missionaries and other influential families of the day. King Kalākaua was attacked in the newspapers for allowing “paganism.”
The premier and largest Hawaiian hula event in modern Hawai‘i is the annual Merrie Monarch Festival, a week-long hula competition held every April in Hilo on Hawai‘i Island, in honor of King David Kalākaua. A prominent showcase of the living Hawaiian culture of hula and mele, the Merrie Monarch Festival is just one of numerous annual gatherings, festivals, and competitions held throughout the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Hula and Mele]
Petroglyphs
Hawaiian Name: Ki‘i Pōhaku
[Illustration: Petroglyphs]
There are circles by the hundreds, and circles within circles. There are figures of humans, animals, sailing canoes, fishhooks, and countless cryptic markings carved into island rocks. These are the petroglyphs of the Hawaiians.
A petroglyph is a stone carving (petro means “stone” and glyph means “carving”). The ancient Hawaiians referred to petroglyphs as ki‘i pōhaku (ki‘i means “image,” and pōhaku means “stone”). Today petroglyphs are virtually the only prehistoric art of the Hawaiian Islands not in museums, private collections, or hidden away in caves.
Petroglyph Sites
Ancient societies all over the world have left carvings on rocks. Worldwide, the oldest known petroglyphs are in European caves and are thought to be more than 10,000 years old. Petroglyph sites in the Hawaiian Islands continue to provide clues to the Islands’ ancient past.
There are more than 100 places in the Hawaiian Islands where petroglyphs may be found, and these ancient carvings continue to provide clues to the ancient past of the Hawaiian Islands. One of the most extensive Hawaiian petroglyph sites is on the pāhoehoe lava in South Kohala on the island of Hawai‘i at the Puakō petroglyph preserve, where more than 3,000 petroglyphs may be seen. At the Pu‘uloa site in Puna, there are an estimated 15,000 petroglyphs. Many sites throughout the Hawaiian Islands have petroglyphs numbering in the hundreds, and many more sites with less than 20 petroglyphs.
Billowy pāhoehoe lava flows appear to be the most common surface upon which petroglyphs were created. The second most common surface where petroglyphs are found is on boulders, including rounded boulders, as well as on the flat faces formed where boulders have split. These boulders are usually denser and harder than pāhoehoe lava, and the petroglyphs are usually not as deep (about 1/8 inch (3 mm)).
Petroglyphs are also found on vertical cliff faces such as some cliff walls in Nu‘uanu Valley, O‘ahu, and at some Maui sites. Petroglyphs are also found along the shoreline on limestone beach shelves. One coastal site where petroglyphs are found is at Keoneloa Beach on Kaua‘i, where a sharp-pointed instrument was used to create smooth, fine-lined petroglyphs. These petroglyphs are usually covered with sand, and only occasionally revealed.
Petroglyphs may also be found in lava tubes, such as those in Ka‘ū on the island of Hawai‘i. The Hawaiian Islands have hundreds of known lava tubes and many show evidence of use in ancient Hawai‘i (e.g., as burial sites, shelters, and places of refuge), though very few are known to have petroglyphs.
The Creation and Meanings of Petroglyphs
One method used to make petroglyphs utilized a hammer stone along with a sharp stone to peck dots into the lava. Then the dots were connected. Another method involved smashing a stone against the picture area. Sometimes a sharp-edged rock was used to scratch the picture into the basalt.
Petroglyphs in the Hawaiian Islands are divided into three categories: descriptive, symbolic, and cryptic. Descriptive petroglyphs may be recognizable subjects, including anthropomorphic images or man-made objects, such as canoes, paddles, sails, and fishhooks, as well as the circles and dots associated with the piko (umbilical cord) ceremony (see below).
Symbolic petroglyphs are less recognizable, often consisting of forms carved in an unnatural manner, yet obviously purposefully created, and thus meaningful to the carver. Cryptic petroglyphs are mysterious images that are very different than the descriptive and symbolic petroglyphs. Cryptic petroglyphs are by definition of uncertain meaning and many theories and interpretations have been offered over the years to explain these petroglyphs, yet much uncertainty remains. Some have suggested that certain cryptic or symbolic petroglyphs may be created in such a way as to have secret or double meanings, similar to the kaona (hidden meanings) often used in Hawaiian chants.
Petroglyphs may represent a variety of things, including animals, tools, voyaging canoes, and weapons. The most common types of petroglyphs are human figures (including well distinguished male and female figures) as well as dots and circles. Also fairly commonly seen at petroglyph sites are canoes with sails, and sometimes just the sails.
Women were often represented by an open triangle, and men by a closed triangle. Some researchers think that petroglyphs are the first efforts of an ancient people to construct a written language.
[Illustration: Examples of open and closed triangle petroglyphs]
Petroglyphs also may be related to certain ceremonies and events, and may have been used to infuse mana (divine power) into someone or something. For example, soon after giving birth, parents would place their baby’s navel cord in a simple circle petroglyph for the overnight ritual of the piko (umbilical cord) ceremony. This was done to impart to the child the mana of the sacred site and ensure a long life.
Early expeditions to the Hawaiian Islands produced reports of native men and women with tattoo markings, and these may have been related to the symbols in the petroglyphs. Some petroglyphs might represent the specific mark of an individual, like a signature.
Some petroglyphs on the island of Hawai‘i are thought to have been inscribed around A.D. 500, and are very similar to petroglyphs found in the Marquesas Islands, the place that is considered the origin of the first Hawaiians.
Among the thousands of petroglyphs found on the vast, barren lava fields of the island of Hawai‘i, the earlier petroglyphs were of the linear stick-figure type, and then a more triangular form evolved. An intermediate columnar form is also found at a few locations.
Preservation of Petroglyph Sites
When visiting a petroglyph site, it is important to avoid contact with the petroglyphs. Petroglyphs are valuable links to Hawaiian culture, and rubbings, castings and other attempts to duplicate the petroglyphs contribute to the degradation of the ancient rock engravings, and thwart attempts to preserve them for future generations.
[Photograph: Petroglyphs]
Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth
[Illustration: Kapa barkcloth]
Kapa barkcloth (also called tapa) was made throughout many tropical areas but the finest kapa was found in Polynesia, and the highest quality kapa in Polynesia was produced in the Hawaiian Islands. The fermentation process and second beating used to produce Hawaiian kapa gave it a homogenous quality that was generally free of defects, with a quality considered superior to kapa made in other locales.
Hawaiian kapa also displayed the greatest variety of design and texture. The intricate geometric designs that Hawaiians stamped onto kapa were found nowhere else in Polynesia.
I hole ‘ia no ka i‘e i ke kau o ka lā.
The time to cut designs in a tapa beater is when the sun is high.
Do your work when you can do your best.
(Pukui: 1164-127)
Kapa barkcloth (also called tapa) was usually made from the bark of the Polynesian-introduced wauke tree (Broussonetia papyrifera, paper mulberry). Kapa was also made from various native plants including māmaki (Pipturus species), ma‘aloa (Neraudia melastomifolia), and ‘ākala (Rubus species).
When growing wauke, lateral buds were pinched off to ensure the straight, unbranched stems that made better kapa. In 18 to 24 months the plants are harvested to be made into kapa barkcloth
The inner and outer bark was then separated from the stem by making a cut for the whole length of the section and then peeling the bark from the core in a process called pehē. The bark was then flattened by rolling it into coils with the inner bark facing outward. The fibrous inner bark (‘i‘o o loko) was then scraped or peeled from the non-fibrous outer bark (‘ili lepo o waho), producing the bast strips that were then soaked and then beat into kapa.
To make kapa, lengths of wauke stem were cut from the plant, and then a sharp shell was used to separate the dark, outer bark from the desired white inner bark, which is comprised of many long fibers. The strips of inner bark were then soaked in water, pounded with a round beater (hohoa), soaked again and fermented, and then pounded with a square beater (i‘e kuku).
[Illustration or Photo: Hohoa (round beater); i‘e kuku (square beater); kua pōhaku (flat stone); kua kuku (wooden anvil)]
The Kapa-Making Process
The first stage of kapa beating was typically done on a flat stone (kua pōhaku) using a rounded beater (hoahoa), while the second stage of beating was done on a wooden anvil (kua kuku). The yellowish wood of kāwa‘u(Zanthoxylum dipetalum) was especially favored for making the wooden anvils because, when struck by the square kapa beater (i‘e kuku), the wood of kāwa‘u produces resonant tones. These tones sometimes accompanied chants said during the kapa beating process.
Another wood known as kāwa‘u (Ilex anomala, Hawaiian holly) was also used to make kapa-beating anvils. Pūkiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) was also used for making kua kuku, the kapa-beating anvils that were used in the second-stage beatings while making kapa barkcloth.
Kapa beaters were usually made from a particularly hard-wooded species known as koai‘e (Acacia koaia), a species closely related to koa (Acacia koa). Koai‘e (also called koai‘a) is a native tree whose unique characteristics (gnarly trunk, narrower leaves and extremely hard wood) have distinguished it as a separate species.
According to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[4] the tree referred to by the Hawaiian term koai‘e was considered to be a particularly hard-wooded variety of koa, though not distinct enough from Acacia koa to distinguish it as a separate species, or even a subspecies (it was considered a variety of Acacia koa). The Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[5] however, distinguishes Acacia koaia as a separate species. (See Koa section in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
Kapa beaters were also made from other hardwood trees, including uhiuhi (Caesalpinia kavaiensis), ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species), nīoi (Eugenia species), and kauila (Colubrina oppositifolia).
After the first beating, the strips of bark were sprinkled with water and covered with leaves of mai‘a (Musa species, banana) or wrapped in kī (Cordyline terminalis, ti) and then placed in water. The strips of bark were then left to ferment for about ten days.
After maturing, the layers of fibers were finely beaten together into a rectangular piece of velvety soft kapa. The added fermentation process and second beating made Hawaiian kapa superior to kapa produced elsewhere.
Finishing stage beaters were known as i‘e kuku ho‘ōki, and were carved to make various attractive patterns on the finished kapa. The resulting silky fabric was sometimes scented with the leaves of the maile vine (Alyxia oliviformis), the powdered wood of ‘iliahi (Santalum species, sandalwood); the inflorescences (flower clusters) of hala (Pandanus tectorius, screwpine); the orange-blossom scented flowers of kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum, Alexandrian laurel); the underground rhizomes of ‘awapuhi kuahiwi (Zingiber zerumbet, shampoo ginger), the seed capsules and stems of mokihana (Pelea anisata); and the fragrant laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria, a post-contact introduction). The sap of the ‘ama‘u tree fern (Sadleria species) was sometimes sprinkled on the kapa strips during the beating process.
Decorating Kapa
Patterns were stamped onto the finished kapa cloth with blocks of wood carved with designs. In post-contact times, more intricate geometric patterns were created with a highly refined method of printing using bamboo stamps known as ‘ohe kāpala.
The process of decorating the kapa involved dipping the carved wood block or bamboo stamps into a shallow stone bowl containing colored dyes (see Traditional Dyes section below), and then pressing the design onto the kapa. Each impression aligned with the edge of the previous impression, thus forming a pattern. The intricate bamboo stamp printing methods utilized by Hawaiians, though a post-contact technique, was nevertheless found nowhere else in Polynesia.
Traditional Dyes of Ancient Hawai‘i
Ind. = Indigenous
End. = Endemic
Plant Color Source
‘A‘ali‘i Red Fruit Ind.
‘Akala Pink/Red Fruit End.
‘Ala‘ala Wai Nui Grayish/Green Leaves, stems Ind./End.
‘Alaea Red / Pink/Orange Red ocherous earth
Alahe‘e Black Leaves Ind.
‘Ama‘u Red Young fronds End.
‘Awapuhi Kuahiwi Rhizome P.I.
Hame Red/Dark Purple Fruit End.
Hau Hele ‘Ula Pinkish/Red Flower petals End.
Hōlei Yellow Stem bark, roots End.
Huahekili Uka Black Fruit End.
Kalo (varieties) Red Corm P.I.Kamani Brownish Husk of fruit P.I.
Kauila Bluish Leaves and bark End.
Kō Black Charcoal from leaves and stems P.I.
Koa Red Bark End.
Koki‘o ‘Ula‘ula Red Flower End.
Kōlea Lau Nui Red Sap End.
Kōlea Lau Nui Black Charcoal from stem End.
Kou Brown Leaves Ind.
Kūkaenēnē (‘Aiakanēnē) Yellow Inner bark of stem End.
Kūkaenēnē Purple/Black Fruit End.
Kukui Grayish Husk of fruit P.I.
Kukui Brownish/Red Inner bark of trunk P.I.
Kukui Black Soot from burning P.I.
Kukui Reddish/Brown Inner bark of root P.I.
Mai‘a Black Skin of trunk P.I.
Ma‘o Greenish/Gray Leaves Ind. (End.?)
Milo Yellowish-Green Shell of fruit P.I.
Nānū Yellow Fruit End.
Naupaka Kuahiwi Purplish/Black Fruit End.
Noni Yellow Inner bark of root P.I.
Noni (with lime) Red Inner bark of trunk P.I.
Noni Yellow/Red Roots P.I.
‘Ōhi‘a ‘Ai Brown Inner bark of trunk P.I.
‘Ōlapa Bluish-Black Fruit, leaves, bark, roots End.
‘Ōlena Yellow/Gold Underground stem (rhizome) P.I.
Pā‘ihi Black Stem bark P.I. (or Ind.)
Pala‘ā Brownish-Red Older leaves Ind.
Pili Black Charcoal from blades Ind.
Pōpolo Blackish-Purple Fruit Ind.
Pōpolo Green Leaves Ind.
Pōpolo Kū Mai Dark Purple Fruit End.‘Uki‘uki Purple/Blue Fruit Ind.
‘Uki‘uki (with lime) Blue Berries Ind.‘Ūlei Lavender/Purple Fruit Ind.
‘Ulu Yellow/Brown Male flower P.I.
‘Ulu Blue P.I.
Wana (Invertebrate) Blue Sea urchin (Diadema paucispinum) Ind.
Plants Used to Scent Kapa Barkcloth
‘Awapuhi Kuahiwi Underground rhizomes P.I.
Hala Male flower (hīnano) Ind.
‘Iliahi Powdered wood End.
Kamani Flowers P.I.
Laua‘e Fern (post-contact introduction) Fronds Intr.
Maile Leaves End.
Mokihana Seed capsules and stems End.
‘Ama‘u Tree Fern Sap (sprinkled on during beating process) End.
Uses of Kapa
Kapa had many uses in ancient Hawai‘i. Kapa was used to make clothing as well as sleep coverings (kapa moe). A sleeping cover might consist of several layers of kapa sewn together, with the upper layer (kilohana) often beautifully decorated.
Women’s wrap-around skirts (pā‘ū), were also made of kapa, and could be up to ten layers thick. The loin cloth (malo) worn by males was often stamped with two different designs, and then folded lengthwise so that both designs showed.
[Illustration or photo: pā‘ū, malo]
Hawaiians also used a triangular kapa strip (puela) on canoes. A kapa-covered stick (pūlo‘ulo‘u) was carried in front of chiefs to signal kapu. Sap of ‘ulu (Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit) was sometimes painted onto kapa to give it a shiny appearance.
Modern attempts to replicate the traditional kapa-making techniques have only approximated the high quality kapa produced by the early settlers of the Hawaiian Islands. Rediscovering the methods used by ancient Hawaiians has given modern crafters a renewed appreciation for this ancient art.
[Photograph: Kapa barkcloth with geometric designs]
Heiau: Hawaiian Sacred Places
[Illustration: Heiau]
In ancient Hawai‘i there were many sacred places of worship known as heiau, including shrines to gods and places of refuge. These structures included stone enclosures and platforms as well as earthen terraces. Heiau were also places where offerings and prayers were made to ‘aumākua, personal or family gods, and sacred guardians and protectors that should be respected and even fed. Some heiau included an ‘anu‘u, or oracle tower, which might be covered with white kapa (tapa) barkcloth.
According to tradition, sometime before the year A.D.1200 a Tahitian high priest (kahuna) by the name of Pā‘ao founded a high priest line, known as kahuna nui. Pā‘ao returned to Tahiti and brought back a chief named Pili, who ruled the island of Hawai‘i and sired the royal line leading to King Kamehameha I, beginning a 700-year dynasty.
Before the arrival of Pā‘ao the Hawaiians had built various heiau, but Pā‘ao constructed the first temple of human sacrifice, Waha‘ula Heiau at Puna on the island of Hawai‘i. Pā‘ao also introduced the war god Kūkā‘ilimoku, and Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes.
Pā‘ao initiated the social order that separated ali‘i (royalty), kāhuna (priests and experts in a given profession), maka‘āinana (commoners who were mostly farmers), and the kauā (or kauwā) class, who were the lowest outcast members. There was a system of laws (kānāwai) that determined if something was kapu (sacred or forbidden). Commoners fell prostrate to the ground in the presence of chiefs, who possessed more mana (divine power).
Types of Heiau
There were many kinds of heiau in ancient Hawai‘i. Heiau po‘o kanaka, where human sacrifices took place, were also known as luakini, and honored Kūkā‘ilimoku, the god of war. Also honoring Kūkā‘ilimoku were war heiau known as heiau waikaua.
There were many other types of heiau, including: heiau ho‘oūlu (for offerings to insure good fishing); heiau ho‘oulu ua (to insure rain); and heiau ho‘oulu ‘ai (for increase of food crops). There were once many heiau hō‘ola (for treating the sick) throughout the Hawaiian Islands, signifying the Hawaiians’ advanced state of medicinal healing knowledge, said to be the highest among Pacific people. One of the only surviving heiau hō‘ola is Keāiwa on ‘Aiea Heights.
Many heiau were dedicated to Lono, the god of agricultural fertility. Waihau and unu were agricultural heiau where gifts such as pigs, bananas, or coconuts were offered. Fishermen often placed a kū‘ula, or fish god, atop a stone altar near the coast as a shrine, just as bird catchers in the mountains made offerings at a stone platform, known as a ko‘a.
The kahuna kuhikuhi pu‘uone was the master architect of a heiau, and chose the site on which it was built. The site was chosen for the mana, or spiritual power it possessed. A heiau was usually constructed of lava rock walls built into a rectangular formation on the ground, or raised terrace platforms forming a more substantial structure.
Structures were sometimes built within the heiau, and often were constructed using the wood of ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species) and thatched pili grass (Heteropogon contortus, twisted beardgrass), with cordage woven from olonā (Touchardia latifolia). Wooden carved figures representing gods were known as ki‘i, and were placed in and around heiau. Ki‘i were often carved from the wood of ‘ōhi‘a lehua (Metrosideros species).
There were also images named for particular kāhuna (priests). The proverb “Ho‘okāhi no Hāwa‘e, lauhue Kona,” (“Only one Hāwa‘e, and poisonous gourds grow all over Kona,”)[6] is said to refer to a kāhuna named Hāwa‘e. According to Mary Kawena Pūku‘i, “In Kona on Hawai‘i Island, a priest named Hāwa‘e lived during the reign of Ehukaipo. In every important heiau in that district, an image named for this priest was kept. Many people were sacrificed to these evil namesakes of Hāwa‘e.”[7]
Heiau on the Island of Hawai‘i
In ancient Hawai‘i, the strict sanctions of the kapu system ensured the separation of the classes (see above), and prescribed much of the daily lives of the islanders. Kapu breakers and defeated warriors were subject to immediate death unless they could reach a pu‘uhonua, a place of refuge, where a priest could absolve them. One such place was Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau on the island of Hawai‘i.
On the South Kona coast, Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau National Historical Park encompasses an ancient Hawaiian area that contains royal grounds and heiau as well as a pu‘uhonua (place of refuge). The ancient heiau and pu‘uhonua have now been reconstructed, along with carved images of ancient gods (ki‘i).
Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau also has a 10-foot (3-m) high, 1,000-foot (305-m) long stone wall, a petroglyph site, a loko ‘ia (fishpond), lava tree molds, and a canoe that was hand-carved from koa (Acacia koa). A heiau on the coastal point nearby holds the bones of 23 chiefs. The bones are said to hold the mana (spiritual power) that is imparted to those that come near.
Pu‘ukoholā Heiau overlooks the Pacific Ocean about 30 miles (48 km) north of Kailua-Kona on the island of Hawai‘i. The rising warrior Kamehameha constructed this luakini heiau (sacrificial temple) as a result of a prophecy that it would allow him to unite all of the Islands under his rule.
Kamehameha had thousands of his men work to construct the 224-foot (68-m) long, 100-foot (30-m) high structure. A human chain 20 miles (32 km) long passed stones from hand-to-hand all the way to the site. The stones were laid by hand, without mortar. (See Pu‘ukoholā Heiau in Hawai‘i Island section, Chapter 2.)
Also found at the Pu‘ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site are the ruins of Mailekini Heiau, which was used by King Kamehameha‘s ancestors. Hale o Kapuni Heiau, dedicated to a shark god, is now submerged offshore.
Other Heiau of the Hawaiian Islands
Many other heiau are found throughout the main Hawaiian Islands as well as on the remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, particularly Necker Island, 310 miles (499 km) northwest of Ni‘ihau. Necker Island has an extensive heiau complex. Nihoa, 130 miles (209 km) from Ni‘ihau, has agricultural terraces and house sites, and likely also heiau. Both Necker and Nihoa were uninhabited when Cook established Western contact in 1778.
Chapter 3 of this book describes numerous heiau throughout the Hawaiian Islands, including:
The Menehune: An Ancient Race
[Illustration: Menehune]
The modern myth of the menehune describes an ancient race of Kauaians who were very small, but very skilled, with a supernatural strength. The menehune built many things, including heiau (sacred places of worship), roads, dams, and canals—and they did it all during the night. The menehune population was said to have been around one half-million people.
Menehune grew many different foods and fished the sea. Each menehune was a master of a certain craft and had one special function they accomplished with great precision and expertise. The menehune would set out at dark to build something completely in one night. If they failed to complete the project in one night, it would be abandoned.
Wawā ka menehune i Pu‘ukapele ma Kaua‘i, puoho
ka manu o ka loko o Kawainui ma O‘ahu.
The shouts of the menehune on Pu‘ukapele on Kaua‘i
startled the birds of Kawainui Pond on O‘ahu.
The menehune were once so numerous on Kaua‘i that their shouting could be heard on O‘ahu. Said of too much boisterous talking.
(Pukui: 2920-320)
There remains some mystery surrounding the exact origin of the stories about menehune. Early Westerners seeking information about various structures on Kaua‘i may have been told by native Hawaiians that “menehune” were responsible, possibly referring to an old meaning of the word “manahune,” which is “common people,” thought to refer to common laborers, which were likely the early Marquesan settlers of the Hawaiian Islands, who were later dominated by the Tahitian settlers and made to perform the hardest work, including stonework.
The word menehune may have been a reference not to the Marquesan settlers’ small size but instead to their lower status in the social system after the arrival of the Tahitians. This may have led to a myth about a small race of people, and the myth may have been compounded over the years.
One version of history recounts how the dominating Tahitians drove the Marquesan descendants north along the island chain, finally to Kaua‘i, where the “menehune” made their last stand. A census in 1820 (Kaua‘i’s first census) stated that 65 people in Kaua‘i’s upper Wainiha Valley claimed their nationality to be menehune. However, no human skeletal remains of a physically small people have ever been found on Kaua‘i or on the other Hawaiian Islands. Of course this doesn’t mean that menehune never existed, and one never knows if, when night falls, menehune may appear to ply their trades.
Māla‘e Heiau at Wailua, Kaua‘i is said to be an example of the menehune trait of forming a single line of people many miles long to pass rocks from one person to the next. They are said to have passed rocks along a line for the length of Kaua‘i.
Another site on Kaua‘i attributed to menehune is the Alekoko Fishpond, used by ancient Hawaiians to trap and raise fish. A 900-foot (274-m) wall was built for this purpose at a bend in the river that now flows into Nāwiliwili Harbor. It is said the wall was built by a 25-mile (40-km) long, double row of menehune who passed rocks to each other all the way from the source of the stones, the Makaweli Quarry in Waimea. Makaweli means, “Fearful features.”//**[8]**//
Other legends also involve the menehune, such as the origin of Kaua‘i’s famous Sleeping Giant, an outline of a giant figure on the Nounou Ridge skyline visible from near Wailua. It is said that the menehune tried to awaken the giant by throwing stones, but so many stones landed in the giant’s mouth that it gave him an incurable case of indigestion. This has caused the giant to remain there sleeping ever since.
[Photograph: Māla‘e Heiau, Alekoko Fishpond]
Captain Cook
[Illustration: Captain Cook]
Captain Cook lived to sail the world’s oceans and discover new lands. While searching for the elusive “Northwest Passage,” a northern route from the Pacific to the Atlantic, Cook became the first known European to come to the Hawaiian Islands.
Captain Cook was born in Yorkshire, Britain in 1728. He died in 1779 at Kealakekua Bay when he was attacked on the beach by native Hawaiians who were angry that members of Cook’s crew had killed one of their chiefs.
Navigator and Explorer
British navigator and explorer, James Cook is considered one of the world’s greatest explorers. He sailed around the world twice, commanding three major Pacific exploratory expeditions for Great Britain between 1768 and 1779.
Cook made many discoveries during his expeditions, collecting a great deal of information about native people as well as native flora and fauna.
First Contact
The crews of Captain Cook’s two ships, the HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first sighted the Hawaiian Islands of O‘ahu and Kaua‘i in the dawn hours of January 18, 1778. Conditions kept them at bay until the next day, by which time they had also sighted Ni‘ihau. When Cook’s ships approached Kaua‘i’s southeast coast on the afternoon of January 19, 1778, natives in canoes paddled out to meet them—and so began Hawai‘i’s contact with Westerners. This first encounter with the Hawaiians took place in the waters near Kipu Kai. The Hawaiians traded fish and sweet potatoes for pieces of iron and brass, which were lowered down from the larger ships to the Hawaiians canoes.
Cook sailed along Kaua‘i’s southeastern coast searching for a suitable anchorage. Cook’s ships remained offshore, but Cook allowed a few Hawaiians to come on board on the morning of January 20 before continuing on in search of safe anchorage.
On the afternoon of January 20, Cook anchored his ships near the mouth of the Waimea River, and went ashore with three boats accompanied by 12 armed marines. As they stepped ashore, Cook and his men were greeted by hundreds of Hawaiians who offered gifts including kapa barkcloth, pigs, and bananas.
Cook went ashore three times that day, walking inland to view Hawaiian hale (houses), heiau (sacred places of worship), and agriculture. Cook’s crew continued to trade iron and other items to the natives, receiving in return the various food items mentioned above as well as chickens and taro corms.
Though some speculative evidence (including a Hawaiian legend) exists that Spanish ships visited the Hawaiian Islands in the 1500s, it remains uncertain. The Hawaiians did have two small pieces of iron when Cook arrived, and claimed it “came from the sea,” perhaps meaning that it floated ashore on ocean debris.
At this time the total population of the eight main Hawaiian Islands was about 300,000 (estimates vary from less than 300,000 to more than 700,000). Cook’s men estimated that about 30,000 people lived on Kaua‘i at the time. Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands in honor of his patron, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich.
Cook Leaves and Returns
After a fruitless journey north in search of a Northwest Passage (a northwest route from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean), Cook returned to the Hawaiian Islands. On January 17, 1779, he sailed into Kealakekua Bay on the island of Hawai‘i. Cook’s intention was to restock his ships and let his men recover from their journey so they could press on for further exploration.
Cook was unaware that he was visiting the Islands during the during the ancient Hawaiian harvest festival known as Makahiki, a Hawaiian period of several months (beginning about the middle of October when time is taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility.
When Cook arrived on the island of Hawai‘i during the Makahiki festival, he was greeted by processions and celebrations unlike any he had encountered before. Many historians state that Cook was received as the god Lono, but others disagree (see Appendix 1). Hawaiian beliefs held that Lono had long ago departed from Kealakekua Bay, promising to return.
While accounts vary on whether Cook was indeed thought by the natives to be the god Lono, it is clear that Cook was given preferential treatment. Cook was brought to Hikiau Heiau, a sacred temple where kāhuna (native priests) put sacred red kapa cloth on him and offered sacred chants.
Fatal Encounter
Cook left Kealakekua Bay on February 4, 1779 to survey the other Hawaiian Islands before heading off again on his explorations. However, soon after leaving Kealakekua Bay, a foremast of the HMS Resolution broke, requiring Cook and his men to return to Kealakekua Bay.
On the evening of February 13, one of Cook’s smaller boats (a cutter) was stolen. The next morning Cook went ashore with nine of his men to retrieve the boat. Cook planned to find the ruler of the island, Kalani‘ōpu‘u, and take him hostage in order to demand the return of the boat for the return of the chief.
Cook and his men went ashore and awakened Kalani‘ōpu‘u, and compelled him to come to the ship. Meanwhile, members of Cook’s crew had blockaded the harbor so no one could escape. When a canoe attempted to pass the blockade, Cook’s crew fired on the natives, killing a chief. Learning that one of their chiefs had been killed, the natives gathered in a large crowd near shore. Just then, Cook’s group, including Kalani‘ōpu‘u, reached shore to take their small boat out to the main ship.
In an encounter with the angry native Hawaiians on the shore, Cook and his men fired upon the natives. When Cook’s men paused to reload they were attacked. Cook yelled for his men to “take to the boats!,” but it was too late—Cook was stabbed in the neck and killed, and floated face down in the water. At least four of Cook’s men were also killed. The rest of Cook’s group escaped in their boat that was near the shore. Cook’s men retreated to the main ship, leaving Cook behind along with the other members of his crew that had been killed.
Four marines and an unknown number of native Hawaiians died in the fighting during the following days as hostilities escalated. A stalemate existed over the return of Cook’s remains, which had been taken inland.
Eventually Cook’s remains were returned by a procession of Hawaiians bearing white flags and beating drums. The remains were wrapped in kapa barkcloth, and covered by a feather cloak. Within the kapa, however, were only some of Cook’s remains, the rest still being in the possession of native chiefs. Cook’s hands and feet had been preserved with pa‘akai (sea salt), and the rest of his flesh had been stripped from his bones and burned. Current historians note that this treatment was normally reserved for ali‘i nui (high chiefs).
Cook’s crew then held a naval burial service. The ship’s cannons were fired in salute, and Cook’s remains were lowered into Kealakekua Bay. Pressure from the British government eventually resulted in Cook’s remains being returned to his homeland.
After Cook’s crew left the Hawaiian Islands, no other Europeans sailed to Hawai‘i’s shores until 1786. Then an increasing number of foreign ships began to visit Hawai‘i, including British Captain George Vancouver’s expeditions in 1792, 1793 and 1794, followed by many others. (See Chapter 11, Timeline of Hawaiian History, Chapter 11.)
[Photograph: HMS Discovery or HMS Resolution]
The Hawaiian Flag
[Illustration or Photographs: Hawaiian Flag; British Flag (comparison)]
In 1794, Kamehameha I received a gift of a British flag (a Union Jack) from British Captain George Vancouver. Kamehameha and Vancouver were friends, and Kamehameha sought assurance that the Hawaiian Islands would be under British protection.
Though King Kamehameha I flew his British flag for the next 22 years at various places where he lived, it is uncertain what meaning he attributed to it, since the apparent cession agreement he had with Vancouver was never ratified by British Parliament. At this time, the British ensign included the cross of St. Andrew and St. George, but not the diagonal cross of St. Patrick, which was added in 1801 (see below).
By 1816, a uniquely Hawaiian flag was created, though there is still much uncertainty regarding its exact origins and the intent of its designers, which included King Kamehameha I. One account states that it was designed around 1808 by an English captain named George Beckley for King Kamehameha I. In any case, it is known that King Kamehameha I had help from one or several people collaborating on the creation of this uniquely Hawaiian flag.
The upper left corner of the Hawaiian flag is a British Union Jack, but it is uncertain if this was intended to represent King Kamehameha’s belief that the Hawaiian Islands were under British protection, or instead simply a sign of Kamehameha’s respect for Vancouver.
Alexander Adams (1780-1870) is believed to be the one who placed the Union Jack at the upper left corner of the flag, inspiring today’s Hawaiian flag. Adams first arrived in the Hawaiian Islands aboard the Albatross in 1810. With the support of John Young (‘Olohana), Alexander was placed in charge of several ships owned by King Kamehameha I.
Before the Hawaiian flag was originated, the Hawaiian people had not used flags in the manner of other nations. The Hawaiians did have the kāhili (royal feather standard), and the puela (triangular kapa strip), which was often carried on canoes. They also had the pūlo‘ulo‘u (kapa-covered stick) which was carried in front of the chiefs to signal kapu (sacredness).
A letter to the editor of the Hawaiian newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a on January 1, 1862 states: “The Hawaiian flag was designed for King Kamehameha I in the year 1816. As the King desired to send a vessel to China, to sell a cargo of sandal wood, he in company of John Young, Isaac Davis (the younger, known as Aikake [‘Aikake]) and Captain Alexander Adams, (the latter now living at Kalihi, near Honolulu, and aged about eight years), made this flag for the ship, which was a war vessel called the Forester, carrying 16 guns, and was owned by King Kamehameha I. The flag having been made, the vessel sailed for Macao, China where the flag was not credited nor recognized as a government flag...”[9]
As commander of the sandalwood trading fleet of King Kamehameha I, Adams sailed to China in 1817 with a load of sandalwood (Santalum species; Hawaiian name: ‘Iliahi) but was refused entry into the harbor at Macao because the flag flown by the ship was not recognized. This was the first time Hawai‘i’s flag was flown on a ship sailing to a foreign port. (For more information about Alexander Adams, see Chapter 11, Timeline: 1810; 1817.)
It remains uncertain whether the flag flown on the Forester (Ka‘ahumanu) contained the diagonal cross of St. Patrick, which was not part of the British flag until 1801, and so likely was not on the original flag given to Kamehameha by Vancouver, but was added later, after it was put on the British flag. It was a complaint by the Scotch (whose diagonal St. Andrew’s cross was overtaken by the addition of the cross of St. Patrick), that led to the compound saltire on the British flag, but this soon came to be Hawai‘i’s official flag. Hawai‘i’s flag was flown at half mast in 1824 upon the arrival at Honolulu Harbor of the British frigate Blonde, which had come from England with the bodies of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) and Queen Kamāmalu, who had died there of measles. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1824.)
In 1843, all of the existing Hawaiian flags were apparently destroyed by Lord George Paulet of Britain after he arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on the frigate Carysfort and used the threat of military might to demand a formal “provisional cession” of the Hawaiian Islands to Britain. King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) acquiesced and the British flag was raised in Honolulu. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1843, Feb. 10.)
Appeals to London and Washington resulted in the arrival of Paulet’s superior, Admiral Richard Thomas, on July 26, 1843 on the H.M.S. flagship Dublin. Thomas rescinded the provisional cession and restored the powers of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). (See 1843, July 31.) On July 31, the British flag was lowered and the Hawaiian flag was again raised at the place now known as Thomas Square in honor of Admiral Richard Thomas.
Later that day, King Kamehameha III gave a speech at a Kawaiaha‘o Church service, and is said to have spoken the words which later became Hawai‘i’s official state motto: “Ua mau ke ea o ka ‘āina o ka pono” (“The life of the land is perpetuated [preserved] in righteousness”). The date of July 31 was later proclaimed Restoration Day.
In 1881, King Kalākaua became the first ruler of any country to sail around the world, calling on 11 heads of state, including the leaders of the United States, Japan and Great Britain. When King Kalākaua visited Japan during this nine-month world tour, 13 warships representing four different nations greeted him. Aboard each ship, cheering crews unfurled flags from many different nations, and atop the mainmast of each ship was a Hawaiian flag.
The statutes of 1896, chapter 10, describe the flag as follows: “The national ensign shall consist of eight horizontal stripes, alternating white, red, blue, etc., beginning at the top, having a jack cantoned in the dexter chief angle next to the point of suspension. The jack shall consist of a blue field charge with a compound saltire of alternate tinctures white and red, the white having precedence; a narrow edge of white borders each red side of the saltire. A red cross bordered with white is charged over all. The jack is half the hoist and 7/16 the fly in length. The arms of the red cross with border shall be equal in width to one of the horizontal stripes; the white border shall be one third the width of the red cross.”[10]
The eight horizontal stripes of the Hawaiian flag represent the eight main Hawaiian Islands. The colors of the stripes are alternating red, white and blue, with red said to symbolize Hawaiian gods, white symbolizing truth, and blue for the ocean.
The Hawaiian flag was first used to represent the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, and then continued to be used after the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893. The flag was retained by the Republic, the Territory, and finally by the State of Hawai‘i. There was originally a ninth stripe (bar), apparently representing the archipelago, but the number of stripes was reduced to eight after statehood.
More recently, another Hawaiian flag design has emerged from research done by Honolulu’s Gene Simeona who claims the original flags destroyed by British Navy Captain Lord George Paulet in 1843 were not of the same design of today’s Hawaiian flag. Based on research at the Hawai‘i State Archives, Simeona claims that the original flag had stripes of green, red, and yellow, with a shield at the center composed of a kahili (royal feather standard) and canoe paddles crossed over one another, forming the “...coat of arms of the kanaka maoli.”[11]
According to Simeona, “the green in the flag represents the maka‘āinana (commoner) caste, the land and goodness; the red represents the landed konohiki who served the ali‘i, genealogy and strength; and the yellow represents the ali‘i, spirituality and alertness to danger.”[12] Many questions remain to be answered about the original design of the Hawaiian flag, and perhaps further research will unravel the complete story.
[Photograph: Hawaiian flag]
The History of Surfing
[Illustration: Surfboards]
It seems inevitable that the seafaring Polynesians, so skilled in all aspects of living near and sailing over the ocean, would be among the first people to surf the ocean waves. Today the Hawaiian Islands are a mecca for surfers who come from all over the world to test themselves on Hawai‘i’s large and challenging waves.
Increasingly popular in the Hawaiian Islands today, along with traditional surfing, are more modern water sports including tow-in surfing (using powered craft to pull a surfer into a giant wave), kite surfing (the surfer is pulled by a large parachute-like kite), and windsurfing (a sail is attached to the surfboard).
O ‘Awili ka nalu, he nalu kapu kai na ke akua.
‘Awili is the surf, a surf reserved for the ceremonial bath of the goddess.
Refers to Pele. There were three noted surfs at Kalapana, Puna: Kalehua, for the children and those just learning to surf; Ho‘eu, for experienced surfers; and ‘Awili, which none dared to ride. When the surf of ‘Awili was
rolling dangerously high, all surfing and canoeing ceased,
for that was a sign that the gods were riding.
(Pukui: 2356-257)
The First Surfers
Surfing waves on a surfboard was likely first done in the Society Islands, including Tahiti. It was later in the Hawaiian Islands, however, that surfing really took hold. The Hawaiian term for surfing is he‘e nalu (“to ride the waves”).
Hawaiians surfed waves on surfboards hundreds of years ago. They also left petroglyphs of surfers carved into lava rocks, and there are stories of surfing in Hawaiian chants dated to at least 500 years ago (which means Hawaiians were probably surfing long before that).
Surfing in the Hawaiian Islands was part of the Hawaiians’ kapu system, where ali‘i (the ruling class, or royalty) and maka‘āinana (commoners) had different status. The ali‘i, or ruling class, used surfboards that were from 14 to 16 feet (4 to 5 m) long. The boards were carved from the buoyant wood of the wiliwili tree (Erythrina sandwicensis, Hawaiian coral tree). A big surfboard like this made of premium wood was called an olo (also ‘ōwili, paha), and might weigh as much as 175 pounds (80 kg). An ‘ōnini was a board used only by the best surfers.
Commoners used a 10- to 12-foot (3- to 3.7-m) board called an alaia (also called an omo), made from the denser, heavier and thus less buoyant wood of koa (Acacia koa), or the wood of the ‘ulu (Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit), which was also less buoyant. A small board was known as a kīoe.
Constructing a Surfboard
To make a surfboard, the craftsman first put a ceremonial fish (kūmū) in a hole near the tree’s roots and then completed a ritual showing respect. The tree was cut down, and a bone, or a stone adze was used to shape the board. ‘Ōahi (rough stone) or pōhaku puna (granulated coral) was used to put a smooth finish on the board, smoothing out the marks from the adze.
O Kua‘ana ka nalu; o Paiaha‘a ka ‘āina.
Kua‘ana is the surf; Paiaha‘a the land.
Proud were the people of Ka‘ū of the surf of Kua‘ana, where chiefs used to
ride the waves to the shore of Paiaha‘a.
(Pukui: 2472-270)
For a final coat on the surfboard, the root of kī (Cordyline fruticosa, ti), pounded bark (hili) of kukui (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut), or stain from the buds of mai‘a (Musa species, banana) was used. A dark stain color was also achieved by rubbing the soot from burned kukui nuts into the wood. Kukui oil was used to give the board a glossy finish.
The papa he‘e nalu (surfboard) was dedicated before taking it in the ocean. Then after each surf session the board was treated with the oil of niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut), and wrapped in kapa (tapa) barkcloth.
“....Hiking into Waipi‘o Valley where they marveled at the skill of native surfers frolicking in the waves. “All ranks and ages seem to be equally fond of it. We have seen Karaimoku and Kaikioeva, some of the highest chiefs in the island, both between fifty and sixty years of age, and large corpulent men, balancing themselves on their narrow board, or splashing about in the foam, with as much satisfaction as youths of sixteen.”
William Ellis, 1823
[Photograph: Traditional Hawaiian surfboard]
Duke Kahanamoku (1890-1968)
Surfer, Olympian, Movie Star, Sheriff
[Illustration: Duke Kahanamoku surfing Waikīkī]
When missionaries from New England began arriving in the Hawaiian Islands around 1820, they discouraged surfing as a waste of valuable time that should instead be spent praying or working. There was some interest in surfing when King Kalākaua took the throne, but with his death in 1891 surfers in the Hawaiian Islands again became scarce. In 1905, Duke Kahanamoku surfed Waikīkī and began the rebirth of Hawaiian surfing.
In 1911, Duke set an American swimming record in the 100-yard sprint, and later went on to set several world records and win medals in four different Olympics: Stockholm (1912), Antwerp (1920), Paris (1924), and Belgium (1932).
‘A‘ohe ia e loa‘a aku, he ulua kāpapa no ka moana.
He cannot be caught for he is an ulua fish of the deep ocean.
Said in admiration of a hero or warrior who will not give up without a struggle.
(Pukui: 145-18)
Duke Kahanamoku was also a Hollywood movie star (1922-1933), and then the Sheriff of the City and County of Honolulu for 26 years (1934-1960). “The Duke” is now considered a Hawaiian legend.
Hui Nalu
A full-blooded Hawaiian and a descendant of Hawaiian royalty, Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulikohola Kahanamoku was born in Honolulu on August 24, 1890 to Duke and Julia Kahanamoku. Duke Kahanamoku was named after his father, who was named after the Duke of Edinburgh.
In 1891, Duke’s family moved to the Kālia area of Waikīkī. Duke’s mother’s family, the Paoas, owned a large portion of the 20 acres (8 ha) of land in the Kālia area now occupied by the 2,545-room Hilton Hawaiian Hotel.
Duke’s grandfather, Ho‘olae Paoa, was a descendant of royal chiefs. Ho‘olae Paoa had been deeded land by King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) in the Great Māhele (land division) of 1848. The Paoa ‘ohana (extended family) numbered more than 100 individuals living in the Waikīkī area where they farmed, fished, and spent lots of time in the water.
Duke’s father is said to have taught his children to swim by simply tying a rope around their waists and tossing them in the water to sink or swim. Duke Kahanamoku eventually became one of the most famous of the Waikīkī Beachboys, a group of water sports instructors working on the beaches fronting the Royal Hawaiian and Moana Hotels. (See Historic Waikīkī in O‘ahu section, Chapter 2.)
In 1911, Duke and his friends organized Hui Nalu (Club of the Waves), a swimming, paddling, and surfing club. The main reason for the formation of Hui Nalu was to meet the United States’ requirement that swimmers had to belong to a recognized club if they wanted official sanction for any aquatic records. That same year, in Honolulu Harbor, Duke set three world records in freestyle swimming.
Olympic Champion
Duke Kahanamoku set a world record in the 100-meter freestyle in the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm, Sweden with a time of 63.4 seconds. Less well known is the fact that Duke overslept during his pre-race nap, which caused him to arrive at the stadium late. Duke barely convinced officials to delay the race as he suited up, and then won the race!
In the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium, Duke won two more gold medals, breaking his own 100-meter freestyle world record. He also helped to set a world record in the freestyle relay, earning yet another gold medal. Hawaiian Pua Kealoha also competed in the 1920 Olympics.
At age 34, in the 1924 Paris Olympics, Duke took the silver medal in the 100-meter freestyle, losing to Johnny Weissmuller, who later became famous as the actor who played Tarzan. Two of Duke’s brothers, David and Sam Kahanamoku, also qualified for the 1924 Olympics. Sam won a bronze medal in the 100-meter freestyle event, placing third behind Duke and Johnny Weissmuller.
In all, Duke Kahanamoku earned a total of six Olympic medals (three gold and two silver, one bronze) in four different Olympics. Other swimming victories for Duke Kahanamoku included 100-meter freestyle victories in the 1916, 1917, and 1920 American Athletic Union Outdoor Championships. Duke was known for his use of the “flutter kick,” which he used instead of the common scissors kick. Duke retired from competitive swimming at the age of 42.
Duke Kahanamoku’s Olympic Medals
Olympics Medal Event Comments
1912 (Stockholm, Sweden) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record
Silver 4x200-Meter Freestyle Relay Anchored team
1916 (No Olympics) World War I
1920 (Antwerp, Belgium) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record
Gold 4x200-meter Freestyle World Record
Water Polo Team Fourth Place
1924 (Paris, France) Silver 100-Meter-Freestyle Duke’s Age: 34
1928 (Amsterdam, Netherlands)
1932 (Los Angeles, California) Bronze Water Polo Team Duke’s Age: 42
Duke Kahanamoku—Hawaiian Waterman
Duke is also credited with saving many lives through brave ocean rescues, including a daring rescue in Coronal del Mar, California on June 14, 1925, when he used his surfboard to single-handedly save eight lives from a capsized boat.
He kanaka no kaulu hānai.
A man from the top of the cliff.
Praise of a hero.
(Pukui: 669-75)
Duke Kahanamoku is considered the father of modern surfing and the father of international surfing, having introduced the sport to the eastern coast of the United States (1913), Australia and New Zealand (1914-1915), and California (1915-1932). Duke also introduced surfing to Europe.
In 1919, Duke pioneered the sport of tandem surfing, in which (traditionally) a male rider holds a female up in the air while surfing. Duke is also considered the first windsurfer (“the father of windsurfing”) as well as the first to wakesurf (riding on a surfboard while being towed behind a boat).
From 1922 to 1933, Duke had a career in Hollywood. He lived in Los Angles during this time, and appeared in about 30 movies. Yet another of Duke’s accomplishments was serving as Sheriff of the City and County Honolulu for 26 years, from 1934 to 1960 (13 consecutive terms). Duke married Nadine Alexander on August 2, 1940.
Duke Kahanamoku was a muscular man, standing 6 feet, 1 inch (185.4 cm) tall. With a soft-spoken demeanor, Duke was known for his humility and kindness. He was the victim of prejudice many times in his life, and was sometimes refused entrance to restaurants, clubs, and other places based on his skin color, yet Duke unfailingly responded to prejudice with aloha, and was said to have genuinely felt pity for the prejudiced person rather than anger.
Duke strove to break down color barriers. It is notable that in Duke’s first Olympics (in 1912), the track and field competition was dominated by another man who also broke down color barriers, American Indian Jim Thorpe.
On the east (Diamond Head) side of the Waikīkī Beach Center at Kūhiō Beach in Waikīkī is a 9-foot (2.7-m) statue of Duke Kahanamoku. (See Statue of Duke Kahanamoku in Waikīkī section, Chapter 2.) A plaque on the Duke Kahanamoku Statue states Duke’s creed:
“In Hawai‘i, we greet friends, loved ones or strangers with aloha, which means with love. Aloha is the key word to the universal spirit of real hospitality, which makes Hawai‘i renowned as the world’s center of understanding and fellowship. Try meeting or leaving people with Aloha. You’ll be surprised by their reaction. I believe it and it is my creed. Aloha to you.”
[Photograph: Duke Kahanamoku]
Duke was a true Hawaiian waterman, excelling in all types of ocean activities including paddling canoes, surfing, body surfing, swimming, and saving lives in the ocean. To support the United States’ war effort in 1918, Duke traveled throughout the United States Mainland and competed in exhibition races. He continued surfing big waves until the age of 50. At age 60, Duke was still considered the best canoe steersman in Waikīkī.
A legendary but true story about Duke tells of his famous 1917 ride on a huge wave in Waikīkī, at an outer surf spot offshore of Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi). Some call the surf spot Blue Birds because it’s near where the deeper ocean begins, causing the water color to change. Others call the surf spot Steamer Lane because it is near where the large ships pass. The surf spot is far from shore, and the surf only breaks when the waves are very large.
One day in 1917, when the surf was incredibly big, Duke paddled out to Steamer Lane and rode his 16-foot (4.9-m) surfboard on a huge wave that was estimated to be 30 to 35 feet (9 to 11 m) in height. Duke rode the wave for more than 1 mile (1.6 km), through the spots now known as Publics and Queen’s, and possibly as far down the coast as the Royal Hawaiian Hotel. The ride is still considered the longest ride on a wave in Waikīkī, if not the longest ride on a wave anywhere.
The Duke Kahanamoku Stamp
A ceremony to dedicate the new United States postage stamp featuring Duke Kahanamoku took place on Saturday, August 24, 2002, which was the 112th anniversary of Duke’s birth. The stamp went on sale to the public the following Monday, including a total of 62.8 million of the stamps on sale across the United States, with two million of the stamps on sale in the Hawaiian Islands.
The stamp dedication ceremony took place on the shores of Waikīkī’s Kālia Bay where Duke spent his youth. The voyaging canoe Hawai‘iloa arrived with a 30- by 38-inch (76- by 97-cm) replica of the stamp, and the traditional voyaging canoe was accompanied by a flotilla that included the canoe Makali‘i, and a symbolic 112 surfboards and canoes representing “candles on a cake,” commemorating Duke’s 112th birthday.
As the Hawai‘iloa arrived, sounds of the conch shell blowers echoed through the Kālia Bay air when the Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe arrived and anchored offshore, and the poster of the stamp (draped under red velvet) was transported to the beach in the double-hulled canoe Kamiloa. A receiving delegation met the canoe at the beach, where chanters and hula dancers accompanied the unveiling of the stamp image.
Voyaging canoe navigator Nainoa Thompson and others presented a lei (which had been draped across the poster of the new Duke stamp), to Fred Paoa, Duke’s first cousin and oldest living relative, who in turn presented a maile lei to the ceremony officials.
A large group of relatives, friends, notable surfers, and public officials (including U.S. Senator Dan Akaka) all celebrated the occasion, along with Duke’s grand nephew, Alden Paoa, and Joanne Kahanamoku, Duke’s niece. Post office officials were on hand to provide people with the “First Day of Issue” cancellations on various items, including envelopes and post cards.
New Orleans artist Michael Deas created the image of Duke for the stamp, which is mainly based on a 1918 photo provided by the Bishop Museum, but also incorporates other images of Duke. The stamp designer and art director for the project was Carl Herrman of Carlsbad, California.
The stamp dedication ceremony in Waikīkī included day-long festivities and was also the founding of “The First Annual Duke Paoa Kahanamoku Waterman Challenge,” which includes the Waikīkī Ocean Mile Swim as well as a canoe race, surfing contest, and tug-of-war competition. There was also a lū‘au, a traditional Hawaiian feast and celebration, where friends of the Duke could share their memories and honor him.
At nearby Kūhiō Beach, a Duke Kahanamoku statue memorializes a man who is seemingly larger than life. (See Statue of Duke Kahanamoku in Waikīkī section, Chapter 2.) The day before the stamp-dedication ceremony, Duke’s statue was draped with 112 lei to commemorate his birthday. One of the lei was a 5-inch (13-cm) thick, 15-foot (4.6-m) long lei of maile (Alyxia oliviformis). As a ho‘okupu (tribute) to Duke Kahanamoku, the maile had been gathered and strung by inmates at the Big Island’s Kūlani Correctional Facility.
[Photograph: Picture of stamp]
In August of 2003 the second annual Duke’s Ho‘olaule‘a (Celebration) took place, establishing the celebration as an annual event. The celebration commemorating Duke’s birthday, and his life as the Hawaiian Islands’ “Ambassador to the World,” includes a Beach Boy Celebration, lei making, historical walks, and surfboard water polo. A central part of the event is an ocean swim and Waterman Challenge.
Duke Kahanamoku—Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha”
In 1960, Duke Kahanamoku was officially appointed as Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha.” To all who knew Duke, this was just a formality, since Duke was always known as someone who lived his life with aloha, and someone who had always been a generous and caring person. Duke had always been an exemplary ambassador of the aloha spirit, and said to be a “pure soul” who personified aloha.
In 1965, Duke became the first person ever inducted into both the Surfing Hall of Fame and the Swimming Hall of Fame. In 1984, Duke was also inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame. In 1999, Surfer Magazine declared Duke Kahanamoku the Surfer of the Century.
I kāhi ‘e no ke kumu mokihana, paoa ‘e no ‘one‘i i ke ‘ala.
Although the mokihana tree is at a distance, its fragrance reaches here.
Although a person is far away, the tales of his good deeds come to us.
(Pukui: 1177-128)
Duke Paoa Kahanamoku passed away on January 22, 1968, at the age of 77. Thousands attended the “Beachboy” funeral ceremony, and Duke’s ashes were scattered in the waters off Waikīkī. His widow, Nadine Kahanamoku passed away on July 17, 1997 at the age of 97.
Duke Kahanamoku—Hawaiian waterman, Olympic champion, lifesaver, movie star, sheriff, and “ambassador of aloha”—will forever be remembered as a real-life folk hero for the people of the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Duke Kahanamoku in a movie scene]
Eddie Aikau: Hawaiian Waterman
[Illustration: Eddie Aikau surfing]
As a youth, Eddie Aikau amazed the top surfers of Oahu’s north shore when he paddled into giant waves at Waimea Bay. As a lifeguard he went on to save many lives. At age 31 he died trying to save his fellow crew members of the capsized Hōkūle‘a voyaging canoe.
Pu‘uwai hao kila.
Heart of steel.
Fearless
(Pukui: 303:2766)
Born May 4, 1946 in Kahului, Maui, Edward Ryan Aikau was a full-blooded Hawaiian. Born to Solomon “Pops” Aikau and his wife Henrietta, Eddie was the third of six children, including Fred, Gerald, Sol, Clyde, and Myra. Though his family called him by his middle name, Ryan, most people knew of him as Eddie.
In 1958, the family moved to Pauoa, O‘ahu where Eddie’s father was the caretaker for the Chinese cemetery. Eddie’s father took the family surfing frequently during Eddie’s childhood, allowing him to improve his surfing skills with a classic 75-pound (34-kg) surfboard.
In 1967, Eddie surfed 15-foot (4.6-m) Sunset Beach waves, and on November 19 of that year Eddie startled Hawai‘i’s top surfers by taking off on an estimated 40-foot (12-m) set wave at Waimea Bay. Also in 1967, Eddie took 6th place in the Duke Kahanamoku Classic. That was Eddie’s first major surfing contest.
In 1968, Eddie became Waimea Bay’s first lifeguard, and went on to save the lives of many people who otherwise might have drowned in Hawai‘i’s rough ocean waters. Eddie was voted Lifeguard of the Year in 1971. He later appeared in surf movies, and was also a talented musician, writing songs and playing slack-key guitar. He was also interested in celestial navigation. Eddie Aikau married Linda Crosswhite in 1972, and they were divorced in 1978.
The Capsizing of the Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe
In 1978, Eddie was chosen to be one of the 16-member crew invited to sail the Hōkūle‘a, a 62-foot (18.9-m) Polynesian voyaging canoe to Tahiti. The Hōkūle‘a had no modern navigation or communication equipment, and was built to reenact the ancient voyages of the Polynesians who first settled the Hawaiian Islands. (See Rediscovering the Past—The Hōkūle‘a and Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoes, Chapter 3.)
On the night of March 16, 1978, at about 11 p.m., the Hōkūle‘a capsized in large swells and gale-force winds about 12 miles (19 km) off the island of Lāna‘i in the Kaiwi Channel, forcing the 15 crew members to cling to the voyaging canoe’s overturned hull. Eddie Aikau volunteered to paddle his 12-foot (3.7-m) tandem surfboard toward Lāna‘i for help.
Eddie was wearing yellow foul-weather pants and a jacket, and had with him a strobe light, a knife, and a bag of sugar cubes. Around his neck he wore a locket containing hair of his nieces and nephews. As he stroked away from the capsized Hōkūle‘a, Eddie stopped and tossed off his life preserver, which was hampering his paddling. Eddie turned and gave the crew a final wave goodbye as he rose to the peak of a wave and then paddled into the distance. He was never seen again.
After nightfall, at about 8 p.m., a Hawaiian Airlines plane saw a flare shot up by the crew and circled back, blinking its landing lights before heading toward Honolulu Airport. Within one hour a C-130 plane arrived and dropped phosphorescent lights in the water. Soon a Coast Guard helicopter tossed a metal cage down to the stranded crew of the Hōkūle‘a. Speaking into the one-way radio lowered in the cage, Captain Dave Lyman informed the plane’s crew about Eddie.
An intensive air-sea search and rescue effort was launched to find Eddie Aikau. After five days and several injuries to rescuers, the search was called off. Eddie Aikau was 31 years old.
The Eddie Aikau Big-Wave Invitational
In 1987, a surf contest was initiated in honor of Eddie Aikau. Officially known as the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau, the big-wave invitational is known locally as “the Eddie.” The contest matches the world’s best big wave surfers against each other in the biggest of waves. One of the prized invitee spots is always left unfilled in honor of big-wave surfer Mark Foo, who died on December 2, 1994 surfing Maverick’s, a big-wave surf spot in California. Before he died, Foo had been a competitor in all of the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau contests
Invitees to the surfing contest are put on alert during a waiting period from Dec. 5 to February 28. The surfing contest only commences if the waves reach the 20 to 30 foot (6 to 9 m) heights considered worthy of the Aikau name.
To date, the surfing contest has only been held 5½ times: in 1986, 1990, 1995 (1/2 contest), 1999, 2001 and 2002.
The first Eddie Aikau Invitational was won by Clyde Aikau, the brother of Eddie Aikau. The 2001 contest was won by Australian Ross Clarke-Jones who took home a $50,000 dollar first place prize, and was the first competitor not from the Hawaiian Islands to win the contest. Clarke-Jones rode the first wave of the day, a 25-foot (8-m) wave that also turned out to be one of the contest’s biggest waves. Hawai‘i’s Shane Dorian took second with an effort that included some punishing wipeouts in the giant surf. Two contestants endured rib injuries, and champion Hawaiian surfer Brian Keaulana shattered an eardrum.
Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau
Past Winners
Date Winner
February 21, 1987 Clyde Aikau
January 21, 1990 Keone Downing
December 29, 1995 Cancelled half way through day when swell dropped.
January 1, 1999 Noah Johnson
January 14, 2001 Ross Clarke-Jones
January 7, 2002 Kelly Slater
Dec. 15, 2005 Bruce Irons
Eddie Would Go
At the Quiksilver in Memory of Eddie Aikau, the participants of the surf contest pay tribute to the memory of Eddie Aikau by paddling their surfboards out into Waimea Bay where they form a circle and set their lei afloat in the sea. Several months after Eddie disappeared, a memorial was erected in his honor at Waimea Bay.
In January of 2003, a bronze plaque was placed on the Hōkūle‘a stating, “No greater love has a man that this, that he would lay down his life for his friends.” or was it “Greater love hath no man than this, that a man lay down his life for his friends.” (John 15:13)
Eddie Aikau was a distinguished and respected surfer, lifeguard, and overall Hawaiian waterman. He was also known for his humility, and for never seeking thanks or praise for his many heroic deeds. Today the saying “Eddie Would Go,” is frequently heard in the Hawaiian Islands, and also seen on bumper stickers throughout the Hawaiian Islands. The saying recalls Eddie Aikau’s selflessness and bravery.
He pua no ka wēkiu.
A blossom on the topmost branch.
Praise of an outstanding person.
(Pukui: 923-99)
[Photograph: Eddie Aikau]
Chapter 3—Part 2
Island Flowers and Lei
Island Emblems
State of Hawai‘i Pua Ma‘o Hau Hele
Hawai‘i Island Pua Lehua
Maui Pua Lokelani
Moloka‘i Pua Kukui
Lāna‘i Pua Kauna‘oa
Kaho‘olawe Hinahina
O‘ahu Pua ‘Ilima
Ni‘ihau Pūpū Ni‘ihau
Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca)
Momi (Euplica varians)
Laiki (Mitrella margarita).
Island Flowers and Lei
Lei Materials and Uses
Historical Lei Selling Areas
Lei Day and other Lei Events
Lei Making Methods
Stringing the Lei
Popular and Traditional Lei Flowers
Aloalo Pahūpahū Turk’s Cap Hibiscus Intr.
‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o White Ginger Intr.
‘Awapuhi Melemele Yellow Ginger Intr.
‘Ilima ‘Ilima Ind.
Kiele Gardenia Intr.
Kou Kou Ind.
Kukui Candlenut Tree P.I.
Kupaloke Tuberose Intr.
Lehua Mau Loa Globe Amaranth Intr.
Lokelani Damask Rose Intr.
Maunaloa Pacific Beach Pea Intr.
Maunaloa Sea Bean Intr.
Melia Plumeria Intr.
Nānū Gardenia End.
Nuku ‘I‘iwi Jade Vine Intr.
Nuku ‘I‘iwi Nuku ‘I‘iwi End.
‘Ohai Native Sesbania End.
‘Ohai Ali‘i Pride of Barbados Intr.
‘Ōhi‘a Lehua ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua End.
‘Okika Dendrobium Orchid Intr.
‘Okika Vanda Vanda Orchid Intr.
‘Oliana Oleander Intr.
Pahūpahū Flame Vine Intr.
Pakalana Chinese Violet Intr.
Pāneki Pansy Intr.
Pīkake Arabian Jasmine Intr.
Ponimō‘ī Carnation Intr.
Pua Kalaunu Crown Flower Intr.
Pua Kenikeni Ten Cent Flower Intr.
Pua Kīkā Cigar Flower Intr.
Pua Male Stephanotis Intr.
Pua Pākē Chrysanthemum Intr.
Pua Pihi Zinnia Intr.
Pukanawila Bougainvillea Intr.
Other Traditional Lei Materials
Lei Niho Palaoa Whale Tooth Pendant Ind.
Ferns
Pala‘ā (Lace Fern) Sphenomeris chinensis Ind.
Palapalai Microlepia strigosa End.
Laua‘e Phymatosorus scolopendria Intr.
Pala Marattia douglasii End.
Fern Allies
Moa Psilotum nudum Ind.
Wāwae‘iole (Tropical Club Moss) Lycopodium cernua Ind.
Plants
Hinahina (vine) Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum End.
Kauna‘oa (Hawaiian Dodder) (vine) Cuscuta sandwichiana End.
Kī (Ti) (leaves) Cordyline fruticosa P.I.
Limu (Seaweed) Various species End.
Maile (leaves) Alyxia oliviformis End.
Spanish Moss (leaves) Tillandsia usneoides Intr.
‘Uala (Sweet potato vines) Ipomoea batatas P.I.
Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Pūpū Ni‘ihau
Finding the Shells
Ni‘ihau Shell Varieties
Momi Euplica varians
Kahelelani Leptothyra verruca
Laiki Mitrella Margarita
Making the Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Methods and Styles
Seed Lei—Lei Hua
A‘e (Soapberry) Sapindus saponaria Ind.
‘Ākia Wikstroemia species End.
Ali‘ipoe (Canna Lily) Canna indica Intr.
‘Ēkoa (Lead Tree) Leucaena leucocephala Intr.
Hala (Pandanus) Pandanus tectorius Ind.
Hua Weleweka (Velvet Seed) Majidea zanquebarica Intr.
Kā‘e‘e (Sea Bean) Mucuna gigantea subsp. gigantea Ind.
Kākalaioa (Gray Nickers) Caesalpinia bonduc Ind.
Keli Kepania (Spanish Cherry) Mimusops elengi Intr.
Kamani (Punnai Nut) Calophyllum inophyllum P.I.
Keko (Cycad) Cycas circinalis Intr.
Kou (Cordia) Cordia subcordata Ind.
Kukui (Candlenut Tree) Aleurites moluccana P.I.
Kukui Hele Pō Kina (Chinese Lantern) Hernandia nymphaeifolia Intr.
Loulu Hiwa (Pritchardia Palm) Pritchardia martii End.
Maka Hipa (Sheep’s-Eye) Mucuna sloanei Ind.; End.
Makekomia (Macadamia Nut) Macadamia integrifolia Ind.
Māpala Polū (Blue Fig) Elaeocarpus grandis Ind.
Maunaloa (Pacific Beach Pea) Canavalia cathartica Ind.
Milo (Portia Tree) Thespesia populnea P.I.
Mokihana Pelea anisata End.
Nīoi Pekela (Betel Nut Palm) Areca catechu Intr.
Niu Keko (Monkey Nut) Syagrus romanzoffiana Intr.
Nohomālie (Lucky Nut) Thevetia peruviana Intr.
‘Ohai (Monkeypod) Samanea saman Intr.
‘Ohai Ali‘i (Pride of Barbados) Caesalpinia pulcherrima Intr.
Paina (Ironwood) Casuarina equisetifolia Intr.
Pepeiao ‘Elepani (Ear Seed) Enterolobium cyclocarpum Intr.
Pilikai (Wood Rose) Operculina tuberosa Intr.
Pili-Nut (Java Almond) Canarium vulgare Intr.
Pōniu (Heart Seed) Cardiospermum halicacabum Intr.
Pūkiawe (Bead Vine) Abrus precatorius Intr.
Pū‘ohe‘ohe (Job’s Tears) Coix lacryma jobi Intr.
Waina Kai (Sea Grape) Coccoloba uvifera Intr.
Wī ‘Awa‘awa (Tamarind) Tamarindus indica Intr.
Wiliwili (Hawaiian Coral Tree) Erythrina sandwicensis End.
Wiliwili Haole (Common Coral Tree) Erythrina crista-galli Intr.
Island Emblems
Each of the Hawaiian Islands has its own emblem as designated by the Territorial Legislature in 1923. The State of Hawai‘i also has its own emblem. These symbols are all flowers or plants, except for Ni‘ihau’s emblem, which is a seashell. Each Hawaiian Island is also represented by a color associated with its emblem.
Symbols of the Hawaiian Islands
Location Emblem Color Name Species
Hawai‘i (Isl.) Pua Lehua Red ‘Ōhi‘a lehua (flower) Metrosideros species
Maui Pua Lokelani Pink Lokelani (flower) Rosa species (Damask Rose)
Moloka‘i Pua Kukui Green (leaves) Kukui (flower) Aleurites moluccana (Candlenut)
Lāna‘i Kauna‘oa Orange Kauna‘oa (vine) Cuscuta sandwichiana (Dodder)
Kaho‘olawe Hinahina Silver-gray Hinahina (leaves) Heliotropum anomalum var. argenteum
O‘ahu Pua ‘Ilima Yellow ‘Ilima (flowers) Sida fallax
Kaua‘i Mokihana Purple Mokihana (berries) Pelea anisata
Ni‘ihau Pūpū Ni‘ihau White Pūpū Ni‘ihau (shells) Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca)
Momi (Euplica varians)
Laiki (Mitrella margarita).
- The State of Hawai‘i’s emblem is pua ma‘o hau hele, also known as the yellow hibiscus (Hibiscus brackenridgei).
When hibiscus was named the official flower of the Territory of Hawai‘i by the Legislature in 1923, they didn’t specify any particular one of the many varieties of the hibiscus, leading to some confusion. The various colors and types of hibiscus (including numerous introduced species) were said by some to represent the Hawaiian Islands’ unique ethnic mix.Eventually many considered the native red hibiscus or the red Chinese species to be the state flower. Hawai‘i’s State Legislature clarified the issue in 1988 when it named the native yellow hibiscus, Hibiscus brackenridgei, to be the official state flower. (See Aloalo in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) Hibiscus brackenridgei is on the federal endangered species list.
[Photograph: Pua ma‘o hau hele lei]
- The emblem of the island of Hawai‘i (the Big Island) is pua lehua, the blossom of the native ‘ōhi‘a lehua tree (Metrosideros species). Lehua flowers are tufts of scarlet red, orange, yellow, or white (rarely).
Beautiful lei are woven from the flowers, unopened buds and young silvery leaves (liko) of ‘ōhi‘a lehua. ‘Ōhi‘a lehua is also considered sacred to Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes. (See ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua in Native Plants of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) A Hawaiian proverb states, “E mana‘o a‘e ana e lei i ka lehua o Mokaulele” (“A wish to wear the lehua of Mokaulele in a lei”), which is “...a wish to win the maiden. Lei symbolizes sweetheart, and lehua, a pretty girl.”[13][Photograph: Pua lehua lei]
- Maui’s emblem is pua lokelani (Rosa species), the aromatic flower of the small pink damask rose. Pua lokelani, also known as the “rose of heaven,” is a post-contact introduced species that is often used for lei and commonly mixed with other flowers as well as ferns. (See Lokelani in Lei Flowers section.)
[Photograph: Pua lokelani lei].
- Moloka‘i’s emblem is pua kukui, the flower of the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut), which is also Hawai‘i’s official state tree. Kukui’s small white flowers have five petals, grow in clusters, and are covered with a silvery-gray down. The leaves and the flowers are strung into lei, as are the polished kukui nuts. The oil from kukui nuts was traditionally used as a light source, and for various other purposes including numerous medicinal uses. (See Kukui in Lei Flowers and Seed Lei sections, Chapter 3; also see Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
[Photograph: Pua kukui lei]- Lāna‘i’s emblem is kauna‘oa (Cuscuta sandwichiana), a rusty-orange vine that is also known as dodder. Kauna‘oa has tiny round fruits and pointed flowers. The stringy stems are often braided together into strands for lei. (See Kauna‘oa in Lei Flowers section, Chapter 3; and Native Plants of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kauna‘oa lei]- Kaho‘olawe’s emblem is a perennial herb called hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum). Hinahina grows on the beach above the high water line, and has hairy, silvery-green leaves and stems, and fragrant white flowers with yellow centers. The leaves and flowers of hinahina are twisted into open-ended garlands. Today the non-native Spanish moss (also called Florida moss, gray beard, and hinahina) is often substituted for the native hinahina. (See Hinahina in Island Flowers and Lei section, Chapter 3; and Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8; also see Spanish Moss in Island Flowers and Lei section, Chapter 3.)
[Photograph: Hinahina lei]- O‘ahu’s emblem is pua ‘ilima, the flower of ‘ilima (Sida fallax). ‘Ilima is a small, thin hibiscus flower that is yellow to orange in color, and about 1 inch (2.5 cm) across with five petals. ‘Ilima is a popular lei flower in the Hawaiian Islands today, just as it was in ancient Hawai‘i.
Honor and respect among dignitaries is often shown with a velvety rope of carefully strung, bright orange ‘ilima petals. ‘Ilima flowers are extremely thin, and a lei may take 700 to 1,000 of the blossoms. ‘Ilima flowers are sometimes interwoven with maile. (See ‘Ilima in Lei Flowers section, Chapter 3; and Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)[Photograph: Pua ‘ilima lei]
- Kaua‘i’s emblem is the fruit of the mokihana plant (Pelea anisata), a member of the rue family. Mokihana’s yellowish-green to purplish seed capsules are about ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. A mokihana lei is made by stringing together the seed capsules after piercing them through their centers. Mokihana is often strung together with strands of maile. (See Mokihana in Seed Lei section.)
Mokihana’s seed capsules are leathery to the touch, and have a very strong anise-like fragrance that becomes stronger as the seeds dry. Some people are sensitive to the oily substance from mokihana, which may cause blisters. Traditional lei stringers are proud of the scars on their fingers from stringing mokihana lei. (See Mokihana in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)[Photograph: Mokihana lei]
- Ni‘ihau’s emblem is the prizedNi‘ihau shell, pūpū Ni‘ihau, which is actually a general term for three different varieties of shells collected on the island beaches and strung into beautiful lei. The three primary types of shells used for the traditional Ni‘ihau shell lei are kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca), momi (Euplica varians) and laiki (Mitrella margarita). The colors of the shells range from deep brown to pearly white. While these shells are also found on other Hawaiian Islands, they lack the rich luster of the prized Ni‘ihau shell lei.
Pūpū Ni‘ihau show many variations caused by waves and sunlight as well as genetic differences. At least 30 different Hawaiian names describe the particular colors and patterns. (See Ni‘ihau Shell Lei section, Chapter 3.)[Photographs: Kahelelani; momi; and laiki in Ni‘ihau shell lei]
Island Flowers and Lei
The lei is the very symbol of aloha. A Hawaiian proverb states, “E lei no au i ko aloha” (“I will wear your love as a wreath”), meaning “I will cherish your love as a beautiful adornment.”[14]
In ancient Hawai‘i, respect and honor was bestowed upon someone by placing a lei upon their head and shoulders, which are considered sacred parts of the body. The Hawaiian goddess associated with lei making is Kukuena, whose daughter Laka may take the form of ‘ilima (Sida fallax).
[Illustration: Person presenting another with a lei]
Lei Materials and Uses
Ancient Hawaiians utilized various materials for lei. These lei materials included flowers, ferns, fern allies, vines, seeds, nuts, feathers, wood, shells and teeth (e.g., dog teeth, teeth of palaoa (Physeter macrocephalus, sperm whales), and human hair. Also used in lei were bones, including human finger bones.
In ancient Hawai‘i, lei were often woven to pay paid tribute to the gods, and to show reverence and give thanks for all that was provided by the land and sea. Particular lei had ceremonial and medicinal uses.
After Western contact was established in 1778 many introduced species began to be utilized for making lei. For example, the missionaries who came to convert natives to Christianity also brought roses (Rosa species), and the Chinese who came to work in the sugarcane fields also brought pīkake (Jasminum sambac, Arabian jasmine) and pakalana (Telosma cordata, Chinese violet). From the Philippines came the jade vine (Strongylodon macrobotrys), from Tahiti came plumeria (Plumeria species), and from Mexico came Bougainvillea (Bougainvillea species)—and all of these blossoms were fashioned into beautiful lei. Later many other flowers were introduced and lei gained even more popularity as a symbol of aloha.
Today the lei remains an important symbol of friendship, love and aloha. The lei is a traditional welcome, and is used on many different occasions, including birthdays, dances, graduations, weddings and anniversaries. Lei are also made and worn for lū‘au, Hawaiian feasts that are often large gatherings of the extended family (‘ohana).
Lei are often given on Secretary’s Day, Father’s Day and Mother’s Day, and to anyone leaving or arriving in the Hawaiian Islands. Lei are also given to honor athletes at the end of a season or career. They are also placed on the bier at funerals, and on gravestones to pay respect to the departed.
A lei for the head is known as lei po‘o, while a lei worn around the neck is known as lei ‘ā‘ī. Lei made to be worn on the wrists or ankles are known as kūpe‘e. A lei worn around the neck should be worn not just hanging in the front, but more centered, so both the front and back are comfortably arranged. To show appreciation to the giver of a lei, one may give a kiss and an embrace. It is said that if one makes a lei for another and thinks of that person as they make it, the lei will carry those feelings and expressions of love.
Historical Lei Selling Areas
Before World War II, Honolulu’s Maunakea Street was a traditional lei selling area, a floral center where lei sellers lined the sidewalks. The port of Honolulu Harbor was also a popular lei selling area when the luxury liners of the Matson Company docked and unloaded visitors amidst the hoopla of the Royal Hawaiian band and hula dancers. Lei sellers stood on the pier, lei draped over their arms, selling strands of ‘ilima (Sida fallax), ponimō‘ī (Dianthus caryophyllus, carnation), pakalana (Telosma cordata, Chinese violet) and others for about 25 cents each. As the ships rounded Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi), some departing visitors would throw their lei into the sea, believing that if the lei floated onto the beach it was a sign they too would someday return to the Hawaiian Islands.
In Waikīkī, lei were sold near the big hotels: the Royal Hawaiian, the Moana, and the Halekūlani. In the 1950s the Honolulu Airport became a major lei selling area. On Lagoon Drive near the entrance to the airport, the Territory of Hawai’i allowed lei sellers to offer their products, and even built fifteen thatched huts to accommodate the lei sellers.
[Photograph: Lei stands]
Lei Day and other Lei Events
May Day is Lei Day in the Hawaiian Islands. On May 1, everyone is encouraged to make and wear lei. Mainland visitor Don Blanding, a journalist and poet, helped popularize the concept of Lei Day. Some say the holiday has its origins in 1927 when, on May 1 in downtown Honolulu, some lei lovers gathered. Others consider the beginning of the holiday to be in 1928 when Nina Bowman was chosen as the first Lei Day Queen. 1928 was also the year that Red Hawke penned the song, “May Day is Lei Day in Hawai‘i.”
Lei Day became an official holiday of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1929. In 1934 the Honolulu city government began sponsoring a celebration of the holiday. Most schools celebrate Lei Day with festivals, and there are many events held throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu selects its Lei Day Queen on the first Saturday of March.
On King Kamehameha Day, June 11, the statue of the king who united the Hawaiian Islands is draped with many different types of lei, some more than 26 feet (8 m) long. King Kamehameha’s statue stands in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale, a judiciary building in Honolulu.
The King Kamehameha statue in Honolulu is a replica of the original, cast by American sculptor Thomas B. Gould in Italy in 1883. The original 9-ton (8-mton) statue was lost in transport, and then later found in the Falkland Islands soon after the duplicate statue arrived in Honolulu. The original statue now stands in front of the old Kapa‘au courthouse (now a senior citizen center) on the island of Hawai‘i, near where King Kamehameha was born.
The King Kamehameha Hula Competition celebrates the ancient practice of hula, and many spectacular lei are worn by the participants (the 29th annual competition took place June 22, 2002 at the Blaisdell Center Arena).
Other events in the Hawaiian Islands that are celebrated with plenteous lei include Aloha Week and many local and statewide hula events, such as the Merrie Monarch Festival. Numerous island parades also display plenteous lei, often on pā‘ū riders on horses adorned with extravagant displays of lei and greenery.
The King Kamehameha Floral Parade (the 86th annual parade took place on June 8, 2002) stretches out for nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) from downtown Honolulu to Waikīkī with colorful pā‘ū riders, floats and brass bands, including the Royal Hawaiian Band. Beginning at ‘Iolani Palace, the parade passes by the statue of King Kamehameha and then takes Punchbowl Street to Ala Moana, then following Kalākaua Avenue to Kapi‘olani Park.
[Photograph: Floral Parade]
Lei Making Methods
The following are the different ways that lei may be made:
The wili method (wili means “to twist or wind”) involves winding flowers, leaves, fruits or ferns around a solid core. Traditionally this core was made from a coconut palm midrib, a ti leaf, a piece of a banana plant stalk, lau hala, or more modern material (e.g., pipe cleaners). Wili also refers to the twisting of the material itself or to the process of twisting finished strands together.
The hīpu‘u method (also called kīpu‘u) involves knotting stems or vines such as maile into a lei. The hili method involves braiding or plaiting material such as the pala‘ā fern. The hili (braided) method is also used for making ti and maile lei.
The haku method is similar to the hili method, but with flowers or fruits added during the plaiting process, or sewn face out onto a wreath of greenery. The haku method is also used with various non-traditional flowers, such as zinnias, roses, chrysanthemums, and pansies. The traditional meaning of haku is “to arrange” or “to compose,” and involves incorporating the lei materials into a braid, securing the blossoms around a central core using ti leaf, a piece of banana stalk, hau, raffia or other material.
The humupapa method (also known as kui papa) involves sewing flowers and plant materials onto a backing, traditionally ti leaves that have been folded and deboned, or dried fibers of banana stalk. Humupapa was also one of the methods used for feather lei.
The kui method involves stringing flowers (e.g., ‘ilima) or fruits through their centers lengthwise (kui pololei); stringing the blossoms crosswise through the calyx or corolla tube and arranging them around the string facing outwards (kui poepoe); or stringing the blossoms flat or crosswise through the calyx or stem and arranging them alternately on each side of the string (kui lau method, also now called lei maunaloa).
The Micronesian-style lei involves tying or weaving the stems and blossoms into a flat collar and securing them with bast or raffia. This plaiting may be done with two, three or four strands.
[Illustration: Lei constructed using wili, hīpu‘u, hili, kui, haku, humupapa and Micronesian-style methods]
Stringing the Lei
For the needle to string together lei materials, ancient Hawaiians often used the nī‘au (midrib) of the leaf of niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut). This coconut leaf needle is known as a mānai. Sometimes a stiff stem of grass was used.
A Hawaiian proverb states, “I mānai kau, i pua ho‘i ka‘u, kui ‘ia ka makemake a lawa pono.” (“Yours the lei-making needle, mine the flowers; so let us do as we wish [-make a complete lei]”), meaning “You, the man and I, the woman; let us satisfy the demands of love. Said by Hi‘iaka in a chant as she embraced Lohi‘au at the rim of Kīlauea to rouse the jealous wrath of her sister Pele.”[15]
Traditional fibers for stringing, tying and sewing lei included fibers of hau (Talipariti tiliaceum) as well as fibers of the stalk of mai‘a lei ‘ula, a variety of the banana plant (Musa species). Lei of ‘ilima (Sida fallax), known as kui ‘ilima, were often made using the fibers of the aerial roots of hala (Talipariti tiliaceum), which were finer than hau fibers.
Popular and Traditional Lei Flowers
End. - Endemic, native to the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else.
Ind. - Indigenous, native to the Hawaiian Islands and other places.
P.I. - Polynesian Introduced: Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers.
Intr. - Introduced to the Hawaiian Islands after Western contact (1778).
Hawaiian Name Common Name Colors Species Name Origin
Aloalo Pahūpahū Turk’s Cap Hibiscus Scarlet Malvaviscus penduliflorus Intr.
‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o White Ginger White Hedychium coronarium Intr.
‘Awapuhi Melemele Yellow Ginger Yellow Hedychium flavescens Intr.
‘Ilima ‘Ilima Orange, yellow, red, greenish Sida fallax Ind.
Kiele Gardenia White, yellow Gardenia augusta Intr.
Kou Kou Orange Cordia subcordata Ind.
Kukui Candlenut Tree Greenish-white Aleurites moluccana P.I.
Kupaloke Tuberose White Polianthes tuberosa Intr.
Lehua Mau Loa Globe Amaranth Purple,whte,ornge,rose,yllow Gomphrena globosa Intr.
Lokelani Damask Rose Pink Rosa species Intr.
Maunaloa Pacific Beach Pea Pink, reddish, lavender, white Canavalia cathartica Intr.
Maunaloa Sea Bean Blue and white Dioclea wilsonii Intr.
Melia Plumeria White, yellow, pink, rose Plumeria species Intr.
Nānū Gardenia White Gardenia species End.
Nuku ‘I‘iwi Jade Vine Blue-green, red-orange Strongylodon macrobotrys Intr.
Nuku ‘I‘iwi Nuku ‘I‘iwi Scarlet Strongylodon ruber End.
‘Ohai Native Sesbania Orange, red, yellow Sesbania tomentosa End.
‘Ohai Ali‘i Pride of Barbados Scarlet, orange, golden yellow Caesalpinia pulcherrima Intr.
‘Ōhi‘a Lehua ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua Red, orange, yellow, white Metrosideros species End.
‘Okika Dendrobium Orchid Prple, yellw, pnk, whte, grn Dendrobium species; hybrids Intr.
‘Okika Vanda Vanda Orchid Lavender-pink Euanthe sanderiana Intr.
‘Oliana Oleander White, pink, red Nerium oleander Intr.
Pahūpahū Flame Vine Orange with yellow tip Pyrostegia venusta Intr.
Pakalana Chinese violet Yellowish-green Telosma cordata Intr.
Pāneki Pansy Yellow, blue, violet, white Viola tricolor Intr.
Pīkake Arabian Jasmine White Jasminum sambac Intr.
Ponimō‘ī Carnation Red, white, pink, yellow Dianthus caryophyllus Intr.
Pua Kalaunu Crown Flower White, lavender Calotropis gigantea Intr.
Pua Kenikeni Ten Cent Flower White, orange, yellow Fagraea berteriana Intr.
Pua Kīkā Cigar flower Orange to red, with black tip Cuphea ignea Intr.
Pua Male Stephanotis White Stephanotis floribunda Intr.
Pua Pākē Chrysanthemum White, red, yellow, prple, pnk Chrysanthemum species Intr.
Pua Pihi Zinnia Various Zinnia elegans Intr.
Pukanawila Bougainvillea Purple, red, orange, whitish Bougainvillea species Intr.
Other Traditional Lei Materials
Lei Niho Palaoa Whale Tooth Pendant Ind.
Ferns
Pala‘ā (Lace Fern) Sphenomeris chinensis Ind.
Palapalai Microlepia strigosa End.
Laua‘e Phymatosorus scolopendria Intr.
Pala Marattia douglasii End.
Fern Allies
Moa Psilotum nudum Ind.
Wāwae‘iole (Tropical Club Moss) Lycopodium cernua Ind.
Plants
Hinahina (vine) Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum End.
Kauna‘oa (Hawaiian Dodder) (vine) Cuscuta sandwichiana End.
Kī (Ti) (leaves) Cordyline fruticosa P.I.
Limu (Seaweed) Various species End.
Maile (leaves) Alyxia oliviformis End.
Spanish Moss (leaves) Tillandsia usneoides Intr.
‘Uala (Sweet potato vines) Ipomoea batatas P.I.
Ni‘ihau Shell Lei — Pūpū Ni‘ihau
Finding the Shells
Ni‘ihau Shell Varieties
Momi Euplica varians
Kahelelani Leptothyra verruca
Laiki Mitrella Margarita
Making the Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Methods and Styles
Seed Lei — Lei Hua
A‘e (Soapberry) Sapindus saponaria Ind.
‘Ākia Wikstroemia species End.
Ali‘ipoe (Canna Lily) Canna indica Intr.
‘Ēkoa (Lead Tree) Leucaena leucocephala Intr.
Hala (Pandanus) Pandanus tectorius Ind.
Hua Weleweka (Velvet Seed) Majidea zanquebarica Intr.
Kā‘e‘e (Sea Bean) Mucuna gigantea subsp. gigantea Ind.
Kākalaioa (Gray Nickers) Caesalpinia bonduc Ind.
Keli Kepania (Spanish Cherry) Mimusops elengi Intr.
Kamani (Punnai Nut) Calophyllum inophyllum P.I.
Keko (Cycad) Cycas circinalis Intr.
Kou (Cordia) Cordia subcordata Ind.
Kukui (Candlenut Tree) Aleurites moluccana P.I.
Kukui Hele Pō Kina (Chinese Lantern) Hernandia nymphaeifolia Intr.
Loulu Hiwa (Pritchardia Palm) Pritchardia martii End.
Maka Hipa (Sheep’s-Eye) Mucuna sloanei Ind.;End.
Makekomia (Macadamia Nut) Macadamia integrifolia Ind.
Māpala Polū (Blue Fig) Elaeocarpus grandis Ind.
Maunaloa (Pacific Beach Pea) Canavalia cathartica Ind.
Milo (Portia Tree) Thespesia populnea P.I.
Mokihana Pelea anisata End.
Nīoi Pekela (Betel Nut Palm) Areca catechu Intr.
Niu Keko (Monkey Nut) Syagrus romanzoffiana Intr.
Nohomālie (Lucky Nut) Thevetia peruviana Intr.
‘Ohai (Monkeypod) Samanea saman Intr.
‘Ohai Ali‘i (Pride of Barbados) Caesalpinia pulcherrima Intr.
Paina (Ironwood) Casuarina equisetifolia Intr.
Pepeiao ‘Elepani (Ear Seed) Enterolobium cyclocarpum Intr.
Pilikai (Wood Rose) Operculina tuberosa Intr.
Pili-Nut (Java Almond) Canarium vulgare Intr.
Pōniu (Heart Seed) Cardiospermum halicacabum Intr.
Pūkiawe (Bead Vine) Abrus precatorius Intr.
Pū‘ohe‘ohe (Job’s Tears) Coix lacryma jobi Intr.
Waina Kai (Sea Grape) Coccoloba uvifera Intr.
Wī ‘Awa‘awa (Tamarind) Tamarindus indica Intr.
Wiliwili (Hawaiian Coral Tree) Erythrina sandwicensis End.
Wiliwili Haole (Common Coral Tree) Erythrina crista-galli Intr.
Popular and Traditional Lei Flowers
He hi‘i alo ua milimili ‘ia i ke alo, ua ha‘awe ‘ia ma ke kua, ua lei ‘ia ma ka ‘ā‘ī.
A beloved one, fondled in the arms, carried on the back, whose arms
have gone about the neck as a lei.
Said of a beloved child.
(Pukui: 575-67)
Key to Species Classifications:
Native—Arrived in the Hawaiian Islands without the aid of humans (indigenous), or evolved in the Hawaiian Islands (endemic).
Indigenous—Native to the Hawaiian Islands and other places.
Endemic—Evolved in the Hawaiian Islands from an indigenous species; native to the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else.
Polynesian Introduction—Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers.
Post-Contact Introduction—Brought to the Hawaiian Islands after Western contact (1778).
Naturalized—Not native to the Hawaiian Islands, but now growing wild in the Hawaiian Islands.
Pua ‘ohi.
Flower picking.
Chitchat.
(Pukui: 2710-296)
Aloalo Pahūpahū (Malvaviscus penduliflorus)
Common Name: Turk’s Cap Hibiscus
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family
The Turk’s cap hibiscus reaches heights of about 13 feet (4 m), with bright red, tubular flowers that are about 2 to 2 ½ inches (5 to 6 cm) long with protruding stamens. Several varieties of the pendulous flowers are cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands, where they blossom year round, though not as often from December to February.
The blossoms of the Turk’s cap never fully open, and so they do not wilt as easily as other hibiscus flowers. This makes them ideal for use in lei, which are often assembled Micronesian style, tied or woven into a flat collar. (See Lei Making Methods.) About 90 blossoms are required for a standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei.
The Turk’s cap is also known as the firecracker hibiscus. The term pahūpahū means, “firecracker,” and is a reference to the bright scarlet blooms of the plant. The Hawaiian term aloalo refers to various hibiscus plants, including several native varieties (See Aloalo in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Turk’s cap hibiscus lei]
‘Awapuhi Ke‘oke‘o(Hedychium coronarium)
Common Name: White Ginger
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Zingiberaceae—Ginger Family
Along with the gardenia, the white ginger flower is symbolic of love and romance. The fragrant flowers grow to about 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter, with broad-lipped main petals and smaller side petals that give the flower a moth-like appearance. The plant may bloom year round, particularly in late spring and fall.
White ginger lei are sometimes referred to as evening lei because they are often strung in the evening to be worn that night. With a sweet, delicate aroma and orchid-like configuration, the blossoms are woven into the finest of lei, usually strung Micronesian style, tied or woven into a flat collar. (See Lei Making Methods.) About 125 buds are required for a standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei.
The white ginger plant grows to about 6½ feet (2 m) tall. The plant is widely cultivated, and is also found growing wild along some windward highways. It is also widely cultivated.
[Photograph: White ginger lei]
‘Awapuhi Melemele(Hedychium flavescens)
Common Name: Yellow Ginger
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Zingiberaceae—Ginger Family
Yellow ginger is naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, growing in moist areas, particularly the montane forests on all the main Hawaiian Islands, with the exception of Lāna‘i. Yellow ginger is similar to white ginger (‘awapuhi ke‘oke‘o) but with yellow flowers. Yellow ginger is also said to have a more “nutty” fragrance than the white ginger.
Yellow ginger often forms dense entanglements. The plant was likely introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by Chinese immigrants.
[Photograph: Yellow ginger lei]
‘Ilima (Sida fallax)
Indigenous
Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family
Mentioned in Hawaiian legends and traditionally woven into lei for ancient royalty, the ‘ilima lei is the official emblem of the island of O‘ahu. (See Island Emblems section.)
The delicate, 5-petalled flowers of ‘ilima are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter. The color of the blossoms varies from light yellow to deep yellow, orange, greenish, dull red or even copper colored.
The ‘ilima is a popular lei flower in the Hawaiian Islands today, just as it was in ancient Hawai‘i. It is often stated that ‘ilima lei were reserved for the upper class, or ali‘i (chiefs and royalty) in ancient Hawai‘i, but other accounts state that ‘ilima was utilized more widely as a lei flower.
Ola no i ka pua o ka ‘ilima.
There is healing in the ‘ilima blossoms.
The ‘ilima blossom is one of the first medicines given to babies. It is a mild laxative.
Hi‘iaka, goddess of medicine in Pele’s family, used ‘ilima in some of her healings.
(Pukui: 2489-272)
Stringing a single ‘ilima lei may take 700 or more than 1,000 of the tissue paper-thin ‘ilima flowers. The domesticated form of ‘ilima is known as ‘ilima lei, and is the most common variety used in lei. Traditionally used on the ends of the ‘ilima lei were the soft, green fruit of ma‘o(Abutilon grandifolium, hairy abutilon), or the cap-like calyx of the ‘ilima flower. ‘Ilima blossoms are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) ‘Ilima flowers are sometimes interwoven with maile.
Growing commonly in coastal areas, ‘ilima is a low-lying plant that may reach heights of more than 5 feet (1.5 m) ‘Ilima blooms year round, particularly during summer. (See ‘Ilima in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
The Hawaiian goddess associated with lei making is Kukuena, whose daughter Laka may take the form of ‘ilima. According to legend, ‘ilima was also the flower lei worn by the goddess Hina when she escaped from the cave of the monster eel Kuna Loa with the help of the god Māui.
[Photograph: ‘Ilima lei]
Kiele(Gardenia augusta)
Common Name: Gardenia
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to southern China.
Family: Rubiaceae—Coffee Family
Symbolic of love and romance, the gardenia’s Hawaiian name is kiele, meaning, “to emit fragrance.” Introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by early Chinese settlers, gardenias prefer wet and warm lowland habitat, rich acid soil, and shelter from wind. A Hawaiian proverb states, “Ke kololio ka hau o uka, ko mai ka nae ‘a‘ala o ke kiele” (“When the dew-laden breeze of the upland creeps swiftly down it brings with it the fragrance of the gardenias”), which is “...said of one who comes with happy tidings.”[xvi]
The wonderfully fragrant ornamental variety of gardenia common in the Hawaiian Islands, Gardenia augusta, is native to China. The plant produces blossoms that are 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) in diameter with a tubular corolla. The flowers bloom from March to June and occasionally in the fall.
A standard 40-inch (100-cm) gardenia lei requires about 40 flowers, which are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) Before the blossom is strung, the calyx and lower part of the flower tube is removed.
A related species, Gardenia taitensis, is known as tiare. Tiare is native to the Society Islands and a favorite lei flower of Tahitians in the Hawaiian Islands. The Hawaiian Islands also have three native gardenia species, which are referred to as nānū. (See Nānū section.)
[Photograph: Gardenia lei]
Kou (Cordia subcordata)
Indigenous (reclassified in 2001, previously classified as Polynesian Introduction)
Family: Boraginaceae—Borage Family
Kou was a traditional lei flower of the ancient Hawaiians, who also had medicinal uses for the plant. Until 2001, it was widely believed that kou was first brought to the Hawaiian Islands on the voyaging canoes of the early Polynesian settlers. However a recent discovery of subfossil seeds caused the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i[xvii] to reclassify kou as indigenous, even though kou also was likely brought to the Hawaiian Islands on the Polynesian’s voyaging canoes.
The crepy, bright orange flowers of kou grow in small clusters. The 5- to 7-lobed, tubular flowers are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) in diameter, with a 3- to 5-toothed, enlarged calyx that contains the fruit. The fruit is about 1½ inches (4 cm) in diameter and contains 1 to 4 white seeds. (See Kou in Seed Lei section; and Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kou lei.]
Kukui (Aleurites moluccana)
Common Name: Candlenut Tree
Polynesian Introduction; Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Euphorbiaceae—Spurge Family
Kukui is the official emblem of the State of Hawai‘i. (See Island Emblems section.) Small, greenish-white male and female flowers (pua kukui) grow in clusters at the ends of the kukui’s branches. In each of the clusters, about five or more fruits develop. In ancient Hawai‘i, the creamy white flowers of kukui were strung into lei, as were the leaves and the polished nuts. One common method of making a lei kukui was to braid the leaves with the stems and then insert the flower clusters. (See Lei Making Methods.)
It was said that kukui flowers seen floating in streams signaled bad weather arriving from that direction. A Hawaiian proverb states, “He kiu ka pua kukui na ka makani.” (“The kukui blossoms are a sign of wind.”)[xviii]
(See Kukui in Island Emblems section; Seed Lei section; and Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
[Illustration: Kukui flower lei.]
Kupaloke (Polianthes tuberosa)
Common Name: Tuberose
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico.
Family: Liliaceae—Lily Family
The creamy, white flowers of tuberose are wonderfully fragrant, making them a favorite for use in lei. The elongated flowers are tubular and somewhat star-shaped, spreading open at the mouth. The flowers bloom on a spike atop the plant stem, which rises to a height of about 3 ft (1 m). Tuberose blooms year round, particularly from February to October.
A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 40 to 50 blossoms, which are usually strung using the kui pololei method, lengthwise through the flowers’ centers. (See Lei Making Methods.)
[Photograph: Tuberose lei]
Lehua Mau Loa (Gomphrena globosa)
Common Name: Globe Amaranth
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Southeast Asia and the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Amaranthaceae—Amaranth Family
Lehua mau loa has papery, ball-shaped blossoms that are about ¾-inch (2 cm) in diameter. Also known as lehua pepa (“paper lehua”) or leihua (“ball lei”), the blossom of lehua mau loa is actually a mass of small overlapping bracts (modified leaves) similar to a protea or artichoke. Japanese settlers called this flower “bozu,” which means “bald head.”
The most common color of lehua mau loa is purple, but the flower may also be violet, pink, rose, orange, white or yellow. The plant grows to about 24 inches (60 cm) and blooms year round.
Lehua mau loa means “Everlasting lehua,” referring to the flower’s ability to last a long time in a lei without wilting. Lei may be strung with fresh or dried blossoms, and are often strung in single strands (kui pololei) and may be arranged into a spiral pattern (kui poepoe). A double lei requires about 280 blossoms.
[Photograph: Lehua mau loa lei]
Lokelani (Rosa species)
Common Name: Damask Rose
Post-Contract Introduction: Hybrid cultivars.
Family: Rosaceae—Rose Family
Pua lokelani, the red flower of lokelani, is also known as the pink damask rose, or the rose of heaven. The fragrant lokelani blossom has a rich, velvety texture. The flowers are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.)
An introduced species, the lokelani was brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the missionaries in the 1820s. Other names for lokelani include the China rose and Maui rose. Pua lokelani is the official island emblem of Maui. (See Island Emblems section.)
[Photograph: Lokelani lei]
Maunaloa (Canavalia cathartica)
Common Name: Pacific Beach Pea
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to East Africa, India and Polynesia; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
A coastal plant, the maunaloa vine grows in sandy and rocky areas and produces mildly fragrant white and pink, reddish, or lavender colored flowers that are about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 4 cm) long. Maunaloa blooms year round, particularly from May to October.
Making a maunaloa style lei involves threading the pea-like flattened flowers (picked unopened) through the calyx. The flowers are strung with the keel extending outwards, and alternating sides (kui lau method). (See Lei Making Methods.) The keel and wing petals are alternated with the top petal bent back flat.
The maunaloa lei may be constructed with several spirals of colors in what is known as a composite lei, or‘oni. The blossoms are sometimes strung into a double lei, which is strung in a circular pattern using the kui poepoe method and requires about 165 blossoms. The seeds of maunaloa were also used for lei. (See Maunaloa in Seed Lei section.)
It should be noted that the Hawaiian term maunaloa also refers to Dioclea wilsonii, whose common name is the sea bean. The sea bean is known to have had medicinal uses among early Hawaiians. It is thought to be a post-contact introduced species, though further research may reveal it to be native. The blue and white flowers of Dioclea wilsonii were also used in lei. Dioclea wilsonii is naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Maunaloa (Canavalia cathartica) lei; maunaloa (Dioclea wilsonii) lei]
Melia(Plumeria species)
Common Name: Plumeria
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Central America.
Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family
Introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the 1800s, plumeria’s fragrant, star-like (5-petalled) blossoms (pua melia) are among Hawai‘i’s most popular lei flowers. The flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter. Aside from their wonderful fragrance, the plumeria is popular because it is long-lasting, easy to string and readily available.
Plumeria vary in color, and may be white, red, pink, yellowish, or combinations of these colors. There are numerous natural and cultivated hybrids of plumeria, with many variations in the blossoms’ size, color and fragrance.
Plumeria blooms primarily from March to October, and then the tree goes dormant during the winter months. The blossoms are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 45 to 55 blossoms.
Plumeria’s deer-antler-like branches grow readily when they are broken off and simply stuck into the ground. The milky sap of the plant is poisonous and should be avoided. Plumeria is named after Charles Plumier. Also known as the “temple tree,” plumeria is considered sacred in Sri Lanka and India.
[Photograph: Plumeria lei]
Nānū(Gardenia species)
Also called: Nā‘ū
Common Name: Gardenia
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Rubiaceae—Coffee Family
There are three native species of gardenia (all endemic to the Hawaiian Islands), and they are all referred to by the Hawaiian word nānū, or nā‘ū. The three species of native gardenia are G. brighamii, G. mannii, and G. remyi. All three are quite rare in the Hawaiian Islands, and the first two are on the federal endangered species list.
Nānū is a small tree, reaching heights up to about 20 feet (6 m), and a trunk diameter of about 12 inches (30 cm). Nānū has shiny, dark green leaves and fragrant flowers that are smaller than the non-native Tahitian gardenia (see Kiele above). Known for its delicate scent, nānū was prized lei flower, and legends tell of nānū wound with maile (Alyxia oliviformis) and given to King Kamehameha as a tribute.
Nānū’s round, fleshy fruits are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter encasing many small seeds. A yellow dye (used for kapa barkcloth) was made from the fruit of nānū. The tree’s wood was traditionally used to make the kua kuku (wooden anvil) used during the second stage of kapa beating to separate and soften the bast fibers. G. remyi’s glutinous leaf buds were used as an adhesive.
As of 2002, G. brighamii had been reduced to less than 20 trees in six populations (on Moloka‘i, O‘ahu, and Lāna‘i), and G. manni was reduced to about 85 plants in 27 populations in mesic (moist) and wet forests on O‘ahu. G. remyi is not currently listed as endangered, and grows in mesic (moist) to wet forests on Maui, Moloka‘i, and Kaua‘i. On the island of Hawai‘i, G. remyi grows in the Puna and Hilo districts.
[Photograph: Nānū lei]
Nuku ‘I‘iwi(Strongylodon macrobotrys)
Common Name: Jade Vine
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Philippines.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The thickly textured blue-green or turquoise flowers of the jade vine are referred to as “beaked” flowers, due to their pointed beak-like shape, which is also sometimes described as horn-like. The blossoms of nuku ‘i‘iwi are about 3 to 3½ inches (7 to 9 cm) long, and grow in long clusters up to 18 inches (46 cm) long. The flowers usually bloom just for a few weeks between February and June, though they sometimes bloom as late as November.
Nuku ‘i‘iwi flowers turn from blue-green to a lavender color, and are often woven into flattened maunaloa style lei, with the flowers threaded crosswise using the kui lau method, alternating their direction in a back and forth pattern. (See Lei Making Methods.) A standard 40-inch 100-cm) lei requires about 90 to 100 blossoms.
Nuku ‘i‘iwi is a twining climber that may exceed 70 feet (21 m) in length. A red-orange variety of nuku ‘i‘iwi is a new arrival in the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Nuku ‘i‘iwi (Strongylodon macrobotrys) lei]
Nuku ‘I‘iwi(Strongylodon ruber)
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The beautiful scarlet flowers of nuku ‘i‘iwi are narrow and curved, coming to a point. The flowers resemble the shape of the beak of the ‘i‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea), an endangered native Hawaiian honeycreeper bird (nuku means “beak”).
Nuku ‘i‘iwi plants still survive at the lower elevations where ‘i‘iwi birds once lived, though avian malaria and other causes have now restricted the bird’s range to higher elevations. (See Nuku ‘I‘iwi in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Nuku ‘I‘iwi(Strongylodon ruber) lei]
‘Ohai (Sesbania tomentosa)
Common Name: Native Sesbania
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
‘Ohai’s flowers are about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 3.8 cm) long, and orange to salmon red in color ( rarely yellow), growing in clusters in the axils of the leaves. ‘Ohai is an endangered, endemic Hawaiian species that was once common along the shorelines of the Islands. It is a coastal species that also grows at elevations up to 2,700 feet (825 m). ‘Ohai is generally a low-growing woody shrub, though it may grow as a small tree, reaching heights of more than 20 feet (6 m). (See ‘Ohai in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: ‘Ohai lei]
‘Ohai Ali‘i(Caesalpinia pulcherrima)
Common Name: Pride of Barbados
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical America.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
‘Ohai ali‘i is an ornamental shrub that usually grows to about 8 feet (2.4 m) but may reach heights of 20 feet (6 m). Also called dwarf poinciana, ‘ohai ali‘i has prickly, coarse leaves comprised of numerous leaflets, each about ¾-inch (2 cm) long. The tree also produces scarlet and golden flowers, including a darker red variety and a yellow variety. The flowers are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long.
The vibrant yellow and crimson flowers were said to remind the ancient Hawaiians of their colorful ‘ahu ‘ula (royal capes and cloaks) and mahiole (feather-crested helmets), so they gave the plant its Hawaiian name, which means, “royal ‘ohai.”
‘Ohai ali‘i lei are often strung using the kui poepoe method, which involves stringing the flowers crosswise and arranging the flowers around the string. (See Lei Making Methods.)
[Photograph: Pride of Barbados lei]
‘Ōhi‘a Lehua (Metrosideros species)
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Myrtaceae—Myrtle Family
Beautiful lei are woven from the flowers, unopened buds, young silvery leaves (liko lehua) and seed capsules (hua lehua) of the ‘ōhi‘a lehua tree. The most common species of ‘ōhi‘a lehua is M. polymorpha, easily recognized by its bright red blossoms (the stamens), which look like scarlet pompoms.
‘Ōhi‘a lehua blossoms may also be pale red, salmon-colored, orange or yellow (M. macropus). These bright-colored pompom-like structures are the flower’s many stamens (the male organs). The flower also has one pistil (the female organ). One rare variety, ‘ōhi‘a lehua puakea (or ‘ōhi‘a kea), produces blossoms that are a creamy white color.
Other flowers in the Metrosideros genus used for lei in ancient Hawai‘i include M. rugosa, which was known as lehua papa, and M. tremuloides, known as lehua ‘āhihi. (See ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.) A Hawaiian proverb states, “‘Opihi kauwawe lehua o Hōpoe” (“‘Opihi covered by the lehua blossoms of Hōpoe”), meaning “...the fringes of lehua at Hōpoe fall into the sea, and are washed up over the rocks, hiding the ‘opihi.”[xix]
[Photograph: ‘Ōhi‘a lehua lei]
‘Okika (Dendrobium species; hybrids)
Common Name: Dendrobium Orchid
Also Called: Thailand Dendrobium; Red Soniya.
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India, Asia, and Pacific islands.
Family: Orchidaceae—Orchid Family
The dendrobium orchid is one of the primary commercially produced lei flowers in the Hawaiian Islands. It is also imported from Thailand. The flowers bloom year round, and may be lavender purple in color (probably the most popular) or yellow, yellow-brown, pink, white or green. The blossoms, often produced in large sprays, are about 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) long.
Dendrobium orchid lei are strung in various manners, including folding the petals or removing the petals and stringing only the sepals. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 45 to 55 flowers, which are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.)
There are at least 1,500 species of dendrobium orchids as well as many hybrids. The plant has a long flowering season and is also easily cultivated, making it very popular. Tough purple or white hybrids are the most commonly grown varieties for the cut-flower trade in the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Dendrobium orchid lei]
‘Okika Vanda (Euanthe sanderiana)
Common Name: Vanda Orchid
Also Called: “Miss Joaquim.”
Post-Contact Introduction: Hybrid of species native to Philippines.
Family: Orchidaceae—Orchid Family
Vanda orchid blossoms are about 2½ inches (6 cm) in diameter, with three lavender-pink (purplish) petals and two white sepals.
The vanda orchid first came to the Hawaiian Islands around 1930 and was first entered in the Honolulu May Day contest in 1938. Then in 1949 a vanda orchid lei won the contest. Vanda orchid lei are often constructed maunaloa-style. After the lateral petals are removed, the blossoms are strung alternately from side to side using the kui lau method. (See Lei Making Methods.) The blossoms are also strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. The flowers are sometimes strung with the petals left on, or just the petals (cast offs) may be strung).
The ‘okika vanda was first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands around 1930. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 45 to 55 flowers. The flowers once accounted for nearly half of the cut flower and lei flower market in the Hawaiian Islands.
Vanda orchids bloom year round, particularly during the summer months, with most of the production occurring in Puna and Hilo.
[Photograph: ‘Okika vanda lei]
‘Oliana(Nerium oleander)
Common Name: Oleander
Post-Contact Introduction: Cultivar; originally native to southwestern Asia and northern Africa.
Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family
The blossoms of oleander may be white, pink or red, and are sometimes strung into lei. Oleander is a poisonous plant. The oleander lei was a favorite of the Hawaiian Princess Ke‘elikōlani, a stout woman whose strong character was said to have made her unafraid of the toxic nature of the flowers.
[Photograph: Oleander lei]
Pahūpahū (Pyrostegia venusta)
Common Name: Flame Vine
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to South America
Family: Bignoniaceae—Bignonia Family
A small bright-reddish, slender flower with a yellow tip, the pahūpahū blossom is often strung back-and-forth using the kui lau method. The blossoms are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and bloom year round.
The plant’s scientific genus name, Pyrostegia, means “Charming fire,” while the plant’s Hawaiian name, pahūpahū, means “firecracker.” The flowers are often strung in a circular pattern using the kui poepoe method. (See Lei Making Methods.) A 40-inch (100-cm) double lei requires about 450 pahūpahū blossoms.
[Photograph: Pahūpahū lei]
Pakalana(Telosma cordata)
Common Name: Chinese Violet
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Asclepiadaceae—Milkweed Family
Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by early Chinese immigrants, the yellowish-green, 5-petalled flower buds of pakalana are quite fragrant. The pakalana lei is associated with love, and has a lemon-like fragrance. The ½-inch (13-mm) long, tubular blossoms of pakalana are traditionally strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method, and also sometimes through their sides. (See Lei Making Methods.)
About 150 of the small pakalana flowers are required to string one strand. A lei usually consists of several strands, which may be worn on the head or around the neck. The blossoms are most abundant from May to October. Though its common name is the Chinese violet, the pakalana flower is actually not a violet.
Along with lei of carnations and ‘ilima, pakalana was one of the most common lei sold before World War II at the port of Honolulu Harbor where the luxury liners of the Matson Company docked and unloaded visitors.
[Photograph: Pakalana lei]
Pāneki(Viola tricolor)
Common Name: Pansy
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Europe and Asia.
Family: Violaceae—Violet Family
Pansies were first introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by Hawai‘i Island (Big Island) cattleman Jack Purdy, who planted them in the 1850s in Waimea on Hawai‘i Island. Pansies grow well at the cool, higher elevations of the Big Island cattle ranches, and today remain a favorite flower for the haku hat and neck lei of the traditional Hawaiian cowboys, who are known in Hawaiian as paniolos after the Spanish word, Españoles.
The Hawaiian word for pansies is pāneki, though the Kohala (paniolo) name for the flowers is pua po‘okanaka, which means, “flower like a human face.” The plants grow from 6 to 12 feet (1.8 to 3.7 m) tall and produce blossoms of various colors including yellow, blue, violet and white.
[Photograph: Pansy lei]
Pīkake(Jasminum sambac)
Common Name: Arabian Jasmine
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to India.
Family: Oleaceae—Olive Family
Brought to the Hawaiian Islands by early Chinese immigrants, the wonderfully fragrant pīkake remains a popular lei flower for many special occasions, including weddings.
The flowers of pīkake are about ¾-inch (2 cm) long and about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter when fully opened. The flowers may be single or double. The single flowered form is known as pīkake lahilahi, and has about nine petals. The double flowered form is known as pīkake pupupu, and displays a dense group of petals that appear more rose-like.
Pīkake blossoms are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method when making a single strand lei, or in a circular pattern using the kui poepoe method when a thicker lei is desired. (See Lei Making Methods.) Pīkake blooms year round, though less so during the winter months. A 40-inch (100-cm) lei strung using the kui pololei method requires about 100 pīkake blossoms.
Pīkake is the Hawaiian word for peacocks, and later came to be the Hawaiian name for the white Arabian jasmine flower because the blossom was a favorite of the last Hawaiian princess, the young Princess Ka‘iulani, who was heir to the throne before she died at the age of 23.
Princess Ka‘iulani had many peacocks (known by the Hawaiian word pīkake), which roamed the gardens of fragrant, white Arabian jasmine flowers at her Waikīkī estate known as ‘Āinahau, which was the palace of her uncle, King Kalākaua. Princess Ka‘iulani was in England attending boarding school when the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown in 1893.
Princess Ka‘iulani, just 17 years old, left England and went to Washington D.C. to appeal to President Grover Cleveland, who ordered that the monarchy be restored (though this never occurred). In 1899, Princess Ka‘iulani died at ‘Āinahau, where her favored flowers grew and where her peacocks roamed.
He pua laha ‘ole.
A flower not common.
One who is as choice and highly prized as a very rare blossom.
An expression much used in chants and songs.
(Pukui: 920-99)
Though Ka‘iulani’s death was attributed to a fever, many believe she died of a broken heart. On the night she died the pīkake (peacocks) are said to have made loud vocal displays of their grief. From its association with the young princess, the Arabian jasmine flower is now also known by the Hawaiian term pīkake. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1875, Oct. 16 for more information about Princess Ka‘iulani.)
Some follow the belief that giving someone a gift of one or two pīkake lei is a symbol of friendship, three or four implies romance, and five or six is a testament of love. Even more pīkake are given to one’s bride. Princesses and queens of pageants and parades also commonly wear pīkake lei.
Pīkake has long been used to make jasmine tea—it takes about 4 pounds (1.8 kg) of flowers to scent about 10 pounds (4.5 kg) of tea. Pīkake is also the national flower of Indonesia and the Philippines.
[Photograph: Pīkake lei]
Ponimō‘ī(Dianthus caryophyllus)
Common Name: Carnation
Post-Contact Introduction: Cultivar, originally from the Mediterranean region.
Family: Caryophyllaceae—Pink Family
Originally brought to the Hawaiian Islands in the mid-1800s by Protestant missionaries, carnations are known for their spicy fragrance and bright colors, and are a popular lei flower. The white carnation lei is usually worn by women, while the red carnation lei is usually worn by men.
Carnation blossoms are about 3 inches (8 cm) in diameter, consisting of about 30 petals. The flowers are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.) A standard 40-inch (102-cm) lei requires about 70 blossoms.
The Hawaiian name for the carnation is ponimō‘ī, which also means “coronation,” referring to the crowning of a king or queen. The flower gained this name as a result of a confusion between the English words carnation and coronation. The carnation was a favorite flower of King Kalākaua, who became the first Hawaiian king to have a coronation.
Carnations bloom year round though not as commonly during the winter months.
[Photograph: Carnation lei]
Pua Kalaunu (Calotropis gigantea)
Common Name: Crown Flower
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical and subtropical regions, particularly Africa.
Family: Asclepiadaceae—Milkweed Family
The crown flower was a favorite of Queen Lili‘uokalani, who was known to wear long strands of the blossoms, particularly the lavender-purple form. The fragrant flower consists of five twisted (curled-back) petals and a waxy, crown-like center that resembles a small, ivory royal crown (kalaunu means “crown”).
The flower corollas of pua kalaunu are pale violet to lavender or pale greenish-white in color and about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 4 cm) in diameter. The crown flower is a favorite of butterflies, and the plant’s large leaves are thick and hairy, and contain a milky sap that is distasteful to butterfly predators.
Lei made from pua kalaunu may use just the crowns or the complete flowers. The crowns may be strung through their centers using the kui pololei method, or a round lei is strung using the kui poepoe method. (See Lei Making Methods.) The crown flower blooms year round, particularly in summer. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 60 to 70 blossoms.
A sacred flower in India, the crown flower is associated with Kama, the Indian God of Love. It is most commonly seen today in hot, lowland areas. The lavender-purple variety was brought to the Hawaiian Islands in 1888, and the white-flowered variety was brought from India around 1920.
Like Cupid, Kama is known to shoot his arrows (one of them tipped with a crown flower) into the hearts of humans causing those being shot to fall in love with one another. The crown flower is often displayed in Indian temples, and is used in Thailand for weddings and for offerings.
[Photograph: Crown Flower lei]
Pua Kenikeni(Fagraea berteriana)
Common Name: Ten Cent Flower
Post-Contract Introduction: Native to South Pacific region and Southeast Asia.
Family: Loganiaceae—Logania Family
The wonderful fragrance of pua kenikeni blossoms makes them a favorite for use in lei as well as for scenting coconut oil. The 5-petalled, tubular flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) long, and grow in clusters at the end of the tree’s branches. The tree may reach a height of about 15 feet (4.6 m), and has quadrangular branches and blunt-tipped leaves. The tree also produces orange or red berries that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide.
Pua kenikeni flowers are creamy white, changing to yellow and then orange by day’s end, while still maintaining their delicious scent. The plant’s name means “ten cent” flower, referring to the former price of the blossoms, which was much higher than other flowers. Pua kenikeni blooms from April to November, and standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei requires about 40 to 50 flowers, which are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method. (See Lei Making Methods.)
[Photograph: Pua kenikeni lei]
Pua Kīkā(Cuphea ignea)
Common Name: Cigar Flower
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico and West Indies; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Lythraceae—Loosestrife Family
The cigar flower gets its name from its small, tubular, orange-red flowers, which have six black/grey-tipped teeth that also display a bit of white at the tip (similar to the ash at the tip of a burning cigar or cigarette). Pua kīkā lei are often made using the kui poepoe method by piercing the flowers crosswise and then stringing the lei round. (See Lei Making Methods.)
Kīkā is a shrub that usually grows to about 24 inches (60 cm) tall with stems that are 12 to 20 inches (30 to 50 cm) long and slender flowers that are about ½ to 1 inch (2 to 2.5 cm) long. Kikā’s small, bright green leaves are elliptical in shape, measuring about 1 to 1½ inches (2.5 to 4 cm) long and 1/5 to ½-inch (5 to 13 mm) wide. The scientific name of the plant, Cuphea ignea, means “Curved fiery red,” describing the flowers.
The cigar flower blooms year round, but infrequently during July and August. A standard 40-inch (100-cm) double lei is often made using the kui poepoe method, stringing the blossoms crosswise and arranging them around the string facing outwards. (See Lei Making Methods.) This may require more than 1,700 blossoms.
[Photograph: Cigar Flower lei]
Pua Male(Stephanotis floribunda)
Common Name: Stephanotis
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical regions of Africa, Madagascar and Asia.
Family: Asclepiadaceae—Milkweed Family
The Hawaiian name for the stephanotis flower is pua male, which means “marry flower.” A popular lei flower for weddings, stephanotis blossoms are tubular and waxy, with widely flared white lobes. The fragrant, 5-petalled flowers are about 1 to 2½ inches (2.5 to 6 cm) long and grow in clusters.
Pua male blooms from March to November. A lei may require about 250 blossoms, which are usually strung straight through their centers using the kui pololei method. The pua male lei may also be made with the kui poepoe method, stringing the blossoms across the corolla and then arranging them in a circular pattern. (See Lei Making Methods.)
Stephanotis has oval, leathery leaves that are deep green in color and may have a waxy appearance. Sometimes referred to as Madagascar jasmine or creeping tuberose, stephanotis is a member of the milkweed family, though it is not typical of other milkweeds. A vine and not a bushy plant, stephanotis also produces mango-like fruits that appear unusually large given the modest stature of the plant.
[Photograph: Stephanotis]
Pua Pākē(Chrysanthemum species)
Common Name: Chrysanthemum
Post-Contact Introduction: Cultivars, originally native to eastern Asia.
Family: Asteraceae—Sunflower Family
There are thousands of different chrysanthemum cultivars and they produce a wide range of blooms. The flowerheads may be from 1 to 6 in (2.5 to 15 cm) wide, growing in a variety of colors, most commonly yellow, white and pink.
Chrysanthemum plants may grow up to about 5 feet (1.5 m) tall, though they are usually shorter, with leaves that are about 3 inches (8 cm) long. The leaves are bluntly lobed with a gray felt-like material on the underside.
The Hawaiian term pua Pākē refers to all species in the genus Chrysanthemum (about 200 species). A naturalized species formerly known as Chrysanthemum leucanthemum (as documented in the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[xx] was reclassified as Leucanthemum vulgare in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i.[xxi]
[Photograph: Chrysanthemum lei]
Pua Pihi(Zinnia species)
Common Name: Zinnia
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Mexico; two species naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Asteraceae—Sunflower Family
Pua pihi means “button flower” and refers to all types of zinnias, but the most common is Zinnia elegans, which grows to a height of about 30 inches (75 cm) with flowers that bloom in various shades of orange, yellow, purple, red and white.
Two post-contact introductions of zinnia now grow wild in the Hawaiian Islands. These naturalized species are: Z. palmeri, which grows on O‘ahu’s Koko Crater; and Z. peruviana, found on Maui, Lāna‘i and Kaho‘olawe.
[Photograph: Zinnia lei]
Pukanawila(Bougainvillea species)
Common Name: Bougainvillea
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Brazil.
Family: Nyctaginaceae—Four-O’Clock Family
Bougainvillea is a woody vine that produces three tiny whitish, tubular flowers within three larger colorful, papery bracts (modified leaves). The flowers are 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) long, and may be various shades of red, purple, orange and white. Bougainvillea has a lengthy flowering period, making it popular as cultivated plant.
Bougainvillea lei may be constructed using the kui pololei method, stringing the flowers straight through their centers (hundreds are required), or attaching the flowers together in bunches. (See Lei Making Methods.) A 40-inch (100-cm) double lei strung using the kui poepoe method (arranged in a circular pattern) requires about 70 to 80 blossoms.
Another Hawaiian term for bougainvillea is pua kepalō, which means “devil flower,” in reference to the plant’s thorns (some say the red colors symbolize hell). Bougainvillea has been cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands since about 1827, and is named after renowned world navigator Louis Antoine de Bougainville (1729-1811), who discovered B. spectabilis, a dark, purple-red Brazilian species. In the Hawaiian Islands, B. spectabilis and B. glabra (and their hybrids and cultivars) are the most commonly cultivated bougainvillea species.
[Photograph: Bougainvillea lei]
Other Traditional Lei Materials
Lei Niho Palaoa(Whale Tooth Pendant)
The lei niho palaoa was a prized necklace in ancient Hawai‘i and was only worn by ali‘i (chiefs and royalty). Woven using tightly braided human hair, the highly-valued lei niho palaoa held a hook-shaped pendant carved from the niho (tooth) of a palaoa (Physeter macrocephalus, sperm whale).
[Photograph: Lei niho palaoa
Ferns
Fronds of various ferns were traditionally used in lei. These ferns included the endemic pala‘ā (Sphenomeris chinensis), commonly known as the lace fern; palapalai (Microlepia strigosa); pala (Marattia douglasii), which was often used as an offering to the gods; and in post-contact times the fragrant laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria). (See Hula and Mele section, Chapter 3; also see Pala‘ā and Palapalai in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
A Hawaiian proverb states, “Mōhala maika‘i ke oho o ke kupukupu” (“Unfolded well are the fronds of the ferns”), which was “...said of a handsome person.”[xxii]
[Photographs: Pala‘ā, palapalai, pala, laua‘e: used in lei]
Fern Allies
Fern allies (more primitive than ferns) were also used in lei, and these include the native moa (Psilotum nudum) and wāwae‘iole (Lycopodium cernuum), a tropical club moss that grows up to 5 feet (1.5 m) tall.
[Photographs: Moa; wāwae‘iole: used in lei]
Plants
Hinahina(Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum)
Endemic
Family: Boraginaceae—Borage Family
Hinahina often grows on the beach above the high water line. The plant has hairy, silvery-green leaves and stems, and small clusters of fragrant, white flowers with yellow centers, on 1 to 2 inch (2.5 to 5 cm) stems. The leaf clusters and flowers of hinahina are often twisted into open-ended garlands.
Today the non-native Spanish moss (also called Florida moss, gray beard and hinahina) is often substituted for the native hinahina. (See Hinahina in Island Emblems section; and in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8; also see Spanish Moss section below.)
[Photograph: Hinahina lei]
Kauna‘oa(Cuscuta sandwichiana)
Common Name: Hawaiian Dodder
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Cuscutaceae—Dodder Family
Kauna‘oa (Cuscuta sandwichiana) is a wiry, thread-like, golden-orange to yellow-orange vine that twists and wraps around other plants. Kauna‘oa also has tiny round fruits and tiny pointed, white flowers. The plant is not green, and doesn’t need to photosynthesize because it gets its chlorophyll from other plants through sucker-like roots known botanically as haustoria. Kauna‘oa first roots in the ground and then attaches to other plants, parasitically thriving on the host plant.
The stringy stems of kauna‘oa are often braided together into strands for lei, as was done by ancient Hawaiians. Kauna‘oa is also the official emblem of Lāna‘i. (See Island Emblems section; and Kauna‘oa in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kauna‘oa lei]
Kī(Cordyline fruticosa)
Common Name: Ti
Polynesian Introduction
Family: Agavaceae—Agave Family
In ancient Hawai‘i, ti was known as kī, and its lā‘ī (leaves) were revered for their healing power. To ward off evil spirits, braided ti leaf lei were worn horseshoe style.
Ti’s oblong leaves are smooth and waxy, and may be 1 to 4 feet (30 cm to 1.2 m) long and from 3 to 6½ inches (7 to 16 cm) wide. An open-ended 60-inch (152-cm) lei, made using the wili method (twisted), requires about 12 to 14 large ti leaves. (See Lei Making Methods; for more information see Kī in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kī lei]
Limu (Seaweed)
Limu was gathered off the coastal reefs and sometimes woven into lei. Ancient Hawaiians gathered many varieties of limu from the ocean as well as from fresh water ponds and streams.
Edible varieties of both saltwater and freshwater limu were used for food as well as for medicinal, spiritual and ceremonial purposes. (See Limu in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Limu lei]
Maile (Alyxia oliviformis)
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family
The fragrance of maile leaves and bark has been described as spicy, and vanilla-like. Long after a maile lei dries, its woodsy scent remains.
The shiny, dark green, leathery leaves of maile are ½-inch to 4 inches (1 to 10 cm) long, growing in pairs. The leaves are oval-shaped, coming to a point.
A maile lei should be given as a single strand, open-ended, and then the receiver of the lei should connect the ends—this is a metaphor for the unending love of an intricately woven relationship.
In ancient Hawai‘i, maile was important in hula, and sacred to Laka, the goddess of hula, who was also considered the goddess of maile. Laka was said to be able to assume the form of the maile plant, and when she departed the scent would remain. Maile was one of the five primary plants placed in Laka’s hula altar.
A maile lei is constructed by first knotting the leaves (kīpu‘u method) and then twisting the strands (wili method). (See Lei Making Methods.) Up to 15 vines are required for a lei. Maile is often strung with lei flowers such as pīkake (Jasminum sambac, Arabian jasmine), ‘ilima (Sida fallax), or with berries of mokihana (Pelea anisata).
In ancient Hawai‘i, long garlands of maile were also a symbol of peace between warring chiefs. It is said the chiefs would meet in a heiau (sacred place of worship), and peace would be officially established only when they had finished weaving maile together.
Today maile is used customarily at the opening of a new building or road, and is often used in place of a ribbon for the ceremonial opening. After a blessing, the maile is untied rather than cut. (See Maile in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Maile lei]
Spanish Moss (Tillandsia usneoides)
Also Called: Florida Moss; Gray Beard; Hinahina; ‘Umi‘umi-o-Dole (Dole’s Beard).
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Bromeliaceae
Spanish moss consists of gray, thread-like, repeatedly branching stems and finely curled leaves. Silvery-white scales densely cover the leaves. The Spanish moss lei is made by twisting the plant together or braiding shorter lengths together.
Spanish moss is often substituted for Kaho‘olawe’s island emblem, the heliotrope known as hinahina (Heliotropium anomalumvar. argenteum). Spanish moss is an air plant (epiphytic and rootless), often seen hanging from tree branches and growing from hanging baskets.
Spanish moss is sometimes referred to as ‘umi‘umi-o-Dole, or Dole’s beard (whiskers) because the plant was said to resemble the bushy gray beard of Sanford B. Dole, who was the first President of Provisional Government after the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. Dole was later President of the Republic of Hawai‘i (from 1895 to1898), and then the first Governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i (from 1898 to 1903). Spanish moss was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands around 1920.
Spanish moss produces tiny flowers that are greenish-yellow or pale blue in color, usually blooming during summer.
[Photograph: Spanish moss lei]
‘Uala—Sweet Potato (Ipomoea batatas)
Common Name: Sweet Potato
Polynesian Introduction; Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Convolvulaceae—Morning Glory Family
In ancient Hawai‘i, vines of ‘uala (sweet potato) were woven into lei used to bring an increase of something the wearer desired. For example, a mother would use the lei to increase the flow of breast milk, fishermen would slap the water with the lei to increase their catch of fish, and surfers might use the lei to increase the size of the waves. (See ‘Uala, Chapter 9.)
[Photograph: ‘Uala lei]
Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Pūpū Ni‘ihau
[Illustration: Ni‘ihau shell lei]
Shells from the island of Ni‘ihau are known as pūpū Ni‘ihau. The shells are delicately strung into stunningly beautiful necklaces known as lei pūpū Ni‘ihau, or Ni‘ihau shell lei.
Ni‘ihau shell lei have a rich tradition in Hawaiian culture. Both Queen Emma (1836-1885) and Queen Kapi‘olani (1834-1899) were known to wear long loops of Ni‘ihau shell lei. Queen Emma was wearing a Ni‘ihau shell lei when she met the Queen of England.
Queen Lili‘uokalani (1838-1917), Hawai‘i’s last monarch, became an admirer of the necklaces during her visit to the island of Ni‘ihau in 1891. Queen Lili‘uokalani’s collection of Ni‘ihau shell lei may now be seen on display in ‘Iolani Palace as well as at Washington Place in Honolulu.
In Charles E. King’s song entitled, “Na Lei o Hawai‘i” (The Lei of Hawai‘i), a flower is named as an emblem of each Hawaiian Island except Ni‘ihau, which is represented by the pūpū (shell). These island emblems were formalized in the 1920s when Governor Wallace Rider Farrington made them official. (See Island Emblems section.)
Finding the Shells
Every winter, the northern shores of the Hawaiian Islands are pounded by large waves that are created by winter storms far north of the Islands, which generate swells. The large ocean waves disturb nearshore reef areas and deposit shells along the northern shores.
From October to March are the main months when Ni‘ihau shells are found. Shells of the kahelelani variety are also found in summer.
The prized Ni‘ihau shells are also found on other islands (and still referred to as Ni‘ihau shells), particularly Kaua‘i, which is across the Kaulakahi Channel from Ni‘ihau. However, nowhere are the shells as plentiful as on Ni‘ihau.
Shells are most often found along a debris line on the beach where the water deposits them. A shell picker may lie down on the ground to look very closely at the sand for the precious shells. A day’s pickings may yield about one cup of shells or, on a good day, about 16 ounces (.45 kg).
Ni‘ihau Shell Varieties
The three primary types of shells used for the traditional Ni‘ihau shell lei are kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca), momi (Euplica varians) and laiki (Mitrella margarita). At least 30 different Hawaiian names describe particular shells, which show many color and pattern variations that are caused by waves and sunlight as well as genetic differences.
The shell pickers also collect sundials and cowries, which are used to fasten together the ends of the Ni‘ihau lei strands. Live shells are not collected.
Below are detailed descriptions of the three primary types of pūpū Ni‘ihau that are used to construct Ni‘ihau shell lei.
Momi (Euplica varians)
Also Called: Momi O Kai (“Pearl of the Sea”).
The Hawaiian word momi means “pearl,” and the shiny oval shells are also called momi o kai, which means “pearl of the sea.” Momi shells show many different variations in patterns and colors, from white to dark brown or almost black.
Momi shells may be slightly flared, and are about 2/5 inch (10 mm) in length. Momi’s species name, “varians,” is a reference to the shell’s great variability.
Light colored momi shells are known as ‘āhiehie, which means “faded.” Shells that are not white but also not very dark are known as maika‘i, which means “good.” The darkest momi shells are known as ikaika, which means “strong.” The darkest shells and those with dark markings may also be referred to as ‘ele‘ele, which means “black.”
Different varieties of momi shells are named for their colors and patterns, such as momi lenalena (lenalena means “yellow”), and momi kua‘ula waha ‘ula‘ula, which has a red spot at the tip of the shell (‘ula means “red”).
Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca)
Kahelelani shells were named after an ancient ruler of Ni‘ihau. Like momi shells, kahelelani shells show many different variations in patterns and colors, from pink to brown or blackish. Measuring just 1/8- to 1/5-inch (3 to 5 mm), kahelelani shells are the smallest of the three varieties of Ni‘ihau shells. Kahelelani shells are also the most difficult to find and string into lei, and thus they are the most expensive to purchase.
Like momi shells, kahelelani shell varieties are named for their colors and patterns, such as kahelelani ‘ākala pua (pink flower), and kahelelani maku‘e (brown kahelelani).
“Ni‘ihau a Kahelelani,”
“Ni‘ihau, land of Kahelelani.”
“Kahelelani was the name of an ancient ruler of the island of Ni‘ihau. The tiny seashell that is made into the finest lei on the island now bears the name of Kahelelani.”
(Pukui: 2312-252)[xxiii]
Laiki (Mitrella margarita)
Also Called: Rice Shells (Laiki means “Rice”).
Laiki shells are usually whitish in color with a smooth surface that has a lustrous appearance. About ¼-inch (7 mm) long, the laiki shell is about the same size as a grain of rice, and also the same color.
Laiki shells are a favorite for wedding lei (particularly on Ni‘ihau), and are traditionally collected by the bride-to-be along with her family and friends. Strands of the shells may be about 5 feet (1.5 m) in length, and a lei may consist of up to 20 of these strands.
Like momi and kahelelani shells, laiki shells are described by various suffixes related to their appearance. The purest white shells, which are used for wedding lei, are known as laiki ke‘oke‘o. Shells of a less pure white or off-white with brownish markings are known as laiki kua‘ula. Laiki lenalena are yellowish to beige in color, also with brownish markings.
Making the Ni‘ihau Shell Lei—Methods and Styles
After the Ni‘ihau shells are gathered, they are sorted according to size, type and color, and then strung together. As many as one-third of the fragile shells don’t make it through the piercing process and must be discarded.
From one to four nylon threads are used to string the shells. The end of the thread is hardened using beeswax or quick-drying glue and then pushed through the opening in the shell.
Ni‘ihau shell lei are woven using various styles and techniques, some of which are traditional while others are new and more innovative. Some stringing styles are modeled after particular flowers, such as lei helekonia, which is made using two threads and utilizes both kahelelani and momi shells. The finished product resembles the shape and color of the heliconia flower (Heliconia species).
The lei kui pīkake is also made using both momi and kahelelani shells, and has an appearance similar to the pīkake flower(Jasminum sambac, Arabian jasmine). The “crown flower” style (also called “Lili‘u” in honor of Queen Lili‘uokalani) creates a lei with an appearance similar to pua kalaunu (crown flower, Calotropis gigantea).
When making a lei kui poepoe, momi shells are pierced in a particular manner that gives the final product an appearance similar to that of a tightly wound rope (this style uses two threads). Lei wili (wili means “to twist or wind”) are often quite short, and are traditionally used for hats and chokers.
Lei wili are made by stringing kahelelani shells singly onto threads, which are then wound around a foundation. A strategic selection of shell colors results in an attractive pattern in the finished lei.
Another method of stringing Ni‘ihau shell lei is known as lei kipona, and uses a mixture of different shell types and colors. Particular lei makers are known for their distinct lei kipona, which may be constructed using different styles, such as lei pīkake or lei pololei.
The finest of the Ni‘ihau shell lei may sell for more than $10,000. Ni‘ihau shell lei are worm primarily by women. The paniolos (Hawaiian cowboys) of Ni‘ihau often wear lei ‘ālīlea, which are made from Strombus maculatus, a thick-shelled species that may measure up to ½-inch (14 mm) in length.
Seed Lei — Lei Hua
A‘e (Soap Seed)
Soapberry (Sapindus saponaria)
Indigenous
Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family
A‘e produces clusters of 5-parted chartreuse flowers at the ends of the branches, and round, brown-skinned fruits that are about ¾-inch (2 cm) in diameter. The fruits contain a soapy, yellowish pulp as well as a seed that is about ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. The round, black to brown, shiny seeds of a‘e are strung into lei.
Also referred to as mānele, a‘e usually grows as a small tree, but may reach more than 80 feet (24 m) in height, particularly at higher elevations. A‘e has a whitish-colored trunk, and compound, light green leaves with three to six, mostly paired leaflets. Each leaflet is about 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 cm) long. Mature leaves take on a slightly winged shape, curving at the leaf’s axis. (See A‘e in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: A‘e seed lei]
‘Ākia
Wikstroemia species
Endemic
Family: Thymelaeaceae—‘Ākia Family
The Hawaiian term ‘ākia refers to 12 endemic Hawaiian species in the Wikstroemia genus. ‘Ākia produce fleshy one-seeded fruits that are less than ½-inch (13 mm) in diameter. The small berries may be yellow, red, or orangish in color. In ancient Hawai‘i the berries were strung into lei known as lei ‘ākia ha‘a ha‘a.
‘Ākia grows in a variety of Hawaiian habitats, particularly in dry habitat at low elevations. (For more information see ‘Ākia in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: ‘Ākia seed lei]
Ali‘ipoe (Canna Lily)
Canna indica
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Cannaceae—Canna Family
Also known as Canna Indian shot, the Canna lily grows from about 2 to 5 feet (.6 to 1.5 m) tall, with narrow leaves that are about 12 to 24 inches (30 to 60 cm) long. Forms cultivated in the Hawaiian Islands are commonly yellow-flowered or red-flowered. In addition to being strung into lei, ali‘ipoe seeds are also used in the calabash hula rattle made from the fruit shell of la‘amia (Crescentia cujete).
‘Ali‘ipoe’s three-parted seedpods are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long, with a warty surface, and contain numerous small round seeds that are dark brown to black in color and notably hard.
[Photograph: Ali‘ipoe seed lei]
‘Ēkoa (Lead Tree)
False Koa (Leucaena leucocephala)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the Neotropics.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
‘Ēkoa is also known as koa haole, and usually grows up to about 30 feet (9m) tall, with trees recorded up to 66 feet (20 m). ‘Ēkoa has leaves up to 12 inches (30 cm) long that are comprised of three to eight pairs of oblong leaflets (pinnae). The plant also produces round, pale green to yellowish-white flowers that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter.
‘Ēkoa’s oblong, brown seedpods are about 6 inches (15 cm) long, growing in clusters. The pods encase numerous glossy, dark brown seeds that are oval in shape and laterally flattened.
[Photograph: ‘Ēkoa seed lei]
Hala (Screwpine)
Pandanus tectorius
Indigenous
Family: Pandanaceae—Screw Pine Family
Hala fruits are produced by the female trees, and are about 8 to 10 inches (20 to 25 cm) in diameter. The fruits are comprised of numerous smaller fruitlets, known as keys or phalanges.
The unripe hala keys were traditionally strung into colorful necklaces. Since post-contact times, fronds of the laua‘e fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria, a post-contact introduction) are often woven between the hala keys. It takes about 50 or more hala keys to string a standard 40-inch (100-cm) lei. The keys are usually strung lengthwise through their centers using the kui pololei method.
Lei hala were worn during the Makahiki, an ancient harvest festival, to symbolize the passing of the year’s bad luck and habits. During the Makahiki, which began about the middle of October and lasted several months, time was taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility.
The name hala also means “mistake, slip, or error,” and the hala lei was thought of as good luck during the Makahiki, an ancient harvest festival, when the old year “slips away.” The unripe hala fruitlets (keys) were used for colorful lei that symbolized the passing of the year’s bad luck and bad habits, though the lei could be considered unlucky if worn at other times. (See Hala in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
A Hawaiian proverb states, “Pala ka hala, ‘ula ka ‘ā‘ī” (“When the hala ripens, the neck is brightened by them”), which means, “People are very fond of hala lei. From a name chant of Kuali‘i.”[xxiv]
[Photograph: Hala lei]
Hua Weleweka (Velvet Seed)
Mgambo (Majidea zanquebarica)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family
Mgambo is a small tree with leaves that grow alternate to one another. Small flowers grow in clusters at the branch ends. The flowers are greenish-yellow with just a bit of red in the very center. The tree also produces red seedpods that break open upon maturity revealing three fuzzy, gray seeds.
[Photograph: Velvet seed lei]
Kā‘e‘e (Sea Bean)
Mucuna gigantea subsp. gigantea
Indigenous
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
In ancient Hawai‘i, kā‘e‘e seeds were strung into lei and continue to be used for seed lei today. The plant is a high-growing, woody vine that usually reaches lengths of about 26 to 49 feet (8 to 15 m) but may measure more than 260 feet (80 m).
The large, oblong, dark brown seedpods of kā‘e‘e are about 4 inches (10 cm) long and covered with stinging, orangish-brown hairs that may be extremely unpleasant and irritating to the skin and eyes. The seedpods hold from one to four (usually two or three) round, flattened seeds, called pēka‘a. Each seed is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter and about 1/3-inch (8 mm) thick.
The seeds vary in color from light to dark brown, often mottled or streaked with black. A black band rings the seed for about three-quarters of the way around the outside. Keep an eye out for them while walking along Hawaiian beaches, especially near river mouths, as the seedpods commonly wash up on shore, providing a nice surprise to the casual beachcomber.
In the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition,[xxv] this indigenous Hawaiian plant was classified as the species Mucuna gigantea. An update in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[xxvi] reclassifies the Hawaiian plant as the subspecies Mucuna gigantea subspecies gigantea. (See Kā‘e‘e in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kā‘e‘e seed lei]
Kākalaioa (Gray Nickers)
Caesalpinia bonduc
Indigenous
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
Kākalaioa is a shrubby tree or climber reaching lengths of up to 100 feet (30 m), with paired oblong to round leaflets that are about ½ to 1 inch (1.3 to 2.5 cm) long. The plant also produces small yellow flowers that grow in clusters on racemes (unbranched inflorescences, or flower clusters).
Kākalaioa’s prickly, oblong seedpods are 2½ to 3½ (6.5 to 9 cm) long, holding one to three seeds. The roundish to oval seeds are about ½ to ¾-inch (15 to 20 mm) in diameter, and are pale gray in color turning to olive gray as they ripen.
Kākalaioa grows in dry coastal areas up to elevations of about 750 feet (230 m). The seeds have medicinal uses (as a purgative) and are used in seed lei. The seeds also may have been used by children for games (similar to playing with marbles). A related species, C. major, is known as yellow nickers and Hawaiian pearls, and has yellowish instead of gray seeds. C. major is considered naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, but there is a possibility that it is actually a native Hawaiian species—this has yet to be determined conclusively.
[Photograph: Kākalaioa seed lei; yellow seeds of C. major]
Kamani (Punnai Nut)
Alexandrian Laurel(Calophyllum inophyllum)
Polynesian Introduction: Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Clusiaceae—Mangosteen Family
The kamani tree bears green fruits that are about 1½ inches (3.8 cm) in diameter. The fruits become yellowish to light brown as they dry, and then are strung into lei. Within the fruit is a bony shell around an oily, white kernel.
Kamani also produces fragrant, white flowers that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) across, with four sepals and four to eight petals, and a yellow stamen. The flowers grow in clusters. The kamani tree grows from 26 to 66 feet (8 to 20 m) in height. The tree’s large leaves are leathery and shiny, with parallel side veins, and grow up to 8 inches (20 cm) long and 3½ inches (9 cm) wide. (See Kamani in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kamani seed lei]
Keko (Cycad)
Sago Palm (Cycas circinalis)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Cycadaceae—Cycas Family
The sago palm is a wide-trunked short palm-like tree with smooth, fern-like leaves that curve downward. The leaves are composed of numerous narrow, pointed leaflets. Male trees produce long and narrow, erect cones, while female trees have modified leaves that are furry and indented, ringing the trunk apex and producing six to ten egg-like seeds that become reddish-yellow as they ripen.
Inside the mature orange fruit of the sago palm is a large oval seed that is strung into lei. The seed’s kernel is toxic if consumed.
[Photograph: Sago palm seed lei]
Keli Kepania (Spanish Cherry)
Pogada (Mimusops elengi)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family—Sapotaceae
Spanish cherry is an evergreen tree with smooth, dark green leaves that are about 4 inches (10 cm) long, and oval in shape. The tree also produces fragrant white flowers that are about ½-inch (13 mm) long and grow in clusters at the leaf axils.
Spanish cherry produces green to orange-colored, ovoid (roundish, elongated) fruits that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and enclose yellow pulp and a flat, oval brown seed.
[Photograph: Keli kepania seed lei]
Kou (Cordia)
Cordia subcordata
Indigenous (reclassified from Polynesian Introduction, 2001).
Family: Boraginaceae—Borage Family
Kou’s dried, round fruits are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, and contain from one to four seeds. In ancient Hawai‘i, kou seeds were strung into lei, as were the flowers. The seeds of the tree were also eaten.
The kou tree may reach a height of more than 30 feet (9.1 m). The tree’s crepy, bright orange flowers grow in small clusters. The 5- to 7-lobed, tubular flowers are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and 1 to 2 inches (2.5 to 5 cm) in diameter, with a 3- to 5-toothed enlarged calyx that contains the fruit, which is about 1½ inches (3.8 cm) in diameter. The fruit is green when young, but turns grayish-brown and becomes dry as it matures. (See Kou in Lei Flowers section;and in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Kou seed lei]
Kukui (Candlenut Tree)
Aleurites moluccana
Polynesian Introduction: Naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands
Family: Euphorbiaceae—Spurge Family
The kukui nut consists of a hard, bony outer shell that is blackish in color and slightly furrowed. The shell is flat (blunt) on one end and slightly domed on the other end with a small projection known as the nose. The nut encases a whitish inner kernel. For kukui nut lei, the inside of the nut is removed through a hole in one end, and then the outer surface is finished.
A traditional method of finishing nuts for lei kukui involves filing numerous lengthwise grooves into the outer surface of the nutshell. In ancient Hawai‘i, spines of wana (Echinodermata, sea urchin) were used for files, and sanding was done using the skin of the kala fish (e.g., Naso species, surgeonfish) or skin of manō (Carcharhinus species, sharks), and pumice, or ‘ana (Leiodermatium, siliceous sponge). A piece of kapa (tapa) barkcloth was used to apply kukui nut oil to the finished nutshells. Polished kukui nuts remain popular for use in lei. (See Kukui in Island Emblems section; Lei Flowers section; and in Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
[Photograph: Kukui nut lei]
Kukui Hele Pō Kina (Chinese Lantern)
Hernandia nymphaeifolia
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the tropics.
Family: Hernandiaceae—Hernandia Family
The Hawaiian word for lantern is “kukui hele pō,” while Kina is the word for China. The Chinese lantern plant, also known as “Jack in the Box,” is a tall evergreen tree with broad, shiny leaves that are ovate in shape and about 8 inches (20 cm) long. The tree produces small, greenish-yellow flowers and clusters of hollow, red fruits that are flattish and roundish in shape, and about 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter with an opening at the bottom. Within each fruit is a black seed.
[Photograph: Chinese lantern tree seed lei]
Loulu Hiwa (Pritchardia Palm)
Fan Palm (Pritchardia martii)
Endemic
Family: Arecaceae—Philodendron Family
Loulu refers to 19 endemic Hawaiian species in the genus Pritchardia. Loulu hiwa is the Hawaiian term for the species Pritchardia martii, a thick-trunked fan palm found in the wet forest areas and moist valleys of O‘ahu’s Ko‘olau Mountains and cultivated elsewhere. Though other Pritchardia species may reach heights of more than 130 feet (40 m), loulu hiwa grows only to about 52 feet (16 m). With large fan-shaped leaves and yellow flowers that grow in clusters on spikes that are about 12 to 18 inches (30 to 46 cm) long. The ovoid-shaped fruits are green to purplish-black in color and about 1½ inches (4 cm) long with a fibrous husk that encloses a single thin-shelled nut. (See Loulu in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Loulu-hiwa seed lei]
Maka Hipa (Sheep’s-Eye)
Mucuna sloanei
Indigenous; Endemic
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
Also known as the cow-itch plant and sheeps-eye, the seeds of Mucuna sloanei are similar in shape and size to the previous mentioned plant known as kā‘e‘e (Mucuna gigantea subspecies gigantea). The maka hipa plant is a vine reaching lengths of up to 30 feet (9 m) in valleys and on mountain slopes. The plant’s leaflets are 2 to 5 inches (5 to 13 cm) long. The red and yellow flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) long, growing in clusters.
The thick, oblong seedpods of maka hipa are dark brown in color and covered with yellowish-brown hairs that may cause extreme irritation to the eyes and skin. The seedpods encase usually one or two seeds, each about 1 inch (2.5 cm) wide with a dark band ringing the seed for about three-quarters of the way around the outside.
Mucuna sloanei was formerly classified as Mucuna urens, and listed as questionably naturalized (possibly indigenous), in the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition.[xxvii] An update in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i,[xxviii] renames Mucuna urens as Mucuna sloanei, and distinguishes two varieties: Mucuna sloanei variety persericea (endemic to a region between Makawao and Wailua Iki on East Maui; and Mucuna sloanei variety sloanei, an indigenous variety found on Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and O‘ahu.
[Photograph: Maka hipa seed lei]
Makekomia (Macadamia Nut)
Macadamia integrifolia
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Proteaceae—Protea Family
Many macadamia nut trees have been planted in the Hawaiian Islands over last two decades as part of an increasing macadamia nut industry, primarily on the island of Hawai‘i. The medium-sized trees have dark green, oblong leaves, somewhat wavy with widely separated prickles on the side.
The whitish flowers of the macadamia nut tree are about 7 inches (18 cm) long, growing in tassels. The roundish nut is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, forming within a leathery case that opens upon maturity. The related species M. tetraphylla is also grown commercially.
[Photograph: Makekomia seed lei)
Māpala Polū (Blue Fig)
Blue Marble (Elaeocarpus grandis)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical and subtropical regions.
Family: Elaeocarpaceae—Elaeocarpus Family
The deeply wrinkled seeds of māpala polū are roundish and light brown. The blue fig tree grows relatively tall, with whitish flowers and bright blue fruits enclosing the furrowed seeds.
[Photograph: Māpala polū seed lei]
Maunaloa (Pacific Beach Pea)
Canavalia cathartica
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to East Africa, India and Polynesia.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The thick seedpods of maunaloa contain about six oval brown to black seeds. The plant also produces flowers of various colors, including white, pink, reddish and lavender. The coastal plant is a fast-growing vine that likes sandy and rocky areas. Seeds of maunaloa were used for lei, as were the flowers. (See Maunaloa in Lei Flowers section.)
[Photograph: Maunaloa (Canavalia cathartica) seed lei]
Milo (Portia Tree)
Thespesia populnea
Polynesian Introduction
Family: Malvaceae—Mallow Family
The fruits of milo are flattened, roundish capsules, brown and woody, about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, with five compartments, each of which contains a wooly seed. In ancient Hawai‘i, the seeds of milo had medicinal uses, and were consumed for their laxative effect. The shells of the fruit were used to produce a yellowish-green dye. The fruit should not be eaten.
The milo tree may grow to heights of more than 66 feet (20 m), with thick, gray corrugated bark and a trunk diameter that may exceed 2 feet (61 cm). The leaves of milo are shiny, yellowish-green and heart-shaped, and are about 2 to 12 inches (5 to 30 cm) wide, coming to a narrow point.
Milo also bears pale yellow bell-shaped flowers that have a diameter of about 2 to 3 inches (5 to 7.5 cm), with a reddish-purple (maroon) spot at the base. Milo’s flowers bloom most of the year, and usually shrivel and turn a purplish-pink by late in the day. (See Milo in Polynesian-Introduced Plants, Chapter 9.)
[Photograph: Milo seed lei]
Mokihana
Pelea anisata
Endemic to Kaua‘i
Family: Rutaceae—Rue Family
Mokihana’s yellowish-green or purplish-green, cube-shaped seed capsules are about ½-inch (13 mm) wide, and leathery to the touch, with a very strong anise-like fragrance that becomes stronger as the seed capsules dry, and this scent may remain with the seed capsules for months and even years.
Considered among the most treasured of seed lei, a mokihana lei is made by stringing together the purplish-green seed capsules after piercing them through their centers. Mokihana is also often strung together (kui) with strands of maile that are knotted (kīpu‘u), as the two distinct scents complement each other.
It is said that traditional lei stringers are proud of the scars on their fingers from stringing mokihana lei. A standard 40-inch (102-cm) lei requires about 100 of the mokihana capsules. Mokihana is also the official emblem of Kaua‘i. In ancient Hawai‘i the capsules were used as a sachet stored with garments of kapa barkcloth. The season for harvesting mokihana seed capsules is from May to September. (See Mokihana in Island Emblems section; and in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Mokihana seed lei]
Nīoi Pekela (Betel Nut Palm)
Areca Palm (Areca catechu)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Arecaceae—Palm Family
This palm tree may reach heights of more than 100 feet (30 m) with leaves about 4 feet (1.2 m) long, with 1- to 2-foot (61-cm) long leaf divisions. The palm’s fragrant, yellowish-white flowers blossom atop the trunk but beneath the leaf sheaths. The flowers are about 1/3-inch (8 mm) long.
The palm’s red to orange, egg-shaped fruits may exceed 2½ inches (6.35 cm), and have a fibrous husk enclosing fleshy material and a channeled seed.
[Photograph: Nīoi pekala seed lei]
Niu Keko (Monkey Nut)
Queen Palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Arecaceae
Also known as feathery coconut, the queen palm is an ornamental tree with a thin, straight trunk reaching a height of up to 60 feet (18 m). The trees leaves are up to 15 feet (4.6 m) long, arching downward. Near the lower leaves a 3 to 6 foot (1 to 2 m) cluster of yellow flowers hangs down. The tree’s ovoid-shaped yellowish-orange fruits are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) long and filled with pulpy fiber that encloses a nut. One end of the nut has three pores.
[Niu Keko seed lei]
Nohomālie (Lucky Nut)
Yellow Oleander (Thevetia peruviana)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Apocynaceae—Dogbane Family
Nohomālie means, “Be still,” in reference to the fact that a common name for the yellow oleander is the be-still tree. The light brown, split triangular seeds of nohomālie are about 1¼ inches (32 mm) long by ½-inch (13 mm) wide.
The Be-still tree was first brought to the Hawaiian Islands in the early 1900s as an ornamental shrub. Quite common in the Hawaiian Islands today, the tree has long, narrow leaves and produces trumpet-shaped yellow flowers that bloom year round. Some trees produce pinkish blossoms.
All parts of nohomālie are poisonous if consumed, containing a heart toxin comprised of the cardiac glycosides peruvoside and thevetin A and B. The seeds have the highest concentration of the dangerous toxin—about nine seeds could kill an adult. The seeds should never be eaten, and skin exposed to the sap of the tree should be washed thoroughly.
[Photograph: Nohomālie seed lei]
‘Ohai (Monkeypod)
Rain Tree (Samanea saman)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Neotropics; naturalized in some disturbed areas.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The monkeypod tree reaches heights up to 80 feet (24 m), and is a common lowland tree in the Hawaiian Islands. The rounded, broad-spreading crowns of the monkeypod tree as well as its lacy foliage and pink blossoms make it an appealing landscaping tree.
The tree monkeypod tree has compound leaves divided into four to eight pairs of pinnae, each divided into two to ten pairs of oblong leaflets that are about 1½ inches (4 cm) long. The whitish-pink tufted flowers are about 2 inches (5 cm) in diameter, and have long pink stamens.
The dark brown seedpods of the tree are about 7 inches (18 cm) long, holding many brown seeds that are oval in shape. The former scientific name of the monkeypod tree is Pithecellobium, which means “Monkey’s ear-rings,” implying the bulbous, pea-like seedpods would make nice jewelry for a monkey. In the Hawaiian Islands, the monkeypod trees grow wild in some disturbed areas up to about 300 m (980 ft).
[‘Ohai seed lei]
‘Ohai Ali‘i (Pride of Barbados)
Dwarf Poinciana (Caesalpinia pulcherrima)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical America.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The brown seedpods of ‘ohai ali‘i are about 4 inches (10 cm) long, and hold from six to eight seeds. ‘Ohai ali‘i is an ornamental shrub that usually grows to about 8 feet (2.4 m) but may reach heights of 20 feet (6 m). Also called dwarf poinciana, ‘ohai ali‘i has prickly, coarse leaves comprised of numerous leaflets, each about ¾-inch (2 cm) long. The tree also produces scarlet and golden flowers, including a darker red variety and a yellow variety. (See Lei Flowers section.)
[Photograph: ‘Ohai ali‘i seed lei]
Paina (Ironwood)
She Oak(Casuarina equisetifolia)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Australia; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Casuarinaceae—She-Oak Family
Ironwood trees usually grow to about 66 feet (20 m) tall (sometimes much taller) with long, drooping branches. The tree’s roundish to oval-shaped cones are about ¾-inch (2 cm) long, flattened at each end. Each of the hardened bracts of the cones contains a flat, 1-winged seed.
[Photograph: Paina seed lei]
Pepeiao ‘Elepani (Ear Seed)
Elephant’s Ear (Enterolobium cyclocarpum)
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
Elephant’s ear is a tall tree with a gray trunk and twice-divided leaves composed of four to nine pairs of pinnae, which each have 10 to 30 pairs of leaflets. The plant produces roundish, white flowers that are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter.
Pepeiao’s shiny, dark brown seedpods are about 3 to 4 inches (7.6 to 10.2 cm) in diameter, and resemble the shape of an elephant’s ear. Pepeiao is the Hawaiian word for “ear,” while ‘elepani means, “elephant.” The dark brown seeds of elephant’s ear have a darker oval marking surrounded by a lighter ring. Pepeiao ‘elepani is in the Fabaceae sub-family Mimosoideae.
[Photograph: Pepeiao seed lei]
Pilikai (Wood Rose)
Yellow Morning Glory (Operculina tuberosa)
Post-Contact Introduction: Pantropical
Family: Convolvulaceae—Morning Glory Family
The wood rose is a perennial vine with brown, flower-shaped fruiting capsules, each of which contains from 1 to 4 black, wooly seeds. The wood rose also produces yellow flowers that are about 2 inches (5 cm) long. The vine’s leaves have five to seven lobes, and are about 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter. The rose-shaped fruiting capsules and deep yellow flowers makes this a common ornamental plant in the Hawaiian Islands. The plant also goes by the species name Merremia tuberosa.
[Photograph: Pilikai seed lei]
Pili-Nut (Java Almond)
Canarium vulgare
Post-Contact Introduction
Family: Burseraceae—Torchwood Family
The java almond is a tall gray-barked tree with leaves that are about 12 inches (30 cm) long and comprised of three to five pairs of oval leaflets, with one leaf at the tip. The tree also produces small, yellowish-white, 3-parted flowers and oval, blackish-blue seeds that are about 2 inches (5 cm) long. Each seed contains a 3-sided brown nut.
[Photograph: Pili-Nut seed lei]
Pōniu (Heart Seed)
Balloon Vine (Cardiospermum halicacabum)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to southern United States and the Neotropics; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Sapindaceae—Soapberry Family
Pōniu’s thin-shelled, brown fruits enclose three black, roundish seeds that are about ¼-inch (6 mm) in diameter with a white heart-shaped scar (aril). The vine’s 3-parted leaves are finely subdivided and about 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 cm) long. The plant also produces small, white flowers. A post-contact use for pōniu was as a remedy for dizziness. The whole plant was worn as a lei and then a small amount was eaten and the lei was tossed into the ocean.
[Photograph: Pōniu seed lei]
Pūkiawe (Bead Vine)
Black-Eyed Susan (Abrus precatorius)
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to tropical Asia, Africa and Pacific; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The oval seeds of pūkiawe are bright red with a black patch, or “eye.” Also known as the rosary pea, pūkiawe is cultivated for its seeds, which are sometimes made into rosaries as well as lei.
Pūkiawe is a shrub whose stems grow to about 30 ft (9 m) long. The plant is also known as the rosary pea. The plant’s green seedpods turn brown when they ripen, and then open and drop from four to eight seeds.
The seeds of pūkiawe are poisonous if ingested, and a single seed, if chewed, could potentially kill a person. Lei stringers should also be careful not to get a needle-prick while making a lei, as it may cause severe sickness. When the toxin (abrin) is absorbed into the bloodstream it may cause nerve damage as well as severe bleeding lesions and kidney, adrenal and liver damage.
[Photograph: Pūkiawe seed lei]
Pū‘ohe‘ohe (Job’s Tears)
Coix lacryma jobi
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Asia; naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands.
Family: Poaceae—Grass Family
Pū‘ohe‘ohe is a branched grass that may reach heights of 10 feet (3 m). The blades are 4 to 20 inches (10 to 50 cm) long and 8 to 20 inches (20 to 50 cm) wide, with a heart-shaped base. The plant also produces papery, white flowers that grow on the leaf axils. The flowers are about 1 to 4 inches (2.5 to 10 cm) long.
Pū‘ohe‘ohe’s teardrop-shaped bead-like seeds are popular for use in lei. The seeds may be green, gray, black or almost completely white in color, and are borne at the tip of the flower stem. Pū‘ohe‘ohe grows along stream banks and in other moist areas at elevations up to about 2,000 feet (610 m).
[Photograph: Pū‘ohe‘ohe seed lei]
Waina Kai (Sea Grape)
Coccoloba uvifera
Post-Contact Introduction:
Family—Polygonaceae—Buckwheat Family
Sea grape produces an abundant amount of roundish fruits that are about ¾-inch (2 cm) long and grow in clusters. Each fruit holds three small, brown seeds that are somewhat heart-shaped.
The sea grape is often planted in coastal areas, sometimes as a windbreak. The tree reaches a height of up to 30 feet (9 m). Sea grape’s glossy, leathery leaves are green, though new leaves are an attractive, translucent bronze color. The leaves are nearly round, about 8 inches (20 cm) in diameter, and have prominent pinkish to white veins. Sea grape’s small but fragrant, white flowers grow on spikes that rise up 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm).
[Photograph: Waina Kai seed lei]
Wī ‘Awa‘awa (Tamarind)
Tamarindus indica
Post-Contact Introduction: Native to Tropical Africa; possibly Asia
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family.
Tamarind’s seedpods are up to 8 inches (20 cm) long, enclosing brown pulp and a few flat, roundish, brown seeds. The green seedpods turn brown as they ripen and the shells become brittle.
The tamarind is an evergreen tree may that reach a height of 80 feet (24 m). With broad branches and a spreading crown, the tree’s dense foliage makes it a nice shade tree. Tamarind’s brown bark has a shaggy appearance, and the tree’s green compound leaves are almost fern-like, comprised of 10 to 20 pairs of leaflets, each of which is about ½-inch (13 mm) long.
Tamarind’s small, orange to cream-colored, 3-petaled flowers are veined with red and grow in clusters. The tree’s wood is valued and the fruit pulp is eaten and made into a beverage.
[Photograph: Tamarind seed lei]
Wiliwili (Hawaiian Coral Tree)
Erythrina sandwicensis
Endemic
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The name wiliwili means, “twisting,” which refers to the twisting action of the tree’s seedpods as they release one to three red to yellowish-orange, oblong seeds that are about the size of kidney beans. Ancient Hawaiians strung wiliwili’s bright seeds into beautiful lei.
Wiliwili is a deciduous tree that loses its leaves in the dry season (summer), when flowers adorn the tree’s bare branches. Blooming in mid to late August, wiliwili’s flowers vary from light to deep-colored orangish-apricot to red-orange, chartreuse, pale golden yellow, or white. The flowers grow in clusters at the branch tips, and new leaves grow after the pastel-colored flowers open, attracting pollinating birds and insects.
The soft, light wood of the wiliwili tree was traditionally used to make papa he‘e nalu (surfboards) as well as fishnet floats and outriggers for canoes. (See Wiliwili in Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands, Chapter 8.)
[Photograph: Wiliwili seed lei]
Wiliwili Haole (Common Coral Tree)
Erythrina crista-galli
Post-Contact Introduction: Widely planted along roadways.
Family: Fabaceae—Pea Family
The oblong seeds of the coral tree are dark brown in color with light streaks. The common coral tree’s leaves are composed of three shiny oval leaflets. The tree’s oblong flowers that are about 2 inches (5 cm) long, dark red in color, and grow near the ends of the branches. Seeds of the tree are encased in a long, curved and swollen pod.
Erythrina variegata is a closely related species, also referred to as wiliwili haole and commonly planted in the Hawaiian Islands. E. variegata produces blackish, white or dark pink or purple seeds, sometimes with black markings.
[Photograph: Wiliwili haole seed lei]
E lei kau, e lei ho‘oilo i ke aloha.
Love is worn like a wreath through the summers and the winters.
Love is everlasting.
(Pukui: 332-40)
Chapter 3 Source Notes
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published.
See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
[Note: This list is still in progress and being updated.]
About the Polynesian Voyaging Society. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/aboutpvs.html.
Adams, Wanda. Navigator, mediator, hero...Eddie: Eddie Aikau, Hawai‘i’s legendary surfer, is recalled by those who knew him best. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/01/2002.
Aguiar, Eloise. Big turquoise waves create perfect ‘Eddie.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/08/2002.
Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Relatives recall his humble personality. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002.
Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Volunteers and experts tackle extensive Hokule‘a repairs. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002.
All About Hawaii (1948-1949): Thrum’s Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Publications Division: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1949.
A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings II. Edited by Alison Kay. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999.
Ancient chants and hula at Historical Society dinner. The Garden Island, 5/26/1994.
Anderson, George William. Excerpts from Captain Cook’s Third and Last Voyage. The Garden Island, 11/10/1999.
Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001.
Ariyoshi, Rita. The National Geographic Traveler: Hawaii. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2000.
Atlas of Hawai‘i: Second Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983.
Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Ma‘ohauhele (Hawaii’s State Flower). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/13/2002.
Beletsky, Les. Hawaii: The Ecotravellers’ Wildlife Guide. London: Academic Press, 2000.
Bishop Museum—Hawai‘i Maritime Center: Home of the Hokule‘a and Falls of Clyde. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/hmc/, 7/28/2002.
Borg, Jim. Catching the wave. San Francisco Examiner, 3/3/1996.
Borg, Jim. Genetic research offers intriguing new view of Polynesian migrations. Hawaii Magazine, February, 1997.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Crown flower thrives in heat, sun. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/02/2002.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Native hibiscus gains a following. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/02/2000.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Wiliwili variety of erythrina native to Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002.
Burlingame, Burl. Eddie: Riding on the crest of the myth. Honolulu Star-Bulletin Features, http://starbulletin.com/98/03/09/features/story1.html, 2/02/2001.
Bushnell, O.A., and Daws, Gaven; Illustrated by Feher, Joseph. The Illustrated Atlas of Hawaii. Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1970.
Captain James Cook: British Navigator and Explorer. Internet site: http://www2.lucidcafe.com/lucidcafe/lucidcafe/library/95oct/jcook.html.
Ciaffardini, David Aldo. Eddie would go, has gone and is still going: A wild, occasional big-wave surf meet honors the memory of a homegrown hero. Hawaii Magazine, December, 1996.
Coleon, Shayna. Duke stamp creates sales swell. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/27/2002.
Clark, Joan. The etiquette of lei: The gift of flowers carries a varied symbolism. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1995.
Closing the triangle: A quest for Rapa Nui. Polynesian Voyaging Society: History and Heritage. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/rapanui/heritage.html.
Coleon, Shayna. Beach Boys share memories of Duke: Surfing legend remembered for ‘spreading aloha.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/24/2002.
Cox, J. Halley, with Stasack, Edward. Hawaiian Petroglyphs. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 60, 1970.
Culliney, John L. Islands in a Far Sea. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988.
Daws, Gavan. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968.
Day, A. Grove. A Biographical Dictionary: History Makers of Hawaii. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1984.
Degener, Otto. Plants of Hawaii National Parks: Illustrative of Plants and Customs of the South Seas. Braun-Brumfield, Inc., 1973.
Dixon, Susan. Anthropologist seeks support for Polynesian canoe project. Kauai Times, 9/11/1996.
Dixon, Susan. Hokule‘a sets sail for Kaua‘i: Ceremony Saturday to mark arrival of voyaging canoe. The Garden Island, 9/18/1996.
DNA tests trace Polynesians to China origins. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/1998.
Duke Kahanamoku and the Dawn of Australian Surfing: at the “Boomerang Camp” Freshwater Beach, Sydney in the Southern Summer of 1915. Internet site: http://www.magna.com.au/c.prfbrown/the_duke.html, 2/18/2001.
Duke Kahanamoku gets own stamp next year: Surfing legend latest U.S. icon feted by Postal Service. The Garden Island, 11/07/2001.
Duke Kahanamoku—The legendary Hawaiian waterman and his influence on Kaua‘i: The Duke sends a surfboard to a Kaua‘i boy. The Garden Island, 8/23/2002.
Duke put Hawaii on map. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/19/2003.
Duke’s Fans Make Stamps a Big Sell. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/29/2002.
Event celebrates Duke’s legacy: 3-day ho‘olaule‘a to be staged in Waikīkī. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/2003.
Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002.
Fornander, Abraham. Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1996.
Fujimori, Leila. Duke’s Day: Stamp’s unveiling honors 112th birthday. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002.
Friary, Ned, and Bendure, Glenda. Hawaii: 5th Edition. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., 3/2000.
Fryer, Gerard. The most dangerous wave. The Sciences, July/August, 1995.
Gima, Craig. Mix-up leads to cleanup of Duke’s lei: Lei had been put on the waterman’s statue for his 112th birthday. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002.
Gon III, Dr. Sam. Hawaiian culture and conservation: I ka mole o ka ‘aina (at the root of the land). Honolulu: Nature Conservancy of Hawaii Newsletter, 1995.
Gordon, Mike. People make Duke stamp a reality: Thousands of signatures help successful effort. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/04/2002.
Gordon, Mike. Surf-forecast buoys sinking in Washington’s red ink: North Shore already hit without warning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/18/1996.
Handy, Emory, Bryan, Buck, Wise and Others. Ancient Hawaiian Civilization: A Series of Lectures Delivered at the Kamehameha Schools. Mutual Publishing: Honolulu, Hawaii, 1999.
Handy, E.S. Craighill, and Handy, Elizabeth Green, with the collaboration of Mary Kawena Pukui. Native Planters in Old Hawaii: Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1972.
Hargreaves, Dorothy and Bob. Tropical Blossoms of the Pacific. Hargreaves Company, Inc., 1970.
Hargreaves, Dorothy and Bob. Tropical Trees of the Pacific. Hargreaves Company, Inc., 1970.
Hawaiian heritage on parade. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/09/2002.
Hawaiian Native Plant Genera. University of Hawai‘i Botany Department. Internet site: http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/carr/natives.htm, 5/03/2002.
Hawai‘i Data Book: A Statistical Reference to Hawai‘i’s Social, Economic and Political Trends. Edited by Robert C. Schmitt. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2002.
Hawaii’s greatest sportsman earns his stamp in history. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/24/2002.
Heathcote, Sheila. Sailing the Hawaiian way: KCC professor learns ancient skills aboard Hokule‘a, Hawaii Loa. The Garden Island.
Heckman, Marsha. Lei Aloha: Flower Lei of Hawai‘i with Instructions. Waipahu, Hawai‘i: Island Heritage Publishing, 2001.
He‘e Nalu: Surfing’s Early Years. Adventure West Magazine, November/December, 1995.
Hettena, Seth. Where no dude has gone before: Surfers pursue the 100-foot wave. West Hawai‘i Today, 7/25/2001.
Hilo Area: Merrie Monarch Festival. Internet site: http://expedia.msn.com/wg/north_america/united_states/p20080.asp.
Hiroa, Te Rangi (Peter H. Buck). Arts and Crafts of Hawai‘i II: Houses. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1957.
Hiroa, Te Rangi (Peter H. Buck). Arts and Crafts of Hawai‘i VIII: Games and Recreation. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1957.
Hirschmann, Fred. Rocks of ages. Adventure West, July/August, 1995.
Hoover, Will. Honoring the legacy of Duke Kahanamoku. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/25/2002.
Hoover, Will. Kamehameha parade conquers all: Kama‘āina fans mix with malihini. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/09/2002.
Hoover, Will. Lei Queen contest? Let’s party!. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/03/2002.
Houston, James D. Hula Renaissance. San Francisco Chronicle, 2/28/1993.
Houston, Victor. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988.
Hula exhibit opens at museum. The Garden Island, 9/06/2000.
Human DNA analysis points to African origin: Study performed on complete genome. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/7/2000.
Hurley, Timothy. Another nastier lizard found. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/19/2002.
Ide, Laurie Shimizu. Hawai‘i’s Flower Lei: An Identification Guide to over 50 of Hawai‘i’s Favorite Lei. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2001.
Ide, Laurie Shimizu. Hawai‘i’s Seeds and Seed Lei. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2000.
Ii, John Papa. Fragments of Hawaiian History. Translated by Mary Kawena Pukui; Edited by Dorothy B. Barrère. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1959.
Seiden, Allan. Hawai‘i: The Royal Legacy. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1992.
Kaeppler, Adrienne L. Kapa: Hawaiian Barkcloth. Hilo Bay, Hawai‘i: Boom Books, 1980.
Kahanamoku stamp to get symbolic debut. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/10/2002.
Kamakau, Samuel Manaiakalani. Ka Po‘e Kahiko: The People of Old. Translated from the Newspaper Ke Au ‘Oko‘a by Mary Kawena Pukui. Arranged and edited by Dorothy B. Barrère. Bishop Museum Special Publication 51. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991.
Kāne, Herb Kawainui. Ancient Hawai‘i. Captain Cook, Hawai‘i: The Kawainui Press, 1997.
Kane, Herb Kawainui. Pele: Goddess of Hawaii’s Volcanoes. Captain Cook, Hawaii: The Kawainui Press, 1987.
Kane, Herb Kawainui. The Kamehameha-Vancouver legacy—Hawaiian attitudes toward Britain and Cook—A contradiction reported. The Garden Island, 11/10/1999.
Kauaians train for a cultural voyage. The Garden Island, 8/18/1996.
Kauai’s Menehune: Mysteries of the Hawaiian Islands. Internet site: http://www.europa.com/edge/mene.html, 8/17/2000.
Kawaharada, Dennis. The Settlement of Polynesia, Part 1. Polynesian Voyaging Society. Internet Site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/mirgrationspart1.html.
Kepler, Angela Kay. Hawai‘i’s Floral Splendor: A Friendly and Color Identification Guide to Native and Introduced Flowers of All the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1997.
Kirch, Patrick Vinton. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1985.
Kirch, Patrick V., and Sahlins, Marshall. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Volume One: Historical Ethnography (Marshall Sahlins, with the Assistance of Dorothy B. Barrère). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Kirch, Patrick V., and Sahlins, Marshall. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Volume Two: The Archaeology of History (Patrick V. Kirch). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Krauss, Beatrice H. Native Plants Used as Medicine in Hawai‘i. Honolulu: Harold L. Lyon Arboretum, 1981.
Krauss, Beatrice H. Plants in Hawaiian Culture. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1993.
Krauss, Beatrice H. Plants in Hawaiian Medicine. Honolulu: The Bess Press, 2001.
Krauss, Bob. Pacific migration theory disputed: Polynesians may be from Indonesia. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/18/2000.
Lei of the Land: Hula halau take to the hills for authenticity. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/16/1995.
Life in Early Hawai‘i: The Ahupua‘a—Third Edition. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1994.
Malo, David. Hawaiian Antiquities: Mo‘olelo Hawai‘i. Translated from the Hawaiian by Dr. Nathaniel B. Emerson, 1898. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 2: Second Edition. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1951.
Matisoo-Smith, E., Roberts, R.M., Irwin, G.J., Allen, J.S., Penny, D. and Lambert, D.M. Patterns of prehistoric human mobility in Polynesia indicated by mtDNA from the Pacific rat. Anthropology, Vol. 95, pp. 15145-15150, December, 1998.
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Memories of Duke Kahanamoku. Internet site: http://planet-hawaii.com/duke/memories.htm
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[1] p. 137, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1261.
[2] DNA tests trace Polynesians to China origins. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/1998.
Borg, Jim. Genetic research offers intriguing new view of Polynesian migrations. Hawaii Magazine, February, 1997.
Human DNA analysis points to African origin: Study performed on complete genome. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/7/2000.
Krauss, Bob. Pacific migration theory disputed: Polynesians may be from Indonesia. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/18/2000.
Matisoo-Smith, E., Roberts, R.M., Irwin, G.J., Allen, J.S., Penny, D. and Lambert, D.M. Patterns of prehistoric human mobility in Polynesia indicated by mtDNA from the Pacific rat. Anthropology, Vol. 95, pp. 15145-15150, December, 1998.
Matsunaga, Mark. Scientists still fish for migration answer: Canoes ready to test theory of the fishhooks. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/16/1995.
[3] p. 76, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 683.
[4] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999.
[5] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002.
[6] p. 114, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1072.
[7] p. 114, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1072.
[8] p. 142, Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[9] Translation by J.C. Lane, as cited in: Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988.
[10] Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988.
[11] Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001.
[12] Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001.
[13] p. 43, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 352.
[14] p. 41, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 333.
[15] p. 134, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1234.
[xvi] p. 188, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1754.
[xvii] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002.
[xviii] p. 77, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 695.
[xix] p. 277, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2534.
[xx] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999.
[xxi] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002.
[xxii] p. 237, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2180.
[xxiii] p. 252, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2312.
[xxiv] p. 285, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2589.
[xxv] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999.
[xxvi] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002.
[xxvii] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999.
[xxviii] Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002.