Chapter 4. Science and Natural Phenomenon of the Hawaiian Islands Geology, Astronomy, Hurricanes, Tsunamis, Volcanoes, Waves, and other Hawaiian Science Topics.
[Illustration: Volcanic Eruption / Tsunami]
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain The Tectonic Origins of the Hawaiian Islands Hawaiian Volcanoes Lō‘ihi Seamount The Next Hawaiian Island Mauna Kea Astronomy And the Keck Telescopes Waves Tsunamis Hurricanes Rainbows
Expanded Table of Contents—Chapter 4
Chapter 4. Science and Natural Phenomenon of the Hawaiian Islands Geology, Astronomy, Hurricanes, Tsunamis, Volcanoes, Waves, and other Hawaiian Science Topics.
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain: The Tectonic Origins of the Hawaiian Islands Tectonic Plates The Ring of Fire Shield Volcanoes, Island Formation, and the Hawaiian Magmatic Hot Spot The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain Kaua‘i—An Example of the Life of an Island Hawai‘i Island: The Newest and Biggest Hawaiian Island Lava Research Yields Clues to Ancient Earth
Hawaiian Volcanoes Volcanoes on the Island of Hawai‘i—An Overview Lava Types, Black-Sand Beaches and Volcanic Gas The Legend of Pele
Lō‘ihi Seamount: The Next Hawaiian Island Archaea—Bacteria and Iron Deposits Chemosynthesis and Deep-Sea Vent Species
Mauna Kea Astronomy and the Keck Telescopes Mauna Kea‘s Summit—Ideal Observatory Location The Keck Telescopes Keck Adaptive Optics Interferometry Project Keck Discoveries Other Telescopes Atop Mauna Kea Jupiter’s Moons Submillimeter Research Infrared Megapixel Camera Very Long Baseline Array
Waves Types and Properties of Waves Anatomy of a Wave Ocean Weather Buoys Be Careful—Avoid Dangerous Waters Water Safety Things Aren’t Always as They Seem What To Do In a Rip Current—Remain Calm Some Tips on Water Safety—When In Doubt, Don’t Go Out Water Safety—Key Things to Remember
Tsunamis Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands Anatomy of a Tsunami—Period, Wavelength, Speed When a Tsunami Arrives The 1946 Tsunami The 1957 Tsunami The 1960 Tsunami Localized Tsunamis Ancient Tsunamis Worldwide—Other Historic Tsunamis Tsunami Warning Systems False Alarms Ocean Floor Sensors
Hurricanes Anatomy of a Hurricane
Formation of a Hurricane
Hurricane ‘Iniki—September 11, 1992 Hurricanes That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands Satellites and Supercomputers
Rainbows Light Dispersion The Anatomy of a Rainbow Double Rainbows Seeing Rainbows
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain The Tectonic Origins of the Hawaiian Islands [Illustration: Planet earth showing western hemisphere, Hawaiian Emperor Chain]
Picture a jigsaw puzzle on a round ball, with the pieces of the puzzle constantly moving around on the ball’s surface. That’s a good model of Earth’s geological characteristics. The ball is Earth, and the puzzle pieces are large sections of the Earth’s crust floating on the molten rock beneath. These large floating pieces of Earth’s crust are known as tectonic plates. Earth’s crust is divided up into 12 large tectonic plates along with many smaller tectonic plates. The Hawaiian Islands are on the Pacific Plate, the largest of Earth’s tectonic plates.
Tectonic Plates All of Earth’s tectonic plates are relatively thin, and beneath them is the molten rock (magma) of Earth’s interior. These tectonic plates vary from 2 to 75 miles (3 to 121 km) thick. The plates are thicker under mountains, and thinner under oceans. Earth’s tectonic plates are rigid, and tend to drift and slowly move around on the hotter and more fluid mantle beneath them. This causes the tectonic plates to shift over time, rearranging them on the surface of the Earth. The Pacific Plate is currently moving northwest at the rate of about 3½ inches (9 cm) per year. [Illustration: Globe with outline of tectonic plates, Pacific region]
The Ring of Fire Volcanic activity occurs all around the margins of the Pacific Plate, from Japan’s Mt. Fuji, to Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, to Katmai in Alaska and Washington’s Mount Saint Helens. This great circle of volcanoes around the around the circumference of the Pacific Plate has led to the nickname “Ring of Fire,” which describes the volcanic activity. The boundaries of the Pacific Plate are roughly aligned with the edges of the Pacific Ocean. Earth’s tectonic plates are constantly bumping into each other, and these great confrontations cause earthquakes as well as volcanic activity, mostly along the boundaries of the tectonic plates. Earth’s major tectonic plates drift at varying speeds and in different directions. As noted above, the Pacific Plate is the largest of Earth’s tectonic plates, and is currently drifting to the northwest at the rate of about 3½ inches (9 cm) per year. As the subducted crust of the Pacific Plate melts into the deeper magma beneath the North American Plate, this causes volcanoes to form and erupt back up through the surrounding tectonic plates. This is largely how the great mountain ranges of the western United States were formed, and also the cause of the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington. The Pacific Plate is also subducting (diving beneath) the other surrounding tectonic plates, such as the Aleutian, and Eurasian tectonic plates. [Illustration: Map sketch, Ring of Fire]
Shield Volcanoes, Island Formation, and the Hawaiian Magmatic Hot Spot Hawaiian volcanoes (known as shield volcanoes) are not produced by a subduction process (one tectonic plate diving beneath another), but instead the Hawaiian volcanoes are produced by a single stationary plume of lava known as the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot. This plume of lava rises up from deep within Earth’s mantle. The Hawaiian hot spot’s lava plume produced all of the Hawaiian Islands as the uprising lava burned through the Earth’s crust and erupted up onto the seafloor forming undersea volcanic mountains. When a subsea volcano grows tall enough to break the ocean’s surface, the peak becomes an island. The Hawaiian Islands are the summits of massive volcanoes that grew up from the ocean floor as much as 18,000 feet (5,486 m) below the water’s surface.
Shield Volcanoes The volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands are known as shield volcanoes because their broad and even lava flows form a shape similar to a warrior’s shield.
Ke one lau‘ena a Kāne. The rich, fertile land of Kāne. Puna, Hawai‘i, was said to have been a beautiful, fertile land loved by the god Kāne. Pele came from Kahiki and changed it into a land of lava beds, cinder, and rock. (Pukui: 1777: 191)
The Hawaiian magmatic hot spot, the deep-Earth lava plume fueling the Hawaiian volcanoes, is about 50 miles (80 km) in diameter. Currently one edge of the lava plume is under the island of Hawai‘i, fueling the eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano, while the other edge of the magmatic hot spot is about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of the Big Island, where it fuels the volcanic activity of Lō‘ihi Seamount. Lō‘ihi is now about 9,000 feet (2,743 m) tall, and the undersea volcano’s summit is about 3,116 fee (950 m) below the ocean’s surface. Eventually Lō‘ihi will be centered over the uprising lava plume, which is stationary. Like the rest of the Hawaiian Islands that came before it, the island of Hawai‘i will be carried away from the hot spot by the northwest movement of the Pacific Plate, making way for the next island to emerge. One after another, as if on an assembly line, the volcanic islands are produced by the hot spot lava plume. Each volcanic island forms over the stationary hot spot and then is carried northwest as if on a conveyor belt. The Pacific seafloor is moving northwest only a few inches per year, but over millions of years this has resulted in a chain of islands in a line from the northwest to the southeast. The newest (youngest) islands are at the southeast end of the island chain, while the oldest islands are at the northwest end of the chain.
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
Over the last 75 to 80 million years, the movement of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot created a 3,105-mile (4,997-km) long chain of undersea volcanoes known as the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain. Most of the volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain are completely underwater, and known as seamounts. Volcanoes of the chain rising above the water include the 132 islands, reefs, shoals and atolls of the Hawaiian Islands (including the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands). This line of seamounts and volcanic islands is the result of the 75- to 80-million year history of the Pacific Plate drifting north and then northwest over the magmatic hot spot plume of lava. This is easily seen when viewing a map of the Pacific seafloor. The southeastern portion of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain is called the Hawaiian Island/Seamount Chain, and runs southeast to northwest for about 1,860 miles (2,993 km). The upper portion of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain runs almost due north for about 1,245 miles (2,004 km), and is called the Emperor Seamount Chain. Together these two sections comprise the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain. Researchers believe this volcano-building process began longer than 80 million years ago, and the volcanoes from this time have by now moved so far north that they were subducted beneath the North Pacific Aleutian Submarine Trench. The dogleg in the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain is due to a shift in the direction of movement of the Pacific Plate, from north to northwest, about 40 to 43 million years ago. From that time until the present the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest. The shift in the direction of movement of the massive Pacific Plate from north to northwest was likely due to movements of Earth’s other tectonic plates, particularly the Indian Plate, which collided with Asia resulting in the formation of the Himalayan Mountains. [Illustration/Graphic: Hawaiian Emperor Chain showing Pacific Plate movement over Hawaiian magmatic hot spot, including seamounts]
Above the stationary hot spot lava plume, island after island forms. One after another each island is carried northwest. As each island moves away from the active lava plume, it ceases its volcanic eruptions, first becoming dormant and then extinct, and eventually eroding away into the sea. This process of island formation and erosion continues today. At the northwest end of the chain the islands slowly dissolve into the sea, while to the southeast islands continue to grow. The Hawaiian Island Chain is just a small part of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain. The eight main Hawaiian Islands span over about 350 miles (563 km) of ocean. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands include 124 scattered islets, shoals, and atolls spanning over about 1,050 mi1es (1,690 km) of ocean. In all, the Hawaiian Islands span over about 1,525 miles, from the island of Hawai‘i at the southeast end, to Kure Atoll to the northwest. At the southeast end of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain, islands continue to grow, most notably at the site of Hawai‘i Island’s Kīlauea Volcano, which has been erupting almost continuously since 1983. The island chain also continues to grow at the site of Lō‘ihi Seamount, about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of the Big Island. Lō‘ihi Seamount is very active. At sometime in the future, perhaps between 50,000 and 200,000 years from now, Lō‘ihi will grow tall enough to break the ocean’s surface and become the next Hawaiian Island. (See Lō‘ihi Seamount section.)
Kaua‘i—An Example of the Life of an Island Because the process of island building is fairly consistent, one may look at any particular island to gain an understanding of how the process works. The island of Kaua‘i is the northernmost of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, and also the oldest. The volcano that formed Kaua‘i began growing on the seafloor about six million years ago, and by about 4.35 million years ago the volcano’s major shield building phase had finished.
Kaua‘i used to be where the island of Hawai‘i is today, over the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot plume of erupting lava. Each of the Hawaiian Islands was once over the hot spot lava plume. Since the time when Kaua‘i first grew up from the seafloor to become an island it has moved northwest about 320 miles (515 km) on the Pacific Plate. As Kaua‘i moved away from the active hot spot area, its volcanoes became dormant and then extinct. Kaua‘i was formed primarily by Olokele Volcano, which once rose to (an estimated) more than 8,500 feet (2,591 m) above sea level. Millions of years ago the summit of the volcano collapsed. When the summit of a volcano collapses, it forms what is known as a caldera. The collapse of Olokele’s summit formed a caldera 11 miles (18 km) across, now considered the largest caldera in the Hawaiian Islands. The caldera of the active volcano then gradually filled with layers of pāhoehoe lava. These “ponded lavas” are generally level and non-porous, holding rainwater. This created the high elevation Alaka‘i Swamp, known for its distinctive thick, clay soils and dwarfed vegetation. Olokele Volcano, the original volcano of Kaua‘i, is now considered extinct and has eroded away. The height of island has also diminished due to subsidence, a bending downward of the Earth’s crust (and the ocean floor) due to the heavy weight of the island mountains. This is a common phenomenon that has occurred on all of the Hawaiian Islands. In the last 400,000 years, Mauna Loa Volcano has subsided more than 3,400 feet (1,036 m), even as the height grew due to volcanic activity. The two highest peaks on Kaua‘i are now Mt. Kawaikini at 5,243 feet (1,598 m), and Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale at 5,148 feet (1,569 m). Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale averages 451 inches (1,146 cm) of rain per year, making it one of the rainiest spots on Earth. The rains are produced by the northeasterly tradewinds that are funneled toward Wai‘ale‘ale’s summit by the mountain valleys that stretch from Wailua on the east side of the island to Wainiha on the north shore. As the wind rises up these steep valleys the air cools abruptly, forming clouds that rain down upon the land. Southerly Kona storms also bring moisture up Hanapēpē, Olokele, and other valleys. At more than five million years old, Kaua‘i definitely qualifies as an ancient Pacific Island. Centuries of heavy rains on Kaua‘i have caused the extreme erosion that is characteristic of ancient Pacific islands. Steep cliffs are common on Kaua‘i, dropping more than 3,000 feet (900 m) straight down in some places along the Nāpali coast, and in the deep rain-carved valleys of spectacular Waimea Canyon. Layer by layer the process of erosion continues to bring Kaua‘i back to sea level. Eventually only a coral atoll will remain. [Photograph: Nāpali coast]
Ke alahaka o Nu‘alolo. The ladder of Nu‘alolo. The ascent of Nu‘alolo, Kaua‘i, is steep and difficult. In the olden days the people built a ladder in order to go up and down more easily. This ladder is famed in ancient poetry of Kaua‘i. (Pukui: 1672-180)
Hawai‘i Island: The Newest and Biggest Hawaiian Island On the island of Hawai‘i, Mauna Kea Volcano rises some 6.2 miles (10 km) from the seafloor. The summit of Mauna Kea is 13,796 feet (4,205 m) above sea level, but measured from base to summit the mountain is a phenomenal 33,476 feet (10,200 m) tall. While Mauna Kea is the tallest mountain on Earth (measured from base to summit), it is not the largest in our solar system. That title goes to a volcano on Mars called Olympus Mons, which is 370 miles (595 km) wide and 79,000 feet (24,079 m) high, three times as high as Mt. Everest. Like all the other Hawaiian Islands, Hawai‘i Island is moving northwest away from the magmatic hot spot area at the rate of about 3½ inches (9 cm) per year. The Big Island’s volcanoes will eventually become dormant and then extinct. In turn, Lō‘ihi will be carried more directly over the erupting hot spot to become the center of volcanic activity and will eventually grow tall enough to rise above the surf and become the next Hawaiian Island.
Lava Research Yields Clues to Ancient Earth The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands (shield volcanoes erupting over a stationary magmatic hot spot) erupt a different sort of lava than volcanoes around the edges of the Pacific Plate (stratovolcanoes, produced by tectonic subduction activity). Researchers now believe that the chemistry of the lava of the Hawaiian Islands’ shield volcanoes may hold clues to the early universe. Researchers theorize that remnants of the primordial cloud of gas and dust that coalesced to form our solar system some 4.6 billion years ago may have been preserved in the magma (molten earth) near the Earth’s core. That magma is rising up in the hot spot plume of lava forming the Hawaiian Islands. This also occurs at numerous other hot spot sites on Earth. The deep-sourced Hawaiian magmatic hot spot brings the primordial magma from near the Earth’s center to the surface where it is currently erupting from Kīlauea Volcano and Lō‘ihi Seamount. The chemical remnants of Earth’s early atmosphere may be detected in this lava. Ongoing scientific research about Earth’s early environment continues to analyze Hawaiian lavas and the processes of magmatic hot spots. [Photograph: Hawaiian-Emperor Chain, or suitable photograph]
Hawaiian Volcanoes [Illustration: Volcanic Eruption]
Molten rock erupts into the air, pouring tons of lava down the flank of the volcano. The river of lava eventually flows to the sea where it explodes in great fiery bursts as it enters the water. Welcome to the island of Hawai‘i.
Ka ‘ohu kāku o Kīlauea. The draping mists of Kīlauea. The mists in the crater of Kīlauea look like drapery along its cliffs. (Pukui: 1512-163)
Volcanoes on the Island of Hawai‘i—An Overview The island of Hawai‘i was formed by six volcanoes, including the submerged Mahukona Volcano off the northwest shore, and five volcanoes above sea level: Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, Kohala, Hualālai and Kīlauea. Kīlauea Volcano is currently the most continuously active volcano on Earth, having covered more than 500 square miles (1,300 sq. km) with lava in the last 1,100 years, and erupting almost continuously since 1983. Kīlauea and Mauna Loa Volcanoes are considered active, while Mauna Kea, Hualālai and Haleakalā volcanoes are considered dormant but not extinct. The numerous other volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are considered extinct. Mauna Kea’s last eruption occurred about 4,500 years ago. Mauna Loa erupted 36 times between 1843 and 1995, including eruptions in 1859, 1942, 1950, and 1975, and 1984. Beginning on May 12, 2002, Mauna Loa showed inflationary activity in its summit crater and outward spreading along a northeast rift (see below). Historic eruptions of Hualālai Volcano include three eruptions between 800 and 1100, an eruption around 1300, and an eruption in the years 1800-1801. Lava flows from Hualālai and Kohala volcanoes (along with coral deposits) have now buried most of Mahukona Volcano, including its summit (though a west rift zone remains prominent). Mahukona Volcano has been extinct for about 410,000 years. Its summit once rose to more than 800 feet (244 m) above sea level, but sunk beneath the sea about 435,000 years ago. Researchers may now view the historic record of the subsidence of Hawai‘i Island by examining the stair-step pattern of sunken coral reefs on Mahukona’s southwest-facing and northwest-facing flanks.
The Legend of Pele Pele, the legendary goddess of fire and volcanoes, is also the daughter of Wākea, the Sky Father, and Papa (Haumea), the Earth Mother. Pele is a creator of mountains and islands, including the Hawaiian Islands. She is also a destroyer and a burner of lands. Legend has it that Pele’s island home was near Tahiti, but she was chased from there by her sister because she had slept with her sister’s husband. Pele first took refuge on Ni‘ihau where she dug a crater home to protect her sacred fires. Her sister followed her and used the sea to extinguish Pele’s fires. Pele fled again, and was chased from island to island, but each time her sister destroyed her home and chased her away until finally Pele was killed. Upon death, Pele’s spirit was freed and she became a goddess, just as her sister became goddess of the sea. According to legend, Pele protects her sacred fires today in Halema‘uma‘u Crater at the summit of Kīlauea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island. Halema‘uma‘u means “House surrounded by the ‘ama‘u fern,” referring to the ferns that surround the volcanic crater. These ferns are said to be the embodiment of the demi-god Kamapua‘a, who pursued Pele’s love but was rejected. The battle between Pele and her sister continues today on the island of Hawai‘i’s southeast coast where the lava meets the sea in fiery explosions. Pele is found everywhere that fire comes up through the earth to light the sky. It is said that wherever the ground is hot and steam hisses up from cracks in the earth, wherever the incandescent glow of molten rock and the smell of sulfur fill the air, wherever lava erupts in fiery fountains into the sky, “‘ae aia la ‘o Pele”—“there is Pele.”
Kino lau. Many bodied. Said of a god who was able to assume other forms, such as plant, animal, fish, or human, at will. Pele is referred to as akua kino lau because of her ability to change into a child, a beautiful maiden, a plain matron, or a very old woman. (Pukui: 1803-194)
[Illustration: Pele]
Lō‘ihi Seamount: The Next Hawaiian Island [Illustration: Lō‘ihi]
If you could speed up time and look at the Hawaiian Islands, you would see them rising up out of the ocean one by one, as each in turn was carried northwest by the Pacific Plate, away from the relatively stationary plume of lava erupting from the seafloor. You would then see the volcanic islands become dormant and extinct, one after another eroding away back into the sea. If you could see into the future, you would see the next Hawaiian Island rising above the sea—that island would be Lō‘ihi, which today is an undersea volcano (called a seamount) about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of Hawai‘i Island. Lō‘ihi Seamount is currently more than 9,000 feet (2,743 m) tall and about 3,116 feet (950 m) below the surface of the Pacific Ocean. The erupting summit of Lō‘ihi should rise above the water in about 50,000 to 200,000 years from now to become the next Hawaiian Island. Lō‘ihi is quite active, volcanically and tectonically. In just one three-week period beginning July 17, 1996, more than 4,000 earthquakes were recorded near Lō‘ihi’s summit, a record for Hawaiian volcanoes. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Nei ka honua, he ōla‘i ia” (“When the earth trembles, it is an earthquake”), said to mean, “We know what it is by what it does.”[1] The intense water pressure at Lō‘ihi’s summit causes erupting lava to immediately cool and turn into volcanic glass. Water temperatures around the summit may reach 140º Fahrenheit (60º Celsius), even though the temperature of the surrounding water is near freezing. The University of Hawai‘i research boat called Ka‘imikai O Kanaloa carries a deep-diving manned submersible called Pisces V that has been used to explore Lō‘ihi’s volcanic activity and the life forms that grow near the summit. Strange undersea colonies of volcanic life thrive near Lō‘ihi’s sulfurous hot water vents, and in the 1,200-foot (366-m) deep pit craters in Lō‘ihi’s summit caldera. Superheated sulfur-yellow water was seen shooting out in big plumes in an area of Lō‘ihi’s summit that the scientists named “Pele’s Vents.” They also recently discovered a new species of shrimp there—it is orange and just a few inches long, and blends in with the orange rocks. The summit area later collapsed into what they named Pele’s Pit, a 1,000-foot (305-m) deep crater that is 800 feet (244 m) across and filled with an estimated 300 million tons (272 mtons) of rock.
Archaea—Bacteria and Iron Deposits Another life form growing near Lō‘ihi’s hot vent fields are single-celled archaea, which lack nuclei yet have DNA similar to higher life forms. Researchers theorize that archaea resembles prehistoric life forms that existed when the planet had a harsher environment (similar to the conditions on Lō‘ihi today). The archaea, absent any link to sunlight and photosynthesis, feed on the chemical energy of the toxic plumes of super-heated water emitted by Lō‘ihi. Water emitting from Lō‘ihi’s vents contains about 20,000 times as much carbon dioxide as the surrounding seawater. This helps bacteria live near the hydrothermal vents and creates massive iron deposits. Near the hydrothermal vents everything is orange because it is carpeted with 3-foot (.9-m) thick iron deposits created by these unique bacteria that oxidize iron. When the Pisces V research boat touched down on Lō‘ihi’s summit, it instantly caused a bacterial snowstorm of iron deposits that puffed up all around the submersible.
Chemosynthesis and Deep-Sea Vent Species All of the life forms near the hydrothermal vents on Lō‘ihi’s summit are very rare, surviving under immense pressure with no connection to sunlight or photosynthesis. Instead they exist by a process known as chemosynthesis, which utilizes only heat and chemicals (such as sulfur), to produce a whole variety of rare luminescent creatures. These include various microbes loaded with heavy metals and toxic compounds. There are lots of other places in the world where deep-sea vents occur, and many different species live near these hydrothermal vents. For example, the species living near the hydrothermal vents of the Galapagos Rift include giant clams, 6-foot (1.8-m) long tubeworms, and other strange chemosynthetic creatures. The species around Lō‘ihi’s vents tend to be smaller and different than those near other deep-sea vents. The unique biological communities thriving on Lō‘ihi’s summit are providing scientists with fascinating new insights into deep-sea life and chemical processes. They have also concluded that lava from magmatic hot spot volcanoes (like all Hawaiian Island volcanoes, which are also called shield volcanoes) are very different from the lava that erupts from the stratovolcanoes around the edges of the Pacific Ocean where the Pacific Plate dives (subducts) beneath other tectonic plates, forming the “Ring of Fire.” Researchers theorize that the lava of Lō‘ihi is coming from extremely deep in the Earth (near the very core), and that its chemical composition holds clues to Earth’s origins. This chemical composition is analyzed by comparing helium isotope ratios, and by using other advanced analytical techniques. [Photograph: Hydrothermal vent]
Mauna Kea Astronomy and the Keck Telescopes [Illustration: Overview of observatories atop Mauna Kea]
Wouldn’t it be great to be able to look back in time, and see all the way back to the beginning of the universe? That’s exactly what the Keck Telescopes allow scientists to do every day atop Mauna Kea’s summit on Hawai‘i Island, where researchers use the massive but precise instruments to explore the early universe through astronomical studies.
Mauna Kea, kuahiwi ku ha‘o i ka mālie. Mauna Kea, standing alone in the calm. (Pukui: 2147-234)
Amidst a moonscape of blackened craters and lava cinder cones, the Keck telescopes are just two of the many gleaming white and silver domes atop Mauna Kea. The summit of Mauna Kea supports 13 major observatories operated by 11 countries. These telescopes comprise the world’s largest cluster of astronomical observatories. With precision and power unmatched anywhere on the planet, the international observatories atop Mauna Kea have come a long way from the first telescopes invented by Galileo nearly 400 years ago.
Mauna Kea’s Summit—Ideal Observatory Location The summit of Mauna Kea is considered the best site on Earth for astronomy. Above 40% of Earth’s atmosphere, Mauna Kea’s summit is completely surrounded by thermally stable ocean and generally free from the turbulence and light that interfere with telescopes at lower altitudes. At Mauna Kea’s 13,796-foot (4,205-m) summit there is 38% less oxygen than at sea level, and it is well above the tropical inversion cloud layer that effectively isolates the peak from moist sea-level air.
The University of Hawai‘i leases the summit land of Mauna Kea from the State of Hawai‘i. The telescope facilities on the summit constitute the Mauna Kea Science Reserve Complex. Observing Assistants operate the telescopes for astronomers, cosmologists, astrophysicists and other researchers who gather scientific data from the instruments. Research teams usually work for one to four nights according to pre-approved time allocations.
The Keck Telescopes
The most prominent telescopes atop Mauna Kea are the twin Keck Telescopes, which became operable in 1992 and 1996. The Keck Telescopes are the largest optical-infrared telescopes in the world. The domes cost $70 million each, and were funded by the W.M. Keck Foundation.
The founding partners of the Keck telescopes are the University of California and the California Institute of Technology. Astronomers from those institutions as well as from the University of Hawai‘i (and others) have used the Keck telescopes to make many important discoveries. In 1996, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) became part of the Keck partnership, particularly the interferometer project (see below).
Each Keck dome is 111 feet (33.8 m) tall and contains more than 700,000 cubic feet (18,833 cu. m) of volume. Despite their huge size, the Keck telescopes are finely engineered precision instruments. For example, the main moveable 300-ton (272-mton) component of each dome is so perfectly balanced it may be moved with one hand. The Hubble Space Telescope is above Earth’s atmosphere, and so it may receive sharper images than the Keck Telescopes. However the Hubble’s mirror (at 2.4 meters) is only 1/25th the size of the Keck mirrors, and thus is not able to gather as much light as the Keck Telescopes. The result is that the Keck Telescopes can see objects much farther away. The segmented mirror of each Keck Telescope is a perfect parabolic reflecting surface 32.8 feet (10 meters) in diameter. Each mirror is made up of 36 smaller hexagonal (6-sided) mirrors, each 6 feet (1.8 m) across. These smaller mirrors are individually controlled by computers, so that all of the mirrors work in concert as if they are one giant mirror—quite an engineering feat. The surfaces of the Keck mirrors are polished so incredibly smooth that if they were expanded to the size of Earth, any deformities would still only measure about 3 feet (.9 m) high. To counteract gravity’s on the mirrors, computer-controlled precision pistons and sensors adjust the mirror segments individually (twice every second), to an accuracy of 4 nanometers, which is about 1/1000th the diameter of a human hair. The interiors of the Keck domes are chilled to near freezing in the daytime, so that when they are opened in the nighttime they are already at ambient outdoor temperature.
Keck Adaptive-Optics Interferometry Project The Keck II uses a new adaptive optics system in which deformable mirrors may change shape 670 times per second to cancel out atmospheric distortion. This produces images ten times sharper than previous images. The new adaptive optics system has also resulted in new discoveries, including the clearest pictures ever of Neptune. Also recently discovered were orbits of stars around what is thought to be a Black Hole at the center of our Milky Way Galaxy.
Using an instrument called an interferometer, engineers and scientists succeeded in combining the light-gathering powers of the two 10-meter (32.8-ft) Keck telescopes in March of 2001. The interferometer manipulates light waves so that their peaks match, creating a much higher peak (similar to what occurs with ocean waves). This is called constructive interference, and it creates a much stronger signal, allowing scientists to produce images with a much greater level of detail.
The Keck project is being completed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Association for Research in Astronomy, and is financed by NASA. A series of small outrigger telescopes as well as a series of underground tunnels combine the light from the two giant Kecks, forming the world’s largest optical interferometer.
Researchers will continue to fine-tune the interferometer, producing a single high-resolution image equal in sharpness to what would normally require a mirror about 279 feet (85 km) across. By combining the power of the twin Keck telescopes, researchers hope to study Earth-like planets orbiting nearby stars. Another major goal of Keck’s adaptive-optics/interferometry project is learning about the formation of solar systems by analyzing dust clouds surrounding nearby stars.
On May 19 and 20, 2003, using adaptive optics and the interferometer, researchers were able to use the twin Keck telescopes to take measurements of a black hole in a galaxy named NGC 4151 about 40 million light years from Earth, and about the same size as the Milky Way. The black hole in NGC 4151 is about ten times as large as the black hole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.
The combined Kecks, with a precision ten times as sensitive as a single Keck, were also used to study a star 450 light years distant from Earth. The dual Keck telescopes were also used in 2003 to obtain the best view to date of the universe’s most primordial objects, including an ancient galaxy where stars began forming when the universe was only about 2 billion years old. The view of this ancient star cluster, known as the Lynx Arc, is by coincidence greatly enhanced by a process called gravitational lensing
Keck Discoveries
A variety of scientific instruments designed for the Keck I and Keck II telescopes perform different tasks for researchers investigating distant galaxies. Particularly in the infrared portion of the light spectrum, the Kecks have explored the farthest limits of space ever reached by the eyes of humans.
In 2002, the Keck broke its own record for sighting the most distant objects ever seen when it viewed a galaxy estimated to be 15.5 billion light years away. An international team of astronomers with the University of Hawai‘i was able to view the distant galaxy by using a galaxy cluster about six billion light years away to magnify the light in a process known as gravitational lensing. One light year is the distance light travels in one year, which is about 5.9 trillion miles (9.5 trillion kilometers).
Cosmologists and astronomers utilize the Keck telescopes and other observatories atop Mauna Kea to investigate Earth’s moon, our solar system’s planets, the Milky Way Galaxy, and far beyond.
The Keck telescopes are also used to find new planets, and by 2002 almost 100 had been found. Before the Keck I opened in 1992 no planets outside our own solar system had been discovered. By 2002, the Keck telescopes had been used to find nearly 100 planets around at least 70 distant stars, some as far as 250 light years away.
In April of 2002, two separate Keck astronomy research teams reported the strongest evidence to date of planetary orbits in a solar system around a relatively nearby star, Beta Pictoris, which is only about 63 light-years away from Earth and visible with the naked eye. In October or 2002 the linked telescopes were able to view swirling particles around a young star said to be more similar to our own solar system than any previous objects viewed. The Keck telescopes and other Mauna Kea observatories are used to conduct research on the evolution of galaxies, planetary and star-forming nebulae, supernova remnants, star clusters, double stars, quasars, and intergalactic gases as well as red, white and brown dwarfs. Red dwarfs are the lowest mass stars, while brown dwarfs are bigger than planets yet smaller than stars, and lack the internal energy (core nuclear reactions) of stars.
One of the most interesting recent astronomical observations seen with a telescope from atop Mauna Kea Volcano was another volcano, called Surt, which was observed actively erupting on Io, one of Jupiter’s four large moons. Io is the solar system’s most volcanically active body. Imke de Pater, a Professor of Astronomy at the University of California at Berkeley, along with post-doctoral researcher Franck Marchis, used an infrared camera along with the Keck II telescope to capture images of the eruption of Surt Volcano on February 22, 2001.
The lava erupting from Surt Volcano was estimated to be about 2000° F (1,100° C), which is slightly hotter than the lava erupting from Hawai‘i Island’s Kīlauea Volcano. The Surt eruption covered an area of about 30 miles (48 km) across, totaling about 735 square miles (1,900 sq. km) in all. On Earth, larger eruptions have occurred, such as an ancient eruption in India that covered an estimated 200,000 square miles (518,000 sq. km), but the eruption of Surt is the largest ever actually seen by humans. Information about the Surt eruption was published in the November 2002 issue of Icarus, a planetary journal.
Io’s volcanoes were monitored by the Galileo spacecraft (a project of NASA), which orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003. Galileo’s journey is scheduled to come to an end in September of 2003, when it will crash into Jupiter.
United Kingdom 3.8-meter infrared telescope (1979).
University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter optical/infrared telescope (1970).
University of Hawai‘i .6-meter optical telescope #1, and #2 (1968, 1969).
Subaru 8.3-meter optical/infrared Japan National telescope (1999).
Very Long Baseline Array Antenna 25-meter radio telescope (1992).
Smithsonian Submillimeter Array 8 6-meter (2003).
Jupiter’s Moons
In June of 2002, astronomer David Jewitt and graduate student Scott Shepard of the University Institute of Astronomy announced that they had used digital imaging technology and the Canada-France-Hawai‘i telescope to discover 11 new moons around the planet Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system. At that time Jupiter already had 28 known moons, 11 of which were found in January of 2001 by the same two researchers. The new discoveries raised to 39 Jupiter’s total number of known moons, most of which are only about 2 miles (3.2 km) in diameter. The researchers’ results were confirmed using the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter telescope.
More discoveries occurred in late 2002 and into 2003, raising Jupiter’s known moons to more than 47. The discoveries utilized the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter telescope as well as the Canada-France-Hawai‘i 3.6-meter telescope and the Subaru 8.3-meter telescope, which have digital cameras that are among the largest in the world. In February of 2003, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics utilized the Canada-France-Hawai‘i telescope and a telescope in Chile to discover three new moons around Neptune.
In 2003 an instrument, called “Megaprime,” the world’s largest telescope-mounted camera, was developed for the Canada-France-Hawai‘i telescope to provide an emerging technology called high-resolution wide-field imaging. Megaprime utilizes the “Megacam,” the newly-crowned largest digital camera in the world, which is capable of viewing about one degree by one degree of sky (the full moon is about one fourth of one degree), and can take pictures with 350 million pixels (a pixel is the smallest element of an image).
The Megacam is more than 100 times as powerful as high-quality digital cameras available commercially. The high-resolution, wide-field imaging technology makes it highly likely that numerous new moons will soon be discovered around the solar system’s planets, continuing the work begun by Galileo when he discovered Jupiter’s four large moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—in 1610.
Submillimeter Research
Dedicated in November of 2003, the Smithsonian Submillimeter Array is the first imaging telescope of its kind, built to allow astronomers to study submillimeter waves. The submillimeter region of the electromagnetic spectrum is concerned with wavelengths that have more energy than microwaves (commonly used in home ovens) but less energy than infrared light.
Only recently has the technology been available to produce the precisely shaped antennas and the extremely sensitive receivers required for submillimeter research. The submillimeter waves emanating from distant objects are received by an array of satellite dishes, and linked by interferometry, allowing scientists to study: distant galaxies more than 13 billion light years away; planets and comets within the Milky Way; stars in the Milky Way that are still in their formative stages; and other astronomical objects. The Submillimeter Array was built by Taiwan’s Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics in partnership with the University of Hawai‘i’s Institute for Astronomy (which provided the space on Mauna Kea for the facility), and the Smithsonian Institution’s Astrophysical Observatory, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which funded 6 of the dishes. Two of the dishes were funded by the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics of Taiwan, which has a 15% interest in the overall project. A specialized array of eight movable 6-meter antennas allow various configurations as optical fibers carry the radiation from each antenna to a central focus, where the signal is correlated and combine to produce images with a quality of resolution comparable to the world’s best optical telescopes. The facility’s many antennae working together at their widest separation can produce an image with details comparable to that produced by a single telescope with a diameter of 1,600 feet (488 m). A forklift can move the antennae to different configurations as needed. The new array also produces images of objects up to 30 times smaller than can be viewed using Mauna Kea’s other submillimeter telescopes (the James Clerk Maxwell 15-meter submillimeter telescope, and the Caltech 10.4-meter submillimeter telescope. The Submillimeter Array will be linked to the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope as well as the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory.
Infrared Megapixel Camera In 2003, an innovative new technology was used to create a 16-megapixel infrared camera mounted on the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter optical/infrared telescope, increasing sky coverage by a factor of 16. These new cameras make the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter optical/infrared telescope the most powerful infrared imaging telescope in the world. Eventually this new megapixel technology will also likely be employed on the Gemini Northern 8-meter optical/infrared telescope and Canada-France-Hawai‘i 3.6-meter optical/infrared telescope.
Very Long Baseline Array The 25-meter (82-foot) radio telescope atop Mauna Kea is part of the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), which was used on September 8, 2002 to measure the speed of gravity, or more technically, the speed at which gravity propagates, thus finally quantifying one of the last of the unmeasured fundamental constants. The Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) uses a new technology known as Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), which has finally made it possible to achieve the extremely high precision needed to measure the speed of gravity. Also utilized in the gravity measurement was a 100-meter (328-foot) radio telescope in Effelsberg, Germany. The gravity propagation speed measurement was made possible by a celestial alignment in which Jupiter came close to the path of radio waves being produced by a quasar named J0842+1835 (quasars are extremely distant and exceptionally bright objects thought to be nuclei of galaxies). The researchers involved in the gravity study, including Ed Fomalont at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Charlottesville, Virginia and Sergei Kopeikin at the University of Missouri-Columbia, concluded that the speed at which gravity propagates is within 20% of the speed of light. Einstein had theorized that it was equal to the speed of light, while Newton had considered the force of gravity to be instantaneous. The recent measurements of gravity’s propagation speed have strong implications for unified field theorists attempting to join particle physics with electromagnetic theory and Einstein’s general theory of relativity. The 240-ton (218-mton) VLBA antenna on Mauna Kea is part of an array of antennae across the United States, along with one antenna on St. Croix in the Caribbean. Digital tapes record the data at each antenna site, and then the information is analyzed at the array’s Socorro Operations Center in New Mexico. [Photograph: Keck Telescope showing outriggers, snow]
Waves [North shore big wave surfing scene]
At an outer reef miles from shore, a surfer on a surfboard holds onto a tow rope as he is pulled behind a jet-ski. A huge wave forms on the horizon and continues to grow as it approaches. The jet-ski driver swings the craft around to pull the surfer in the same direction of the wave, which has now welled up to a monstrous size. The person on the surfboard lets go of the tow rope and surfs the giant wave. The jet ski driver powers the craft out of harm’s way, and then quickly drives back around to retrieve the surfer. [Photograph: Big wave surfing]
Hō a‘e ka ‘ike he‘enalu i ka hokua o ka ‘ale. Show [your] knowledge of surfing on the back of the wave. Talking about one’s knowledge and skill is not enough; let it be proven. (Pukui: 1013-108)
Perhaps more than any other place in the world, Hawai‘i is famous for its large waves. Surfers, sunbathers, and visitors from all over the world flock to the Hawaiian Islands from all parts of globe for a chance to visit the famous surfing beaches, point breaks, and outer reefs.
During summer, large swells arrive from far to the south and break along the Hawaiian Islands’ southern shores. However, it is the giant north shore winter surf that is the source of legends. Every winter, huge storms are generated off of the Asian landmass and grow over the Bering Sea. These storm systems create enormous swells, consistent and organized systems of large ocean waves that move toward the Hawaiian Islands’ north shores.
Types and Properties of Waves: Technically, a wave is defined as any disturbance (energy) that moves over or through a medium, such as air or water. There are many different kinds of waves, from radio waves to sound waves, to tsunamis traveling 7,000 miles across the Pacific Ocean. A wave’s speed is determined by the properties of the medium through which the wave is traveling. For example, sound waves move four times faster in water than they do in air, because water has a higher density than air. A dolphin’s high frequency echolocation pulses (sound waves) have extremely small wavelengths, while a tsunami may have a wavelength of 50 to 300 miles (80 to 483 km), as well as a period as long as 30 minutes, and a speed through the ocean of more than 500 mi/hr (805 km/hr).
Anatomy of a Wave: The highest point of the wave is called the crest and the lowest point is called the trough. The vertical distance between the wave’s crest and trough is the wave’s height. Waves also have a length, which is the distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next wave (the wavelength). An ocean wave is really just energy moving through the water. A wave’s energy reaches to a depth equal to about one-half of its wavelength. If the water is shallower than that depth, the wave starts to collapse on itself, or break. In other words, a wave breaks when it reaches water that is about half as deep as the wave is long (which is also usually about half the wave’s height).
The time it takes one complete wave to pass a given point is known as the wave’s period. If the swell period is 14 or more, then it usually means sizeable waves were generated from a distant storm system, and are arriving in the Hawaiian Islands to the great delight of experienced surfers. A wave period of 14 might bring waves with heights of about 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3 m) high. This wave height may vary considerably, especially considering that locals judge the waves height not by the face but by the back of the wave, which is about half as big as the face. In general, however, if the wave period is 14, there will be great surfing waves. [Illustration: Diagram of wavelength, height, period, crest, and trough]
Ocean Weather Buoys
Four ocean buoys are placed hundreds of miles to the north, south, east and west of the Hawaiian Island chain. Each boat-shaped weather buoy is about 20 feet (6 m) long, weighs more than 14,000 pounds (6,350 kg), and is anchored to the ocean floor. Real-time buoy data is transmitted each hour via satellite to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meteorologists, posted on the Internet (http://seaboard.ndbc.noaa.gov/Maps/Hawaii.shtml) and reported on local news forecasts.
The ocean buoys report sea and air temperatures, barometric pressure, wind direction, wind speed, wave height, and wave and swell period at the buoy location. This provides fishermen with advance notice of high surf and possibly dangerous conditions, as well as alerting surfers when conditions may be particularly formidable. For example, if the buoy to the north of the Hawaiian Islands (Buoy 51001—193 nautical miles west-northwest of Līhu‘e, Kaua‘i) reports that the height of the swell is 15 feet (4.6 m) with a period of 20 seconds, then surfers know there will definitely be big waves arriving on the north shore within several hours, and fishermen know it may not be the best time to go out to sea.
Be Careful—Avoid Dangerous Waters The ocean can be a very dangerous place, especially when currents and waves make for difficult conditions. Drownings do occur, and at a rate that continues to confound officials.
On Kaua‘i alone, from 1970 to 2001, there were more than 200 reported drownings (including 63 from 1995-2002, with 12 in 1999, 12 in 2000 and 8 in 2001. Twenty-eight of these drownings occurred at just one Kaua‘i beach, Hanakāpī‘ai, and most of the victims were never recovered. Another beach just miles away, Lumaha‘i, had 19 drownings. Most drownings occur in winter when big swells and strong currents are more frequent. Statistically, most victims of drowning in the Hawaiian Islands are male, from 30 to 50 years old.
With an estimated 18 million beach visitors on O‘ahu in 2001, there were 1,360 rescues, and first aid was given to 92,717 people. One particularly dangerous place is near the surf spot known as China Walls as well as the surrounding area for about 1 mile (1.6 km), including the area near Spitting Cave. In this stretch of water more than 24 people have drowned since 1977, with an estimated 50 more near drownings.
Beaches all over the island have potentially dangerous conditions, and often areas that seem safe pose potential hazards for people inexperienced in the water. On O‘ahu, in a period of less than one month—between June 6 and July 2, 2002—there were seven drownings, mostly tourists in shallow water. Two more persons died on July 19, 2002 near a spot called Witch’s Brew at the mouth of Hanauma Bay.
On June 30, 2002 an 18-year-old male became the third person since 1969 to die at Hālona Blowhole, a famous wave-generated spout of water on O‘ahu’s southeast shore near Hanauma Bay. As he leaned over the blowhole, a spout of water sent him flying up into the air and then down into the blowhole.
On April 13, 1986 an 18-year-old man fell into the Hālona Blowhole and died, and on July 24, 1969 a 26-year-old man died after falling into the blowhole. In 1967, a soldier from Schofield Barracks fell into the blowhole and survived. He later said that he found himself in a large cave before a wave arrived and caused him to hit his head. The next wave washed him out into the ocean where he was rescued.
Always stay behind railings and heed warning signs. Blowholes may be completely quiet one moment and the next moment sends an explosive plume of water more than 50 feet (15 m) into the air.
Water Safety When venturing into the ocean in the Hawaiian Islands, be extremely careful, no matter how safe it may appear. Waves are often more powerful than they look, and currents along the shoreline may be hard to detect until you find yourself in a dangerous situation. Always pause and look before going in the ocean. For at least 20 to 30 minutes before going in, patiently watch the ocean area where you plan on swimming. You need to observe the largest waves that are coming toward shore, and these “sets” may only be arriving every 30 minutes or so, so you must wait and see. There is often an extended period of smaller waves or calm between the bigger sets, and this may be extremely deceptive, causing some people to think conditions are safe when they are not.
Things Aren’t Always As They Seem
Don’t always assume that just because there are numerous people in the water it’s safe to go in. Many Hawaiian Island residents have grown up around the water, and are experienced in dealing with powerful currents and waves that are extremely dangerous for inexperienced swimmers. Most of the drowning victims in the Islands are visitors, rather than the surfers and locals who frequent the ocean waters.
Many drowning victims are strong swimmers, but the powerful waves and ocean currents add another dimension to the situation, a dimension not always anticipated by those unfamiliar with the ocean. Visitors often overestimate their own abilities, and underestimate the ocean conditions.
E ‘au mālie i ke kai pāpa‘u, o pakī ka wai a pula ka maka. Swim quietly in shallow water lest it splash into the eyes. A cautioning to go carefully where one isn’t sure of conditions. (Pukui: 267-33)
What To Do In a Rip Current—Remain Calm If you do find yourself in trouble in the water, remain calm. Panic causes added difficulties in getting enough air, especially if you have to dive beneath waves.
If you are unable to swim closer toward shore or feel yourself being pulled out (away from shore), you are probably in a rip current. A rip current is an area where all the incoming water from the waves has found a channel to flow back out to sea. Rip currents tend to be fairly narrow and usually dissipate as they get farther from shore.
Don’t use up all your energy fighting the current. Instead the best thing to do is to calmly go with the flow as you slowly merge out of the rip current. Swim parallel to shore until you can feel that you are out of the current, and then make your way diagonally toward shore.
Some Tips on Water Safety—When In Doubt, Don’t Go Out! Don’t swim alone, and always supervise children closely. Shorebreak waves are often very powerful, and body surfing or swimming even small waves, has the potential of causing extreme back and neck injuries if you are caught in the downward force of the breaking wave over a shallow sand area. Sandy Beach is particularly known for this, making it one of the two most dangerous places on O‘ahu, along with China Walls (described above).
Water Safety—Key Things to Remember:
ØIf you get caught in a rip current, swim parallel to shore until you are out of it, then swim diagonally toward shore.
ØNever turn your back to the waves when you are in or near the water! Occasional rogue waves have been known to surprise unwary swimmers.
ØSwim with a buddy—never swim alone.
ØSwim at beaches with lifeguards, and ask questions if you are unsure. It’s better to be safe than sorry.
ØWhen in doubt, don’t go out—always be cautious around the ocean!
[Photograph: Big Waves]
Tsunamis [Illustration: Tsunami]
Tsunamis have killed more people in the Hawaiian Islands than all other natural disasters combined. The Hawaiian Islands have been hit by numerous tsunamis, some generated thousands of miles away, others the result of earthquakes and landslides occurring within the archipelago. Given the numerous tsunamis in historic times, it is quite certain that the ancient Hawaiian were also familiar with this global ocean phenomenon. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Kaha aku la ka nalu o ku‘u ‘āina.” (“The surf of my land has swept everything away,” and this is said to be “...a retort to one who boasts about the value and beauty of his own land.”[2] Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. Potentially (and possibly historically) tsunamis may also be caused by meteor impacts. The word tsunami comes from the Japanese language, in which tsu means “harbor,” and nami means “wave.”
Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands DateDeaths (in Hawai‘i)Islands AffectedOrigin of Earthquake 1837 15 Hawai‘i Island, Maui Chile 1868 47 Hawai‘i Island Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami) 1877 5 Hawai‘i Island Peru 1923 1 Hawai‘i Island Kamchatka, Russia 1923 1 O‘ahu, Maui, Hawai‘i Island Aleutians 1933 0 Hawai‘i Island Japan 1946 159 Hawai‘i Isl., Maui, O‘ahu, Kaua‘i Aleutians 1951 0 Hawai‘i Island Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami) 1952 0 Hawai‘i Island Northwest Pacific 1957 0 Kaua‘i, O‘ahu Aleutians 1960 61 Hawai‘i Island Chile 1964 0 Maui Alaska 1975 2 Hawai‘i Island Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami)
Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands 1837, Nov. 7—Kahului, Maui: An earthquake in Chile generates a tsunami that makes its way toward the Hawaiian Islands. In Kahului, Maui the beach mysteriously begins to drain out, and people rush out to pick up stranded fish. Minutes later a tsunami arrives. People, livestock, canoes, and the village’s 26 grass houses are all swept inland and deposited in a small lake. In Hilo, 100 houses are destroyed. In all, at least 15 people in the Hawaiian Islands are killed.
1868, April 2—Hawai‘i Island: An earthquake on the island of Hawai‘i causes a landslide that destroys a village and creates a localized tsunami reported to be more than 60 feet (18.3 m) high. The ancient village of ‘Āpua in Puna, Hawai‘i is swept away.
1877, May 9—Hawai‘i Island: A large earthquake occurs near Peru, and a tsunami arrives in Hilo before dawn. 37 houses are destroyed, five people killed, and many more injured.
1923, February 23—Big Island, Maui: An earthquake in the Aleutians generates a tsunami that sends waves to more than 20 feet (6 m) above normal in the Waiākea area of Hilo, also causing serious damage in Kahului, Maui.
1946, April 1—Hawai‘i Island: An earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generates a tsunami that hits the island of Hawai‘i, killing an estimated 159 people in the Hawaiian Islands, including 96 in Hilo and 24 in Laupāhoehoe on Hawai‘i Island. The tsunami brings 15 waves in all, rising up to 56 feet (17 m) above sea level in some places, and 33 feet (10 m) in Hilo where close to 500 homes and businesses are destroyed and more than 1,000 more damaged, causing an estimated $26 million in damage, including railroads, bridges, piers and ships.
1957, March 9—Kaua‘i: An earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generates a tsunami that destroys 75 homes on Kaua‘i’s north shore.
1960, May 22—Hawai‘i Island:Sixty-one people in Hilo are killed when an earthquake in Chile generates a tsunami that hits the Hawaiian Islands and destroys 229 houses and 308 public buildings and businesses. 122 are killed in Japan. In all an estimated 2,000 are killed, mostly in Chile.
1964—Maui; Hawai‘i Island: One of North America’s largest earthquakes ever recorded (magnitude 8.4 on the Richter scale) occurs in Alaska, sending tsunami waves toward the Hawaiian Islands. The tsunamis cause flooding in Kahului, Maui, where the waves rise to more than 11 feet (3.4 m) and in Hilo where the waves rise to more than 12.5 feet (3.8 m). No people die in the Hawaiian Islands, but waves also strike in Alaska and California. In all, 122 are killed (nine from the earthquake, the rest from tsunamis).
1975—Hawai‘i Island: A localized tsunami generated on the island of Hawai‘i strikes the remote Ka‘ū area on the southeast shore of the island of Hawai‘i, killing two people. This tsunami also causes damage in California.
Anatomy of a Tsunami—Period, Wavelength, Speed
The time it takes one complete wave to pass a given point is known as the wave’s period. A typical tsunami may have a period from 9 to 30 minutes (e.g., the 1946 tsunami had a 15-minute period). A typical tsunami has a wavelength of 50 to 300 miles (80 to 480 km), with some wavelengths exceeding 465 miles (750 km). A tsunami may travel across the ocean at about 475 mi/hr (764 km/hr). The deeper the ocean, the faster the tsunami travels. For example, in water 20,000 feet (6,100 m) deep a tsunami travels in excess of 540 miles per hour (870 km/hr), but if the water is only 3,000 feet (915 m) deep, the tsunami travels less than 350 miles per hour (563 km/hr). The Pacific Ocean is on average about 12,000 feet (3,658 m) deep, making it the deepest of the world’s oceans. Because of this extreme depth, Pacific Ocean tsunamis travel particularly fast. When traveling across the open ocean, a tsunami is typically only several feet high. This low wave height is due to the fact that a tsunami’s wavelength reaches all the way to the seafloor, which may be more than 20,000 feet (6,100 m) from the ocean’s surface. The small surface height of a tsunami on the open ocean makes tsunamis hard to predict. Often the full terror of a tsunami becomes apparent only when the wave finally reaches shallow waters.
When a Tsunami Arrives As a tsunami wave reaches land, the front of the wave moves slower in the shallower water. The back of the wave, still up to 100 miles (160 km) out to sea where it is much deeper, continues to move at hundreds of miles per hour while the front of the wave may slow to 30 mi/hr (48 km/hr). When there is unequal speed between the back and front of the tsunami (or any wave), it causes the wave’s water to pile up upon itself. The result is that the tsunami grows in height, and may rise from 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9 m) or more. The extremely long wavelength of a tsunami may also cause a tremendous surge of water onshore, and may send water up to ½-mile (.8 km) inland. When a tsunami nears shore, the trough of the wave arrives first, and may drain out a bay before the surge arrives about five to ten minutes later. Once a tsunami collides with a shoreline, it may then bounce (reflect back into the open ocean. The oscillations of a major tsunami may ripple back and forth across the whole Pacific Ocean for several days. Each tsunami has unique characteristics depending upon its wavelength and direction, as well as how the tsunami was generated (e.g., landslide, earthquake, etc.) among other factors. Two other factors important in determining how severely a tsunami will affect any particular stretch of coastline are the angle at which the tsunami approaches the coast and the seafloor and bay configurations of the coastline area. The 1946 tsunami hit Kaua‘i like huge breaking surf, but the 1957 tsunami arrived on Kaua‘i more like a massive flood tide, causing the sea to rise up to 32 feet (9.8 m) above normal.
The 1946 Tsunami The 1946 tsunami that inundated part of the city of Hilo on Hawai‘i Island, was similar to one that hit Lisbon in 1775. During both tsunamis people drowned because they were curious at the sight of an empty bay and went out to look around, only to have the tsunami waves arrive a few minutes later to sweep them away.
The 1946 tsunami was caused by an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands, 2,400 miles (3,862 km) north of the Hawaiian Islands. Forty-seven minutes after the quake, a tsunami sheared the Scotch Cap Lighthouse at Unimak Island off its base, killing five people. The first of the tsunami waves hit the Hawaiian Islands about four hours later, around 6:30 a.m.
The first wave was said to resemble an extra high tide surrounding homes and buildings. The third and fourth waves were the biggest of some 15 tsunami waves, each arriving about 15 minutes after the previous one, with some of the waves reaching heights up to 56 feet (17 m) above sea level, killing people and destroying property. The natural shape of Hilo Bay amplified the waves, which then surged onto land. As each wave receded it revealed the floor of Hilo Bay. Then the tremendous surge of water would arrive again, sweeping inland and destroying everything in its path. Ninety-six people in Hilo were killed by the waves. Nearly 500 homes and businesses were destroyed and more than 1,000 more damaged along with railroads, bridges, piers and ships, totaling an estimated $26 million of damage. Other coastal areas on the island of Hawai‘i were also affected, including Laupāhoehoe where 24 people were killed. The 1946 tsunami also hit other Hawaiian Islands, killing 17 people on Kaua‘i, 13 on Maui, and six on O‘ahu (one at Makapu‘u, two at Kahuku, and three at Kahana).
1957 Tsunami
Certain bay shapes (e.g., Hilo Bay) tend to increase the size of tsunami waves approaching from particular directions. When Hawai‘i Island’s northeast coastline was hit by a tsunami in 1957, the tsunami waves rose to great heights only in certain places. The greatest wave heights occurred in small open bays with underwater topographies that had an amplifying effect on the wave’s size as it approaches shore.
The 1957 tsunami destroyed or severely damaged more than 75 homes along Kaua‘i’s north shore, including 25 of the 29 homes in the area called Hā‘ena. At O‘ahu’s Pōka‘ī Bay, more than 50 boats and six yachts were smashed against the breakwater.
An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Mimiki ke kai, ahuwale ka papa leho.” (“When the sea draws out in the tidal wave, the rocks where the cowries hide are exposed,” meaning, “secrets will out on the day of wrath.”)[iii]
[Photograph: 1957 tsunami]
The 1960 Tsunami The last major Pacific-wide tsunami to hit the Hawaiian Islands was on May 22, 1960, and was caused by an earthquake in Chile. The Chilean earthquake occurred 6,600 miles (10,622 km) away from the Hawaiian Islands, moving a piece of land the size of California about 30 feet (9 m) in just minutes. The tsunami waves generated by the earthquake took more than 15 hours to reach Hawai‘i’s shores. Hilo once again took the brunt of the damage as it was hit by at least seven significant tsunami waves over a 2-hour period. The third wave was the most destructive. In Hilo Bay, the tsunami created a bore that rushed ashore at a speed reported to be more than 37 miles per hour (60 km/hr), surging water as high as 36 feet (11 m) above sea level. In all, 61 people were killed in Hilo, with 43 more requiring medical care for their injuries. In addition, at least 229 homes were destroyed, as well as 308 public structures and businesses. The destruction was most severe near Hilo’s Kamehameha Ave., where entire city blocks were washed away. Damage was estimated up to $50 million. Many people died because they went to the shoreline to investigate what was happening as the water drained out from the bay and river. In all, the Chilean earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused the death of an estimated 2,000 people, mostly in Chile, but also 122 in Japan.
Localized Tsunamis 1868—Ka‘ū District, Hawai‘i Island
In 1868, an earthquake estimated to have a magnitude of 7.9 on the Richter scale struck the south end of the island of Hawai‘i. The quake caused a giant mudslide that killed hundreds of people and buried a small village, destroying nearly every European-style home in the Ka‘ū district.
The 1868 earthquake also generated what is known as a localized tsunami. Water reportedly surged ashore high enough to cover the tops of coconut trees, at least 60 feet (18.3 m) high at some spots along the Ka‘ū coast. The ancient village of ‘Āpua in Puna on Hawai‘i Island is swept away. The localized tsunami killed 48 people.
1975—Halapē, Hawai‘i Island On the morning of November 29, 1975, two strong earthquakes shook the southeastern coastal area of the island of Hawai‘i. One of these was earthquakes was at least a 7.2 magnitude on the Richter scale, and the epicenter of the earthquake was near an old Hawaiian village site called Halapē. The ground in the area sunk some 12 feet (3.7 m) and rocks fell from the cliffs above.
The earthquakes caused a small eruption of Kīlauea Volcano and generated a localized tsunami. When the tsunami came ashore at Halapē, it swept some Boy Scouts and their leaders who were camping there up onto a rugged lava field, and many were washed into a huge crack in the lava. Nineteen people were injured, many severely, and two were killed, including a scout leader and a local fisherman. A huge piece of land actually slid into the ocean and the tops of the palm trees were sticking up from the water. One of the tsunami waves traveled more than 300 feet (91 m) inland.
Ancient Landslides and Tsunamis Until recently many scientists accepted one researcher’s assertion that a giant landslide about 105,000 years ago had generated a tsunami that sent a wave as high as 1,000 feet (305 m) up the slopes of Lāna‘i. This theory has recently been largely discredited, though it may have occurred on a smaller scale. It is likely, however, that about 1½ million years ago a massive landslide occurred on O‘ahu. Researchers believe this ancient landslide on O‘ahu involved nearly one-fourth of the island and sent a 100-mile (161-km) long piece of coastline on the Ko‘olau’s up to 50 miles (80 km) out to sea. Involving an estimated 25% of the island of O‘ahu, the landslide produced also produced a massive tsunami. Researchers believe that the tsunami reached a height of up to 100 feet (30 m) when it hit California. Another landslide-generated tsunami is believed to have sent a wave over the “saddle,” the relatively narrow strip of land connecting east and west Maui. Mauna Loa volcano also shows evidence of similar massive landslides. The next potential great landslide area is believed to be on Hawai‘i Island’s still-active Kīlauea Volcano where the entire south flank is moving about 4 inches (10 cm) per year—an average of about 3-1/3 feet (1 meter) every ten years—along the Hilina fault system. The moving piece of the volcano extends an estimated 5 miles (8 km) deep and covers an estimated 72 square miles (186 sq. km). An increased rate of slippage occurred in November 2000 when it the flank moved about 3½ inches (9 cm) in just 36 hours, which is more than 200 times the normal speed. Satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment installed from 1995 to 1999 allowed precise detection of the rapid flank movement. No earthquake was associated with the increased rate of movement, which may instead have been related to heavy rains that had fallen five to ten days earlier. About 3 feet (.9 m) of rain had fallen on the south side of Kīlauea Volcano over a period of several days. Though this type of movement is not associated with an earthquake, it is often referred to as a “silent earthquake.” Researchers theorize that the water may act as a lubricant along the fault line, also adding weight to the massive piece of Earth. Water pressure may also act like a wedge to pry open the fault system, which may have been the same system that caused the 1975 localized tsunami that killed two people at Halapē. A large earthquake that occurred in the region in the 1860s may also have been due to a movement of this flank area directly south of Kīlauea Volcano’s caldera.
Worldwide—Other Historic Tsunamis In 1883, more than 36,000 people were killed near Java and Sumatra when an explosion of Krakatoa Volcano created waves more than 100 feet (30 m) high. More than 22,000 people were killed in 1896 by an earthquake that hit Japan, creating a tsunami that also caused great damage in California, the Hawaiian Islands, and Chile. The March 2, 1933 tsunami that was generated off Japan caused damage on the island of Hawai‘i and also destroyed 2,800 homes in Japan, killing 1,600 people. Worldwide, one of the biggest tsunamis on record occurred in 1958 when a landslide in a small Alaskan bay sent a wave surging 1,740 feet (530 m) above sea level on the opposite shoreline. The Alaskan earthquake of 1964 created a tsunami that killed 107 people in Alaska, 15 more in northern California, and caused damage in the Hawaiian Islands. On September 1, 1992 an earthquake offshore of Nicaragua moved 170 miles (274 km) of seafloor and drained a 20-foot (6 m) deep harbor before the tsunami waves crashed ashore—170 died and 13,000 were left homeless. In December, 1992 a tsunami killed more than 1,000 Indonesians. One of the largest tsunamis ever to hit Japan occurred in July, 1993, when an earthquake occurred in the Sea of Japan. Waves from the tsunami inundated areas up to 97 feet (29.6 m) above sea level, resulting in 120 deaths. A 7.7 earthquake in Java, Indonesia in 1994 created a tsunami that killed more than 200 people and sank 278 boats. More than 2,200 people died on July 17, 1998 when a wall of water up to 40 feet (12 m) high hit Papua New Guinea with little warning. In the last century, tsunamis have killed more than 70,000 people worldwide. There have been ten major tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean since 1990, killing a total of more than 4,000 people. A total of 82 tsunamis were reported worldwide during this period. This rate of tsunamis and tsunami deaths is much higher than previous historical averages. This is attributed to several factors, including increased populations in coastal areas as well as improved global communication technologies.
Tsunami Warning Systems The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center at ‘Ewa Beach in O‘ahu is run by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and can detect an earthquake anywhere in the Pacific Ocean. The Center uses computers to determine the strength of the quake, and to determine the likelihood that a tsunami is generated. There are more than 100 tide gauges in the Pacific Ocean that report to satellites, and these tide gauges can generally reveal if a tsunami is coming toward the Hawaiian Islands. The exceptions, however, are tsunamis arriving from north of the Hawaiian Islands, where there is no land (or tide gauges) for thousands of miles. Tsunamis generated in the Aleutian Islands and heading toward the Hawaiian Islands have historically been difficult to positively detect. For example, warning sirens in the Hawaiian Islands sounded in 1975 when a major earthquake occurred near Japan. Coastal areas of the Hawaiian Islands were evacuated, and the daylong shutdown of businesses cost the state’s economy an estimated 30 million dollars. There was no tsunami. New tsunami warning devices are now overcoming the technological difficulties and providing reliable early warnings.
Ocean Floor Sensors
New technological advances are improving the ability of scientists to determine if a tsunami has been generated. This improved technology will help to avoid false alarms and allow advance warnings to be given as early as possible. The new detection tools include deep ocean sensors with seafloor pressure gauges, broadband seismic sensors, buoys, and hydrophone arrays.
In 2001, scientists began installing a new tsunami detection system throughout the Pacific Ocean. These ocean floor sensors, costing about $250,000 each, send sonic data to a buoy on the ocean’s surface. The information is then transmitted via satellite to system computers.
One device was placed off the Oregon coast, another off Vancouver, British Columbia, and three more devices were placed off Alaska’s Aleutian Islands Chain. There are plans for a sixth device to be installed on the ocean floor between the Hawaiian Islands and Chile, near the Equator. The tsunami detection devices are up to 18,000 feet (5,486 m) deep on the ocean floor.
As detection improves, officials will be better able to alert the public, helping to avoid loss of life from future tsunamis. The Pacific Tsunami Museum in Hilo also provides tsunami education programs and historical information regarding tsunamis. [Photograph: Tsunami]
Hurricanes [Illustration: Hurricane]
For well over an hour on September 11, 1992, Kaua‘i’s north shore residents endured ferocious winds as they huddled in shelters throughout the island. They could hear windows being smashed by the airborne debris that filled the air and crashed violently into buildings. Sometimes a whole roof would detach and lift upward in one large piece before breaking up in the vortex of wind. Entire houses were blown off their foundations.
Then suddenly the wind stopped, and some people went outside. It was still cloudy all around, but straight above there was pure blue sky, which was a welcome sight amidst all the destruction. The hurricane had not passed, however, but instead was actually directly overhead! They were right in the middle of the hurricane’s eye!
Within minutes, as the hurricane’s eye moved past, the full force of the hurricane was felt again, this time all at once in a devastating rush of wind with gusts well more than 100 miles per hour (161 km/hr). Because the wind was now going in the opposite direction, structures that had been weakened to the point of collapse by the first half of the hurricane were now quickly finished off as the destruction continued.
Given the many hurricanes that roam across the Pacific each year, and the numerous hurricanes that have hit the Hawaiian Islands in historic times, it is likely that the ancient Hawaiians were quite familiar with these infrequent but massive and devastating storms. A Hawaiian proverb states, “O ka makani ke ala o ka ‘ino.” (“Wind is the source of storms.”)[iv]
Anatomy of a Hurricane
When a tropical storm has winds that reach 74 miles per hour (119 km/hr) it becomes a hurricane, an organized system of thunderstorms whirling around a low-pressure center. Hurricanes are about 300 miles (483 km) across, on average, but not usually more than 9.5 miles (15.3 km) high.
Formation of a Hurricane For a hurricane to form there needs to be a source of rotation for the air—that source is the Earth’s rotation. Air tends to curve away from the equator and toward the poles, forming a low-pressure area. Air is drawn toward this low-pressure center, which becomes the eye of the hurricane, and may be 10 to 40 miles (16 to 64 km) across. As more air is drawn into the hurricane, the air has no place to go but up, sometimes to nearly 50,000 feet (15,240 m). The rising moist air moves out the top, further reducing pressure in the eye, which then draws in more surface air in an increasing cycle that continues to fuel the storm. During the June to November hurricane season, an average of five storms each year reach the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands.
Hurricane ‘Iniki—September 11, 1992 In 1992, the eye of Hurricane ‘Iniki passed directly over Kaua‘i. ‘Iniki began brewing far southeast of the Hawaiian Islands. The winds within the hurricane continued to grow to more than 100 miles per hour (161 km/hr) as the whole hurricane slowly moved north-northwest at about 20 miles per hour (32 km/hr). Eventually the path of the hurricane turned due north and the hurricane made a direct hit on Kaua‘i As Hurricane ‘Iniki proceeded over the island of Kaua‘i, a ferocious gust of wind within the hurricane was clocked at 227 miles per hour (365 km/hr), a measurement that was taken by the Navy’s Mākaha Ridge radar station. Soon after that digital readout was sent, the wind gauging equipment was blown off the mountain! Property damage due to Hurricane ‘Iniki totaled more than three billion dollars, including damage to over 70% of Kaua‘i’s homes. In all, about 14,000 homes and apartments were damaged, including 1,421 that were completely destroyed. The community of Princeville topped the list with 279 homes destroyed. At the time of the hurricane there were 8,200 hotel, condo, and bed and breakfast rooms on Kaua‘i, and ‘Iniki shut down 90% of them. It was a rough time for many island residents. The natural landscape of Kaua‘i was also changed by Hurricane ‘Iniki, and there were long-term effects on the island’s native flora and fauna. Much of the native forest canopy was stripped of its leaves as well as the fruit and flowers that forest birds depend on for food. Can you imagine those poor little birds hiding as the hurricane winds blew? [Photograph: Native forest bird (e.g., feeding on flower)]
The hurricane didn’t leave a lot of food for the honeycreeper species that depend on flower nectar. Two such species are the small, red ‘apapane (Himatione sanguinea), and the crimson colored ‘i‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea). The ‘i‘iwi’s long, down-curving bill fits perfectly into the long cup-shaped flower of the native lobelias.
Some fruit-eating forest bird species such as the honeycreeper ‘ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea) and kāma‘o (Myadestes myadestinus, Large Kaua‘i thrush) may have already been extinct before Hurricane ‘Iniki, but if they weren’t, the storm’s reduction of the food supply may have dealt the final blow. The last sighting of the ‘ō‘ō‘ā‘ā occurred in Kaua‘i’s Alaka‘i Swamp in 1987.
The endangered puaiohi (Myadestes palmeri, small Kaua‘i thrush) was also near extinction, but the species survived and now captive propagation efforts hold hope for saving the bird. Researchers remain particularly concerned about five extremely endangered forest birds, the Kaua‘i ‘akialoa (Hemignathusprocerus), Kaua‘i nuku pu‘u (Hemignathus lucidus hanapepe), kāma‘o (Myadestes myadestinus), ‘ō‘ō ‘ā‘ā (Moho braccatus), and ‘ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea), all of which were already on the verge of extinction when the hurricane hit Kaua‘i. None of them have been seen since Hurricane ‘Iniki. Hurricanes That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands Hurricanes are not a new experience for Kaua‘i. Hurricane Hiki passed just north of the island in 1950, bringing 70 mi/hr (113 km/hr) winds. Hurricane Nina caused $100,000 damage on November 30, 1957. Then Hurricane Dot passed over the island in 1959, bringing winds well over 100 mi/hr (161 km/hr) and causing six million dollars in damage. On November 3, 1982 Hurricane ‘Iwa passed between Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, bringing gusts of wind with speeds of more than 100 miles per hour (161 km/hr) and causing damages totaling 239 million dollars. Hurricanes hit the other Hawaiian Islands as well. An unnamed hurricane hit Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and Moloka‘i on August 9, 1871, causing $10,000 in damage. On July 23, 1986, Hurricane Estelle caused two million dollars of damage on Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and O‘ahu.
Satellites and Supercomputers The new GOES-9 satellite, at a cost of 200 million dollars, now provides forecasters with an accurate view of approaching hurricanes. The satellite is in high, stationary orbit, remaining right over a spot on the equator about 1,900 miles (3,058 km) southeast of the Hawaiian Islands, providing continuous coverage of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean. Scientists are using new supercomputers to predict hurricane movement with much better accuracy than before. Hurricanes result from high concentrations of heat in the lower tropical atmosphere, leading some researchers to theorize that global warming may cause an increase in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes. Hawaiian residents are well advised to have emergency provisions, and take other precautions to prepare for the unfortunate possibility of another strong hurricane passing over the Hawaiian Islands. [Photograph: After ‘Iniki (showing devastation)]
Rainbows [Illustration: Water droplet refracting spectrum]
In ancient Hawai‘i a rainbow, or ānuenue, symbolized the presence of a god or a chief. Today the Hawaiian Islands’ tropical climate and misty rainshowers provide many opportunities to see a rainbow painting the sky with colors. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Kau ka ‘ōnohi ali‘i i luna.” (“The royal eyes rest above.”), referring to the sight of “a rainbow—a sign that the gods are watching the chiefs.”[v]
Light Dispersion Rainbows are caused by drops of water in the atmosphere, and are spectacular illustrations of a phenomenon known as dispersion, in which light is separated into different colors arranged according to their frequencies.
Different frequencies of light travel at different speeds when passing through transparent materials, such as water droplets. Water droplets cause the various components of light to refract differently, bending the rays at different angles. For example, if violet light from a single water droplet enters your eye, the red light from the same droplet will fall below your eye, and so you will not see it. To see red light you have to look at a raindrop higher in the sky (e.g., higher on the rainbow). Since our eyes see different colors from droplets at different heights in the sky, when there are many water droplets in the sky we will see a rainbow. [Illustration: Diagram—Anatomy of a Rainbow]
The Anatomy of a Rainbow Each water droplet in a rainbow disperses a full spectrum of colors, but from where you’re standing you will see only one of the colors from any particular drop. You will see the color that refracts at just the right angle to reach the place where you are standing. For example, you’ll see red when the angle between a beam of sunlight and the dispersed light (at the water droplet) is 42 degrees, and violet when the angle is 40 degrees. The top of a rainbow is red and the innermost arc is violet—this is because a water droplet bends violet the most and red the least. The light forms a “bow” because when you see a rainbow, you are actually seeing a three-dimensional cone with the apex of the cone at your eye. To help understand the geometry of this, put your arm out at a 42-degree angle to the side and then move it to 45-degrees up from horizontal in front of you, and then to the other side—you have traced out the shape of a bow.
Double Rainbows Not uncommon in the Hawaiian Islands is the beautiful sight of a double rainbow. A double rainbow is actually two completely different rainbows, one directly over the other. The secondary rainbow is larger than the primary rainbow, and has its colors reversed, with violet on the outside (the top), and red on the inside (the bottom). Double rainbows are caused by a double reflection within the raindrops. Ka wela o ka ua. Heated rain. Warrior chiefs in feather cape and helmets. They look like little rainbows—rain “heated” by the sun. (Pukui: 1664-180)
Seeing Rainbows
To see a rainbow, you have to have your back to the sun because rainbows always occur opposite the sun. Generally, the sun also has to be less than 42 degrees above the horizon and this only occurs in the morning and evening (the most common times to see rainbows). [Photograph: Rainbow]
Chapter 4 Source Notes
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published. See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
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Visiting astronomers to give free lectures: Gravitational lensing, quasars are topics for Keck anniversary. The Honolulu Advertiser. Clark, Hugh, and TenBruggencate, Jan. Tsunami could hit Islands with little warning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/09/2000. Cole, Richard. Hurricane forecasting needs a lift, 20,000 feet: Higher-flying planes required to gather more reliable data from 8 miles high. San Francisco Examiner and Chronicle, 12/05/1993. Coleon, Shayna. Rash of drownings causes alarm. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/20/2002. Cone, Joseph. Life’s undersea beginnings. Earth Magazine, July, 1994. Conrow, Joan. Kauai profits in Iniki’s aftermath. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/8/1994. Cook, Chris. Mayor calls for comprehensive water safety plan: 169 drownings in 26 years, 240 percent rise in responses. Kauai Times, 5/31/1997. Cook, Robert. Kīlauea sea slide could be catastrophic: Scientists recorded sizable slip in 2000. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/28/2002. Culliney, John L. 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Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002. Friary, Ned, and Bendure, Glenda. Hawaii: 5th Edition. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., 3/2000. Fryer, Gerard. The most dangerous wave. The Sciences, July/August, 1995. Glauberman, Stu. Many helped pull Kauai from rubble: Compassion poured forth in wake of destruction. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/05/1993. Gon III, Dr. Sam. Hawaiian culture and conservation: I ka mole o ka ‘aina (at the root of the land). Honolulu: Nature Conservancy of Hawaii Newsletter, 1995. Gonzalez, Frank I. How fast does a tsunami travel? Internet site: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/Faq/x006_speed, 5/05/2002. Gonzalez, Frank I. Rogue wave vs tsunami. Internet site: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/Faq/x012_rogue. Gonzalez, Frank I. TSUNAMI! Reprint of Scientific American article. Internet site: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/Faq/x004_sa_199905, 5/05/2002. Gordon, Mike. Surf-forecast buoys sinking in Washington’s red ink: North Shore already hit without warning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/18/1996. Gore, Rick. Andrew Aftermath. National Geographic, April, 1993. Grave, Noel. Volcanoes: Crucibles of creation. National Geographic, December, 1992. Haleakala National Park (Brochure). National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1990. Hawai‘i Data Book: A Statistical Reference to Hawai‘i’s Social, Economic and Political Trends. Edited by Robert C. Schmitt. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2002. Hawai‘i’s telescope snaps Io eruption. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/14/2002. Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. California: American Park Network, 1997. Hawai‘i Volcanoes: The Continuing Story. Las Vegas, Nevada: KC Publications. Hiller, Jennifer. Recent drownings worry safety officials. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/03/2000. Hurricane Iniki: Picking up the pieces. The Garden Island, 9/14/1992. Introduction to Kilauea Volcano, Hawai‘i. USGS: Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. Internet site: http://wwwhvo.wr.usgs.gov/kilauea/, 12/12/2000. Ishikawa, Scott. Mauna Loa swelling slackens. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/24/2003. Joesting, Edward. Kauai: The Separate Kingdom. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1984. Kane, Herb Kawainui. Pele: Goddess of Hawaii’s Volcanoes. Captain Cook, Hawaii: The Kawainui Press, 1987. Kauai Electric. Hurricane Iniki: Power Facts. The Garden Island, 9/20/1992. Kirch, Patrick Vinton. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1985. Kitchen, John. Stargazing at the Summit. Spirit of Aloha Magazine, September 1991. Krauss, Bob, and Gleasner, Bill. Kauai. Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1978. Lava flow from Kilauea covers more road, hillside aglow. The Garden Island, 8/10/2002. Lava touches previously untouched portion of road. The Garden Island, 8/19/2002. LeDoux, Larry V. The land of cinder cones: Visit Pele’s paint pot and the bottomless pit at Haleakala National Park. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1993. Lutz, Richard A., and Haymon, Rachel M. Rebirth of a deep sea vent. National Geographic, November, 1994. Magin, Janis L. University of Hawaii astronomers discover 11 new moons orbiting Jupiter. The Garden Island, 5/17/2002. Marinelli, Lisa. Scientists monitor the future island of Lo‘ihi. Kauai Times, 5/31/1997. Masuoka, Brandon. Hawai‘i Kai man dies in high surf: Woman rescued in same area just minutes later. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/14/2002. Mauna Loa eruption could devastate area: Lava flows would inundate homes on southwest rift. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/15/2002. Mauna Loa eruption potentially more dangerous than Kilauea volcano. The Garden Island, 10/15/2002. Mauna Loa volcano said to be stirring again. The Garden Island, 10/01/2002. Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary: Tenth Edition. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 1996. Mitchell, Donald D. Kilolani. Resource Units in Hawaiian Culture: Revised Edition. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1992. Mofjeld, Hal. And Gonzalez, Frank I. What was the highest tsunami? Internet site: http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tsunami/Faq/x005_highest, 5/05/2002. Monastersky, Richard. Attack of the Vog: Natural air pollution has residents of Hawaii all choked up. Science News, Vol. 147, 5/06/1995. Monastersky, R. Hurricane experts predict better forecasts. Science News, Vol. 145, 6/04/1994. More warnings needed by Hālona Blowhole. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/05/2002. Mullins, Joseph G. Hawaiian Journey. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1978. Mossman, Georgia. Iniki’s worst legacies: Housing problems. The Garden Island, 9/10/1993. National Data Buoy Center: Hawaiian Islands Recent Marine Data. Internet site: (http://seaboard.ndbc.noaa.gov/Maps/Hawaii.shtml, 7/20,2002. New space camera provides quick results. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/09/2003. No signs lava caused park death: Husband reported wife missing after cruise ship left for Kiribati. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/17/2002. OHA sues NASA over Big Island’s Mauna Kea telescopes. The Garden Island, 4/23/2002. Oliver, Anthony Michael. Hawaii Fact and Reference Book. Mutual Publishing, 1995. Oliver, Chris. Brown dwarfs are dull, but they shed light on planets. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/26/2002. Oliver, Chris. Mauna Kea’s tours a window to the universe. Honolulu Advertiser, 9/13/1998. Oliver, Chris. Visitors find summit heavenly. Honolulu Advertiser, 9/13/1998. Oliver, Douglas. Polynesia in Early Historic Times. Honolulu, Hawai‘i: The Bess Press, 2002. Peek, Tom. Mauna Kea: No more telescopes. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/2/1996. Penisten, John. It's getting crowded on the mountain. Hawaii Magazine, December, 1995. Petit, Charles. 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[1] p. 251, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2307. [2] p. 140, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1285. [iii] p. 235, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2157. [iv] p. 264, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2422. [v] p. 174, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings.// Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1614.
Geology, Astronomy, Hurricanes, Tsunamis, Volcanoes, Waves, and other Hawaiian Science Topics.
[Illustration: Volcanic Eruption / Tsunami]
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
The Tectonic Origins of the Hawaiian Islands
Hawaiian Volcanoes
Lō‘ihi Seamount
The Next Hawaiian Island
Mauna Kea Astronomy
And the Keck Telescopes
Waves
Tsunamis
Hurricanes
Rainbows
Expanded Table of Contents—Chapter 4
Chapter 4. Science and Natural Phenomenon of the Hawaiian Islands
Geology, Astronomy, Hurricanes, Tsunamis, Volcanoes, Waves, and other Hawaiian Science Topics.
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain: The Tectonic Origins of the Hawaiian Islands
Tectonic Plates
The Ring of Fire
Shield Volcanoes, Island Formation, and the Hawaiian Magmatic Hot Spot
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
Kaua‘i—An Example of the Life of an Island
Hawai‘i Island: The Newest and Biggest Hawaiian Island
Lava Research Yields Clues to Ancient Earth
Hawaiian Volcanoes
Volcanoes on the Island of Hawai‘i—An Overview
Lava Types, Black-Sand Beaches and Volcanic Gas
The Legend of Pele
Lō‘ihi Seamount: The Next Hawaiian Island
Archaea—Bacteria and Iron Deposits
Chemosynthesis and Deep-Sea Vent Species
Mauna Kea Astronomy and the Keck Telescopes
Mauna Kea‘s Summit—Ideal Observatory Location
The Keck Telescopes
Keck Adaptive Optics Interferometry Project
Keck Discoveries
Other Telescopes Atop Mauna Kea
Jupiter’s Moons
Submillimeter Research
Infrared Megapixel Camera
Very Long Baseline Array
Waves
Types and Properties of Waves
Anatomy of a Wave
Ocean Weather Buoys
Be Careful—Avoid Dangerous Waters
Water Safety
Things Aren’t Always as They Seem
What To Do In a Rip Current—Remain Calm
Some Tips on Water Safety—When In Doubt, Don’t Go Out
Water Safety—Key Things to Remember
Tsunamis
Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands
Anatomy of a Tsunami—Period, Wavelength, Speed
When a Tsunami Arrives
The 1946 Tsunami
The 1957 Tsunami
The 1960 Tsunami
Localized Tsunamis
Ancient Tsunamis
Worldwide—Other Historic Tsunamis
Tsunami Warning Systems
False Alarms
Ocean Floor Sensors
Hurricanes
Anatomy of a Hurricane
Formation of a Hurricane
Hurricane ‘Iniki—September 11, 1992Hurricanes That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands
Satellites and Supercomputers
Rainbows
Light Dispersion
The Anatomy of a Rainbow
Double Rainbows
Seeing Rainbows
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
The Tectonic Origins of the Hawaiian Islands
[Illustration: Planet earth showing western hemisphere, Hawaiian Emperor Chain]
Picture a jigsaw puzzle on a round ball, with the pieces of the puzzle constantly moving around on the ball’s surface. That’s a good model of Earth’s geological characteristics. The ball is Earth, and the puzzle pieces are large sections of the Earth’s crust floating on the molten rock beneath. These large floating pieces of Earth’s crust are known as tectonic plates.
Earth’s crust is divided up into 12 large tectonic plates along with many smaller tectonic plates. The Hawaiian Islands are on the Pacific Plate, the largest of Earth’s tectonic plates.
Tectonic Plates
All of Earth’s tectonic plates are relatively thin, and beneath them is the molten rock (magma) of Earth’s interior. These tectonic plates vary from 2 to 75 miles (3 to 121 km) thick. The plates are thicker under mountains, and thinner under oceans.
Earth’s tectonic plates are rigid, and tend to drift and slowly move around on the hotter and more fluid mantle beneath them. This causes the tectonic plates to shift over time, rearranging them on the surface of the Earth. The Pacific Plate is currently moving northwest at the rate of about 3½ inches (9 cm) per year.
[Illustration: Globe with outline of tectonic plates, Pacific region]
The Ring of Fire
Volcanic activity occurs all around the margins of the Pacific Plate, from Japan’s Mt. Fuji, to Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, to Katmai in Alaska and Washington’s Mount Saint Helens. This great circle of volcanoes around the around the circumference of the Pacific Plate has led to the nickname “Ring of Fire,” which describes the volcanic activity. The boundaries of the Pacific Plate are roughly aligned with the edges of the Pacific Ocean.
Earth’s tectonic plates are constantly bumping into each other, and these great confrontations cause earthquakes as well as volcanic activity, mostly along the boundaries of the tectonic plates. Earth’s major tectonic plates drift at varying speeds and in different directions. As noted above, the Pacific Plate is the largest of Earth’s tectonic plates, and is currently drifting to the northwest at the rate of about 3½ inches (9 cm) per year.
As the subducted crust of the Pacific Plate melts into the deeper magma beneath the North American Plate, this causes volcanoes to form and erupt back up through the surrounding tectonic plates. This is largely how the great mountain ranges of the western United States were formed, and also the cause of the May 18, 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington.
The Pacific Plate is also subducting (diving beneath) the other surrounding tectonic plates, such as the Aleutian, and Eurasian tectonic plates.
[Illustration: Map sketch, Ring of Fire]
Shield Volcanoes, Island Formation, and the Hawaiian Magmatic Hot Spot
Hawaiian volcanoes (known as shield volcanoes) are not produced by a subduction process (one tectonic plate diving beneath another), but instead the Hawaiian volcanoes are produced by a single stationary plume of lava known as the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot. This plume of lava rises up from deep within Earth’s mantle. The Hawaiian hot spot’s lava plume produced all of the Hawaiian Islands as the uprising lava burned through the Earth’s crust and erupted up onto the seafloor forming undersea volcanic mountains.
When a subsea volcano grows tall enough to break the ocean’s surface, the peak becomes an island. The Hawaiian Islands are the summits of massive volcanoes that grew up from the ocean floor as much as 18,000 feet (5,486 m) below the water’s surface.
Shield Volcanoes
The volcanoes in the Hawaiian Islands are known as shield volcanoes because their broad and even lava flows form a shape similar to a warrior’s shield.
Ke one lau‘ena a Kāne.
The rich, fertile land of Kāne.
Puna, Hawai‘i, was said to have been a beautiful, fertile land loved by the god Kāne. Pele came from Kahiki and changed it into a land of
lava beds, cinder, and rock.
(Pukui: 1777: 191)
The Hawaiian magmatic hot spot, the deep-Earth lava plume fueling the Hawaiian volcanoes, is about 50 miles (80 km) in diameter. Currently one edge of the lava plume is under the island of Hawai‘i, fueling the eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano, while the other edge of the magmatic hot spot is about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of the Big Island, where it fuels the volcanic activity of Lō‘ihi Seamount.
Lō‘ihi is now about 9,000 feet (2,743 m) tall, and the undersea volcano’s summit is about 3,116 fee (950 m) below the ocean’s surface. Eventually Lō‘ihi will be centered over the uprising lava plume, which is stationary. Like the rest of the Hawaiian Islands that came before it, the island of Hawai‘i will be carried away from the hot spot by the northwest movement of the Pacific Plate, making way for the next island to emerge.
One after another, as if on an assembly line, the volcanic islands are produced by the hot spot lava plume. Each volcanic island forms over the stationary hot spot and then is carried northwest as if on a conveyor belt. The Pacific seafloor is moving northwest only a few inches per year, but over millions of years this has resulted in a chain of islands in a line from the northwest to the southeast. The newest (youngest) islands are at the southeast end of the island chain, while the oldest islands are at the northwest end of the chain.
The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
Over the last 75 to 80 million years, the movement of the Pacific Plate over the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot created a 3,105-mile (4,997-km) long chain of undersea volcanoes known as the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain. Most of the volcanoes of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain are completely underwater, and known as seamounts. Volcanoes of the chain rising above the water include the 132 islands, reefs, shoals and atolls of the Hawaiian Islands (including the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands).
This line of seamounts and volcanic islands is the result of the 75- to 80-million year history of the Pacific Plate drifting north and then northwest over the magmatic hot spot plume of lava. This is easily seen when viewing a map of the Pacific seafloor. The southeastern portion of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain is called the Hawaiian Island/Seamount Chain, and runs southeast to northwest for about 1,860 miles (2,993 km). The upper portion of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain runs almost due north for about 1,245 miles (2,004 km), and is called the Emperor Seamount Chain. Together these two sections comprise the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain. Researchers believe this volcano-building process began longer than 80 million years ago, and the volcanoes from this time have by now moved so far north that they were subducted beneath the North Pacific Aleutian Submarine Trench.
The dogleg in the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain is due to a shift in the direction of movement of the Pacific Plate, from north to northwest, about 40 to 43 million years ago. From that time until the present the Pacific Plate has been moving northwest. The shift in the direction of movement of the massive Pacific Plate from north to northwest was likely due to movements of Earth’s other tectonic plates, particularly the Indian Plate, which collided with Asia resulting in the formation of the Himalayan Mountains.
[Illustration/Graphic: Hawaiian Emperor Chain showing Pacific Plate movement over Hawaiian magmatic hot spot, including seamounts]
Above the stationary hot spot lava plume, island after island forms. One after another each island is carried northwest. As each island moves away from the active lava plume, it ceases its volcanic eruptions, first becoming dormant and then extinct, and eventually eroding away into the sea. This process of island formation and erosion continues today. At the northwest end of the chain the islands slowly dissolve into the sea, while to the southeast islands continue to grow.
The Hawaiian Island Chain is just a small part of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain. The eight main Hawaiian Islands span over about 350 miles (563 km) of ocean. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands include 124 scattered islets, shoals, and atolls spanning over about 1,050 mi1es (1,690 km) of ocean. In all, the Hawaiian Islands span over about 1,525 miles, from the island of Hawai‘i at the southeast end, to Kure Atoll to the northwest.
At the southeast end of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain, islands continue to grow, most notably at the site of Hawai‘i Island’s Kīlauea Volcano, which has been erupting almost continuously since 1983. The island chain also continues to grow at the site of Lō‘ihi Seamount, about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of the Big Island.
Lō‘ihi Seamount is very active. At sometime in the future, perhaps between 50,000 and 200,000 years from now, Lō‘ihi will grow tall enough to break the ocean’s surface and become the next Hawaiian Island. (See Lō‘ihi Seamount section.)
Kaua‘i—An Example of the Life of an Island
Because the process of island building is fairly consistent, one may look at any particular island to gain an understanding of how the process works. The island of Kaua‘i is the northernmost of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, and also the oldest. The volcano that formed Kaua‘i began growing on the seafloor about six million years ago, and by about 4.35 million years ago the volcano’s major shield building phase had finished.
Kaua‘i used to be where the island of Hawai‘i is today, over the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot plume of erupting lava. Each of the Hawaiian Islands was once over the hot spot lava plume. Since the time when Kaua‘i first grew up from the seafloor to become an island it has moved northwest about 320 miles (515 km) on the Pacific Plate. As Kaua‘i moved away from the active hot spot area, its volcanoes became dormant and then extinct.
Kaua‘i was formed primarily by Olokele Volcano, which once rose to (an estimated) more than 8,500 feet (2,591 m) above sea level. Millions of years ago the summit of the volcano collapsed. When the summit of a volcano collapses, it forms what is known as a caldera.
The collapse of Olokele’s summit formed a caldera 11 miles (18 km) across, now considered the largest caldera in the Hawaiian Islands. The caldera of the active volcano then gradually filled with layers of pāhoehoe lava. These “ponded lavas” are generally level and non-porous, holding rainwater. This created the high elevation Alaka‘i Swamp, known for its distinctive thick, clay soils and dwarfed vegetation.
Olokele Volcano, the original volcano of Kaua‘i, is now considered extinct and has eroded away. The height of island has also diminished due to subsidence, a bending downward of the Earth’s crust (and the ocean floor) due to the heavy weight of the island mountains. This is a common phenomenon that has occurred on all of the Hawaiian Islands. In the last 400,000 years, Mauna Loa Volcano has subsided more than 3,400 feet (1,036 m), even as the height grew due to volcanic activity.
The two highest peaks on Kaua‘i are now Mt. Kawaikini at 5,243 feet (1,598 m), and Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale at 5,148 feet (1,569 m). Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale averages 451 inches (1,146 cm) of rain per year, making it one of the rainiest spots on Earth.
The rains are produced by the northeasterly tradewinds that are funneled toward Wai‘ale‘ale’s summit by the mountain valleys that stretch from Wailua on the east side of the island to Wainiha on the north shore. As the wind rises up these steep valleys the air cools abruptly, forming clouds that rain down upon the land. Southerly Kona storms also bring moisture up Hanapēpē, Olokele, and other valleys.
At more than five million years old, Kaua‘i definitely qualifies as an ancient Pacific Island. Centuries of heavy rains on Kaua‘i have caused the extreme erosion that is characteristic of ancient Pacific islands. Steep cliffs are common on Kaua‘i, dropping more than 3,000 feet (900 m) straight down in some places along the Nāpali coast, and in the deep rain-carved valleys of spectacular Waimea Canyon. Layer by layer the process of erosion continues to bring Kaua‘i back to sea level. Eventually only a coral atoll will remain.
[Photograph: Nāpali coast]
Ke alahaka o Nu‘alolo.
The ladder of Nu‘alolo.
The ascent of Nu‘alolo, Kaua‘i, is steep and difficult. In the olden days the people built a ladder in order to go up and down more easily. This ladder is
famed in ancient poetry of Kaua‘i.
(Pukui: 1672-180)
Hawai‘i Island: The Newest and Biggest Hawaiian Island
On the island of Hawai‘i, Mauna Kea Volcano rises some 6.2 miles (10 km) from the seafloor. The summit of Mauna Kea is 13,796 feet (4,205 m) above sea level, but measured from base to summit the mountain is a phenomenal 33,476 feet (10,200 m) tall. While Mauna Kea is the tallest mountain on Earth (measured from base to summit), it is not the largest in our solar system. That title goes to a volcano on Mars called Olympus Mons, which is 370 miles (595 km) wide and 79,000 feet (24,079 m) high, three times as high as Mt. Everest.
Like all the other Hawaiian Islands, Hawai‘i Island is moving northwest away from the magmatic hot spot area at the rate of about 3½ inches (9 cm) per year. The Big Island’s volcanoes will eventually become dormant and then extinct. In turn, Lō‘ihi will be carried more directly over the erupting hot spot to become the center of volcanic activity and will eventually grow tall enough to rise above the surf and become the next Hawaiian Island.
Lava Research Yields Clues to Ancient Earth
The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands (shield volcanoes erupting over a stationary magmatic hot spot) erupt a different sort of lava than volcanoes around the edges of the Pacific Plate (stratovolcanoes, produced by tectonic subduction activity). Researchers now believe that the chemistry of the lava of the Hawaiian Islands’ shield volcanoes may hold clues to the early universe.
Researchers theorize that remnants of the primordial cloud of gas and dust that coalesced to form our solar system some 4.6 billion years ago may have been preserved in the magma (molten earth) near the Earth’s core. That magma is rising up in the hot spot plume of lava forming the Hawaiian Islands. This also occurs at numerous other hot spot sites on Earth.
The deep-sourced Hawaiian magmatic hot spot brings the primordial magma from near the Earth’s center to the surface where it is currently erupting from Kīlauea Volcano and Lō‘ihi Seamount. The chemical remnants of Earth’s early atmosphere may be detected in this lava. Ongoing scientific research about Earth’s early environment continues to analyze Hawaiian lavas and the processes of magmatic hot spots.
[Photograph: Hawaiian-Emperor Chain, or suitable photograph]
Hawaiian Volcanoes
[Illustration: Volcanic Eruption]
Molten rock erupts into the air, pouring tons of lava down the flank of the volcano. The river of lava eventually flows to the sea where it explodes in great fiery bursts as it enters the water. Welcome to the island of Hawai‘i.
Ka ‘ohu kāku o Kīlauea.
The draping mists of Kīlauea.
The mists in the crater of Kīlauea look like drapery along its cliffs.
(Pukui: 1512-163)
Volcanoes on the Island of Hawai‘i—An Overview
The island of Hawai‘i was formed by six volcanoes, including the submerged Mahukona Volcano off the northwest shore, and five volcanoes above sea level: Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, Kohala, Hualālai and Kīlauea. Kīlauea Volcano is currently the most continuously active volcano on Earth, having covered more than 500 square miles (1,300 sq. km) with lava in the last 1,100 years, and erupting almost continuously since 1983.
Kīlauea and Mauna Loa Volcanoes are considered active, while Mauna Kea, Hualālai and Haleakalā volcanoes are considered dormant but not extinct. The numerous other volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are considered extinct.
Mauna Kea’s last eruption occurred about 4,500 years ago. Mauna Loa erupted 36 times between 1843 and 1995, including eruptions in 1859, 1942, 1950, and 1975, and 1984. Beginning on May 12, 2002, Mauna Loa showed inflationary activity in its summit crater and outward spreading along a northeast rift (see below). Historic eruptions of Hualālai Volcano include three eruptions between 800 and 1100, an eruption around 1300, and an eruption in the years 1800-1801.
Lava flows from Hualālai and Kohala volcanoes (along with coral deposits) have now buried most of Mahukona Volcano, including its summit (though a west rift zone remains prominent). Mahukona Volcano has been extinct for about 410,000 years. Its summit once rose to more than 800 feet (244 m) above sea level, but sunk beneath the sea about 435,000 years ago. Researchers may now view the historic record of the subsidence of Hawai‘i Island by examining the stair-step pattern of sunken coral reefs on Mahukona’s southwest-facing and northwest-facing flanks.
The Legend of Pele
Pele, the legendary goddess of fire and volcanoes, is also the daughter of Wākea, the Sky Father, and Papa (Haumea), the Earth Mother. Pele is a creator of mountains and islands, including the Hawaiian Islands. She is also a destroyer and a burner of lands.
Legend has it that Pele’s island home was near Tahiti, but she was chased from there by her sister because she had slept with her sister’s husband. Pele first took refuge on Ni‘ihau where she dug a crater home to protect her sacred fires. Her sister followed her and used the sea to extinguish Pele’s fires.
Pele fled again, and was chased from island to island, but each time her sister destroyed her home and chased her away until finally Pele was killed. Upon death, Pele’s spirit was freed and she became a goddess, just as her sister became goddess of the sea.
According to legend, Pele protects her sacred fires today in Halema‘uma‘u Crater at the summit of Kīlauea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island. Halema‘uma‘u means “House surrounded by the ‘ama‘u fern,” referring to the ferns that surround the volcanic crater. These ferns are said to be the embodiment of the demi-god Kamapua‘a, who pursued Pele’s love but was rejected.
The battle between Pele and her sister continues today on the island of Hawai‘i’s southeast coast where the lava meets the sea in fiery explosions. Pele is found everywhere that fire comes up through the earth to light the sky. It is said that wherever the ground is hot and steam hisses up from cracks in the earth, wherever the incandescent glow of molten rock and the smell of sulfur fill the air, wherever lava erupts in fiery fountains into the sky, “‘ae aia la ‘o Pele”—“there is Pele.”
Kino lau.
Many bodied.
Said of a god who was able to assume other forms, such as plant,
animal, fish, or human, at will. Pele is referred to as akua kino lau because of her ability to change into a child, a beautiful maiden, a plain
matron, or a very old woman.
(Pukui: 1803-194)
[Illustration: Pele]
Lō‘ihi Seamount: The Next Hawaiian Island
[Illustration: Lō‘ihi]
If you could speed up time and look at the Hawaiian Islands, you would see them rising up out of the ocean one by one, as each in turn was carried northwest by the Pacific Plate, away from the relatively stationary plume of lava erupting from the seafloor. You would then see the volcanic islands become dormant and extinct, one after another eroding away back into the sea.
If you could see into the future, you would see the next Hawaiian Island rising above the sea—that island would be Lō‘ihi, which today is an undersea volcano (called a seamount) about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of Hawai‘i Island. Lō‘ihi Seamount is currently more than 9,000 feet (2,743 m) tall and about 3,116 feet (950 m) below the surface of the Pacific Ocean. The erupting summit of Lō‘ihi should rise above the water in about 50,000 to 200,000 years from now to become the next Hawaiian Island.
Lō‘ihi is quite active, volcanically and tectonically. In just one three-week period beginning July 17, 1996, more than 4,000 earthquakes were recorded near Lō‘ihi’s summit, a record for Hawaiian volcanoes. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Nei ka honua, he ōla‘i ia” (“When the earth trembles, it is an earthquake”), said to mean, “We know what it is by what it does.”[1]
The intense water pressure at Lō‘ihi’s summit causes erupting lava to immediately cool and turn into volcanic glass. Water temperatures around the summit may reach 140º Fahrenheit (60º Celsius), even though the temperature of the surrounding water is near freezing.
The University of Hawai‘i research boat called Ka‘imikai O Kanaloa carries a deep-diving manned submersible called Pisces V that has been used to explore Lō‘ihi’s volcanic activity and the life forms that grow near the summit. Strange undersea colonies of volcanic life thrive near Lō‘ihi’s sulfurous hot water vents, and in the 1,200-foot (366-m) deep pit craters in Lō‘ihi’s summit caldera.
Superheated sulfur-yellow water was seen shooting out in big plumes in an area of Lō‘ihi’s summit that the scientists named “Pele’s Vents.” They also recently discovered a new species of shrimp there—it is orange and just a few inches long, and blends in with the orange rocks. The summit area later collapsed into what they named Pele’s Pit, a 1,000-foot (305-m) deep crater that is 800 feet (244 m) across and filled with an estimated 300 million tons (272 mtons) of rock.
Archaea—Bacteria and Iron Deposits
Another life form growing near Lō‘ihi’s hot vent fields are single-celled archaea, which lack nuclei yet have DNA similar to higher life forms. Researchers theorize that archaea resembles prehistoric life forms that existed when the planet had a harsher environment (similar to the conditions on Lō‘ihi today). The archaea, absent any link to sunlight and photosynthesis, feed on the chemical energy of the toxic plumes of super-heated water emitted by Lō‘ihi.
Water emitting from Lō‘ihi’s vents contains about 20,000 times as much carbon dioxide as the surrounding seawater. This helps bacteria live near the hydrothermal vents and creates massive iron deposits. Near the hydrothermal vents everything is orange because it is carpeted with 3-foot (.9-m) thick iron deposits created by these unique bacteria that oxidize iron. When the Pisces V research boat touched down on Lō‘ihi’s summit, it instantly caused a bacterial snowstorm of iron deposits that puffed up all around the submersible.
Chemosynthesis and Deep-Sea Vent Species
All of the life forms near the hydrothermal vents on Lō‘ihi’s summit are very rare, surviving under immense pressure with no connection to sunlight or photosynthesis. Instead they exist by a process known as chemosynthesis, which utilizes only heat and chemicals (such as sulfur), to produce a whole variety of rare luminescent creatures. These include various microbes loaded with heavy metals and toxic compounds.
There are lots of other places in the world where deep-sea vents occur, and many different species live near these hydrothermal vents. For example, the species living near the hydrothermal vents of the Galapagos Rift include giant clams, 6-foot (1.8-m) long tubeworms, and other strange chemosynthetic creatures. The species around Lō‘ihi’s vents tend to be smaller and different than those near other deep-sea vents.
The unique biological communities thriving on Lō‘ihi’s summit are providing scientists with fascinating new insights into deep-sea life and chemical processes. They have also concluded that lava from magmatic hot spot volcanoes (like all Hawaiian Island volcanoes, which are also called shield volcanoes) are very different from the lava that erupts from the stratovolcanoes around the edges of the Pacific Ocean where the Pacific Plate dives (subducts) beneath other tectonic plates, forming the “Ring of Fire.”
Researchers theorize that the lava of Lō‘ihi is coming from extremely deep in the Earth (near the very core), and that its chemical composition holds clues to Earth’s origins. This chemical composition is analyzed by comparing helium isotope ratios, and by using other advanced analytical techniques.
[Photograph: Hydrothermal vent]
Mauna Kea Astronomy and the Keck Telescopes
[Illustration: Overview of observatories atop Mauna Kea]
Wouldn’t it be great to be able to look back in time, and see all the way back to the beginning of the universe? That’s exactly what the Keck Telescopes allow scientists to do every day atop Mauna Kea’s summit on Hawai‘i Island, where researchers use the massive but precise instruments to explore the early universe through astronomical studies.
Mauna Kea, kuahiwi ku ha‘o i ka mālie.
Mauna Kea, standing alone in the calm.
(Pukui: 2147-234)
Amidst a moonscape of blackened craters and lava cinder cones, the Keck telescopes are just two of the many gleaming white and silver domes atop Mauna Kea. The summit of Mauna Kea supports 13 major observatories operated by 11 countries. These telescopes comprise the world’s largest cluster of astronomical observatories. With precision and power unmatched anywhere on the planet, the international observatories atop Mauna Kea have come a long way from the first telescopes invented by Galileo nearly 400 years ago.
Mauna Kea’s Summit—Ideal Observatory Location
The summit of Mauna Kea is considered the best site on Earth for astronomy. Above 40% of Earth’s atmosphere, Mauna Kea’s summit is completely surrounded by thermally stable ocean and generally free from the turbulence and light that interfere with telescopes at lower altitudes. At Mauna Kea’s 13,796-foot (4,205-m) summit there is 38% less oxygen than at sea level, and it is well above the tropical inversion cloud layer that effectively isolates the peak from moist sea-level air.
The University of Hawai‘i leases the summit land of Mauna Kea from the State of Hawai‘i. The telescope facilities on the summit constitute the Mauna Kea Science Reserve Complex. Observing Assistants operate the telescopes for astronomers, cosmologists, astrophysicists and other researchers who gather scientific data from the instruments. Research teams usually work for one to four nights according to pre-approved time allocations.
The Keck Telescopes
The most prominent telescopes atop Mauna Kea are the twin Keck Telescopes, which became operable in 1992 and 1996. The Keck Telescopes are the largest optical-infrared telescopes in the world. The domes cost $70 million each, and were funded by the W.M. Keck Foundation.
The founding partners of the Keck telescopes are the University of California and the California Institute of Technology. Astronomers from those institutions as well as from the University of Hawai‘i (and others) have used the Keck telescopes to make many important discoveries. In 1996, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) became part of the Keck partnership, particularly the interferometer project (see below).
Each Keck dome is 111 feet (33.8 m) tall and contains more than 700,000 cubic feet (18,833 cu. m) of volume. Despite their huge size, the Keck telescopes are finely engineered precision instruments. For example, the main moveable 300-ton (272-mton) component of each dome is so perfectly balanced it may be moved with one hand.
The Hubble Space Telescope is above Earth’s atmosphere, and so it may receive sharper images than the Keck Telescopes. However the Hubble’s mirror (at 2.4 meters) is only 1/25th the size of the Keck mirrors, and thus is not able to gather as much light as the Keck Telescopes. The result is that the Keck Telescopes can see objects much farther away.
The segmented mirror of each Keck Telescope is a perfect parabolic reflecting surface 32.8 feet (10 meters) in diameter. Each mirror is made up of 36 smaller hexagonal (6-sided) mirrors, each 6 feet (1.8 m) across. These smaller mirrors are individually controlled by computers, so that all of the mirrors work in concert as if they are one giant mirror—quite an engineering feat.
The surfaces of the Keck mirrors are polished so incredibly smooth that if they were expanded to the size of Earth, any deformities would still only measure about 3 feet (.9 m) high. To counteract gravity’s on the mirrors, computer-controlled precision pistons and sensors adjust the mirror segments individually (twice every second), to an accuracy of 4 nanometers, which is about 1/1000th the diameter of a human hair.
The interiors of the Keck domes are chilled to near freezing in the daytime, so that when they are opened in the nighttime they are already at ambient outdoor temperature.
Keck Adaptive-Optics Interferometry Project
The Keck II uses a new adaptive optics system in which deformable mirrors may change shape 670 times per second to cancel out atmospheric distortion. This produces images ten times sharper than previous images. The new adaptive optics system has also resulted in new discoveries, including the clearest pictures ever of Neptune. Also recently discovered were orbits of stars around what is thought to be a Black Hole at the center of our Milky Way Galaxy.
Using an instrument called an interferometer, engineers and scientists succeeded in combining the light-gathering powers of the two 10-meter (32.8-ft) Keck telescopes in March of 2001. The interferometer manipulates light waves so that their peaks match, creating a much higher peak (similar to what occurs with ocean waves). This is called constructive interference, and it creates a much stronger signal, allowing scientists to produce images with a much greater level of detail.
The Keck project is being completed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the California Association for Research in Astronomy, and is financed by NASA. A series of small outrigger telescopes as well as a series of underground tunnels combine the light from the two giant Kecks, forming the world’s largest optical interferometer.
Researchers will continue to fine-tune the interferometer, producing a single high-resolution image equal in sharpness to what would normally require a mirror about 279 feet (85 km) across. By combining the power of the twin Keck telescopes, researchers hope to study Earth-like planets orbiting nearby stars. Another major goal of Keck’s adaptive-optics/interferometry project is learning about the formation of solar systems by analyzing dust clouds surrounding nearby stars.
On May 19 and 20, 2003, using adaptive optics and the interferometer, researchers were able to use the twin Keck telescopes to take measurements of a black hole in a galaxy named NGC 4151 about 40 million light years from Earth, and about the same size as the Milky Way. The black hole in NGC 4151 is about ten times as large as the black hole at the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.
The combined Kecks, with a precision ten times as sensitive as a single Keck, were also used to study a star 450 light years distant from Earth. The dual Keck telescopes were also used in 2003 to obtain the best view to date of the universe’s most primordial objects, including an ancient galaxy where stars began forming when the universe was only about 2 billion years old. The view of this ancient star cluster, known as the Lynx Arc, is by coincidence greatly enhanced by a process called gravitational lensing
Keck Discoveries
A variety of scientific instruments designed for the Keck I and Keck II telescopes perform different tasks for researchers investigating distant galaxies. Particularly in the infrared portion of the light spectrum, the Kecks have explored the farthest limits of space ever reached by the eyes of humans.
In 2002, the Keck broke its own record for sighting the most distant objects ever seen when it viewed a galaxy estimated to be 15.5 billion light years away. An international team of astronomers with the University of Hawai‘i was able to view the distant galaxy by using a galaxy cluster about six billion light years away to magnify the light in a process known as gravitational lensing. One light year is the distance light travels in one year, which is about 5.9 trillion miles (9.5 trillion kilometers).
Cosmologists and astronomers utilize the Keck telescopes and other observatories atop Mauna Kea to investigate Earth’s moon, our solar system’s planets, the Milky Way Galaxy, and far beyond.
The Keck telescopes are also used to find new planets, and by 2002 almost 100 had been found. Before the Keck I opened in 1992 no planets outside our own solar system had been discovered. By 2002, the Keck telescopes had been used to find nearly 100 planets around at least 70 distant stars, some as far as 250 light years away.
In April of 2002, two separate Keck astronomy research teams reported the strongest evidence to date of planetary orbits in a solar system around a relatively nearby star, Beta Pictoris, which is only about 63 light-years away from Earth and visible with the naked eye. In October or 2002 the linked telescopes were able to view swirling particles around a young star said to be more similar to our own solar system than any previous objects viewed.
The Keck telescopes and other Mauna Kea observatories are used to conduct research on the evolution of galaxies, planetary and star-forming nebulae, supernova remnants, star clusters, double stars, quasars, and intergalactic gases as well as red, white and brown dwarfs. Red dwarfs are the lowest mass stars, while brown dwarfs are bigger than planets yet smaller than stars, and lack the internal energy (core nuclear reactions) of stars.
One of the most interesting recent astronomical observations seen with a telescope from atop Mauna Kea Volcano was another volcano, called Surt, which was observed actively erupting on Io, one of Jupiter’s four large moons. Io is the solar system’s most volcanically active body. Imke de Pater, a Professor of Astronomy at the University of California at Berkeley, along with post-doctoral researcher Franck Marchis, used an infrared camera along with the Keck II telescope to capture images of the eruption of Surt Volcano on February 22, 2001.
The lava erupting from Surt Volcano was estimated to be about 2000° F (1,100° C), which is slightly hotter than the lava erupting from Hawai‘i Island’s Kīlauea Volcano. The Surt eruption covered an area of about 30 miles (48 km) across, totaling about 735 square miles (1,900 sq. km) in all. On Earth, larger eruptions have occurred, such as an ancient eruption in India that covered an estimated 200,000 square miles (518,000 sq. km), but the eruption of Surt is the largest ever actually seen by humans. Information about the Surt eruption was published in the November 2002 issue of Icarus, a planetary journal.
Io’s volcanoes were monitored by the Galileo spacecraft (a project of NASA), which orbited Jupiter from 1995 to 2003. Galileo’s journey is scheduled to come to an end in September of 2003, when it will crash into Jupiter.
Other Telescopes Atop Mauna Kea:
Jupiter’s Moons
In June of 2002, astronomer David Jewitt and graduate student Scott Shepard of the University Institute of Astronomy announced that they had used digital imaging technology and the Canada-France-Hawai‘i telescope to discover 11 new moons around the planet Jupiter, the largest planet in our solar system. At that time Jupiter already had 28 known moons, 11 of which were found in January of 2001 by the same two researchers. The new discoveries raised to 39 Jupiter’s total number of known moons, most of which are only about 2 miles (3.2 km) in diameter. The researchers’ results were confirmed using the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter telescope.
More discoveries occurred in late 2002 and into 2003, raising Jupiter’s known moons to more than 47. The discoveries utilized the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter telescope as well as the Canada-France-Hawai‘i 3.6-meter telescope and the Subaru 8.3-meter telescope, which have digital cameras that are among the largest in the world. In February of 2003, the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics utilized the Canada-France-Hawai‘i telescope and a telescope in Chile to discover three new moons around Neptune.
In 2003 an instrument, called “Megaprime,” the world’s largest telescope-mounted camera, was developed for the Canada-France-Hawai‘i telescope to provide an emerging technology called high-resolution wide-field imaging. Megaprime utilizes the “Megacam,” the newly-crowned largest digital camera in the world, which is capable of viewing about one degree by one degree of sky (the full moon is about one fourth of one degree), and can take pictures with 350 million pixels (a pixel is the smallest element of an image).
The Megacam is more than 100 times as powerful as high-quality digital cameras available commercially. The high-resolution, wide-field imaging technology makes it highly likely that numerous new moons will soon be discovered around the solar system’s planets, continuing the work begun by Galileo when he discovered Jupiter’s four large moons—Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto—in 1610.
Submillimeter Research
Dedicated in November of 2003, the Smithsonian Submillimeter Array is the first imaging telescope of its kind, built to allow astronomers to study submillimeter waves. The submillimeter region of the electromagnetic spectrum is concerned with wavelengths that have more energy than microwaves (commonly used in home ovens) but less energy than infrared light.
Only recently has the technology been available to produce the precisely shaped antennas and the extremely sensitive receivers required for submillimeter research. The submillimeter waves emanating from distant objects are received by an array of satellite dishes, and linked by interferometry, allowing scientists to study: distant galaxies more than 13 billion light years away; planets and comets within the Milky Way; stars in the Milky Way that are still in their formative stages; and other astronomical objects.
The Submillimeter Array was built by Taiwan’s Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics in partnership with the University of Hawai‘i’s Institute for Astronomy (which provided the space on Mauna Kea for the facility), and the Smithsonian Institution’s Astrophysical Observatory, based in Cambridge, Massachusetts, which funded 6 of the dishes. Two of the dishes were funded by the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics of Taiwan, which has a 15% interest in the overall project.
A specialized array of eight movable 6-meter antennas allow various configurations as optical fibers carry the radiation from each antenna to a central focus, where the signal is correlated and combine to produce images with a quality of resolution comparable to the world’s best optical telescopes. The facility’s many antennae working together at their widest separation can produce an image with details comparable to that produced by a single telescope with a diameter of 1,600 feet (488 m). A forklift can move the antennae to different configurations as needed.
The new array also produces images of objects up to 30 times smaller than can be viewed using Mauna Kea’s other submillimeter telescopes (the James Clerk Maxwell 15-meter submillimeter telescope, and the Caltech 10.4-meter submillimeter telescope. The Submillimeter Array will be linked to the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope as well as the Caltech Submillimeter Observatory.
Infrared Megapixel Camera
In 2003, an innovative new technology was used to create a 16-megapixel infrared camera mounted on the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter optical/infrared telescope, increasing sky coverage by a factor of 16. These new cameras make the University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter optical/infrared telescope the most powerful infrared imaging telescope in the world. Eventually this new megapixel technology will also likely be employed on the Gemini Northern 8-meter optical/infrared telescope and Canada-France-Hawai‘i 3.6-meter optical/infrared telescope.
Very Long Baseline Array
The 25-meter (82-foot) radio telescope atop Mauna Kea is part of the Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA), which was used on September 8, 2002 to measure the speed of gravity, or more technically, the speed at which gravity propagates, thus finally quantifying one of the last of the unmeasured fundamental constants.
The Very Long Baseline Array (VLBA) uses a new technology known as Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI), which has finally made it possible to achieve the extremely high precision needed to measure the speed of gravity. Also utilized in the gravity measurement was a 100-meter (328-foot) radio telescope in Effelsberg, Germany.
The gravity propagation speed measurement was made possible by a celestial alignment in which Jupiter came close to the path of radio waves being produced by a quasar named J0842+1835 (quasars are extremely distant and exceptionally bright objects thought to be nuclei of galaxies).
The researchers involved in the gravity study, including Ed Fomalont at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Charlottesville, Virginia and Sergei Kopeikin at the University of Missouri-Columbia, concluded that the speed at which gravity propagates is within 20% of the speed of light. Einstein had theorized that it was equal to the speed of light, while Newton had considered the force of gravity to be instantaneous. The recent measurements of gravity’s propagation speed have strong implications for unified field theorists attempting to join particle physics with electromagnetic theory and Einstein’s general theory of relativity.
The 240-ton (218-mton) VLBA antenna on Mauna Kea is part of an array of antennae across the United States, along with one antenna on St. Croix in the Caribbean. Digital tapes record the data at each antenna site, and then the information is analyzed at the array’s Socorro Operations Center in New Mexico.
[Photograph: Keck Telescope showing outriggers, snow]
Waves
[North shore big wave surfing scene]
At an outer reef miles from shore, a surfer on a surfboard holds onto a tow rope as he is pulled behind a jet-ski. A huge wave forms on the horizon and continues to grow as it approaches. The jet-ski driver swings the craft around to pull the surfer in the same direction of the wave, which has now welled up to a monstrous size. The person on the surfboard lets go of the tow rope and surfs the giant wave. The jet ski driver powers the craft out of harm’s way, and then quickly drives back around to retrieve the surfer.
[Photograph: Big wave surfing]
Hō a‘e ka ‘ike he‘enalu i ka hokua o ka ‘ale.
Show [your] knowledge of surfing on the back of the wave.
Talking about one’s knowledge and skill is not enough; let it be proven.
(Pukui: 1013-108)
Perhaps more than any other place in the world, Hawai‘i is famous for its large waves. Surfers, sunbathers, and visitors from all over the world flock to the Hawaiian Islands from all parts of globe for a chance to visit the famous surfing beaches, point breaks, and outer reefs.
During summer, large swells arrive from far to the south and break along the Hawaiian Islands’ southern shores. However, it is the giant north shore winter surf that is the source of legends. Every winter, huge storms are generated off of the Asian landmass and grow over the Bering Sea. These storm systems create enormous swells, consistent and organized systems of large ocean waves that move toward the Hawaiian Islands’ north shores.
Types and Properties of Waves:
Technically, a wave is defined as any disturbance (energy) that moves over or through a medium, such as air or water. There are many different kinds of waves, from radio waves to sound waves, to tsunamis traveling 7,000 miles across the Pacific Ocean.
A wave’s speed is determined by the properties of the medium through which the wave is traveling. For example, sound waves move four times faster in water than they do in air, because water has a higher density than air. A dolphin’s high frequency echolocation pulses (sound waves) have extremely small wavelengths, while a tsunami may have a wavelength of 50 to 300 miles (80 to 483 km), as well as a period as long as 30 minutes, and a speed through the ocean of more than 500 mi/hr (805 km/hr).
Anatomy of a Wave:
The highest point of the wave is called the crest and the lowest point is called the trough. The vertical distance between the wave’s crest and trough is the wave’s height. Waves also have a length, which is the distance from the crest of one wave to the crest of the next wave (the wavelength).
An ocean wave is really just energy moving through the water. A wave’s energy reaches to a depth equal to about one-half of its wavelength. If the water is shallower than that depth, the wave starts to collapse on itself, or break. In other words, a wave breaks when it reaches water that is about half as deep as the wave is long (which is also usually about half the wave’s height).
The time it takes one complete wave to pass a given point is known as the wave’s period. If the swell period is 14 or more, then it usually means sizeable waves were generated from a distant storm system, and are arriving in the Hawaiian Islands to the great delight of experienced surfers. A wave period of 14 might bring waves with heights of about 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3 m) high. This wave height may vary considerably, especially considering that locals judge the waves height not by the face but by the back of the wave, which is about half as big as the face. In general, however, if the wave period is 14, there will be great surfing waves.
[Illustration: Diagram of wavelength, height, period, crest, and trough]
Ocean Weather Buoys
Four ocean buoys are placed hundreds of miles to the north, south, east and west of the Hawaiian Island chain. Each boat-shaped weather buoy is about 20 feet (6 m) long, weighs more than 14,000 pounds (6,350 kg), and is anchored to the ocean floor. Real-time buoy data is transmitted each hour via satellite to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) meteorologists, posted on the Internet (http://seaboard.ndbc.noaa.gov/Maps/Hawaii.shtml) and reported on local news forecasts.
The ocean buoys report sea and air temperatures, barometric pressure, wind direction, wind speed, wave height, and wave and swell period at the buoy location. This provides fishermen with advance notice of high surf and possibly dangerous conditions, as well as alerting surfers when conditions may be particularly formidable.
For example, if the buoy to the north of the Hawaiian Islands (Buoy 51001—193 nautical miles west-northwest of Līhu‘e, Kaua‘i) reports that the height of the swell is 15 feet (4.6 m) with a period of 20 seconds, then surfers know there will definitely be big waves arriving on the north shore within several hours, and fishermen know it may not be the best time to go out to sea.
Be Careful—Avoid Dangerous Waters
The ocean can be a very dangerous place, especially when currents and waves make for difficult conditions. Drownings do occur, and at a rate that continues to confound officials.
On Kaua‘i alone, from 1970 to 2001, there were more than 200 reported drownings (including 63 from 1995-2002, with 12 in 1999, 12 in 2000 and 8 in 2001. Twenty-eight of these drownings occurred at just one Kaua‘i beach, Hanakāpī‘ai, and most of the victims were never recovered. Another beach just miles away, Lumaha‘i, had 19 drownings. Most drownings occur in winter when big swells and strong currents are more frequent. Statistically, most victims of drowning in the Hawaiian Islands are male, from 30 to 50 years old.
With an estimated 18 million beach visitors on O‘ahu in 2001, there were 1,360 rescues, and first aid was given to 92,717 people. One particularly dangerous place is near the surf spot known as China Walls as well as the surrounding area for about 1 mile (1.6 km), including the area near Spitting Cave. In this stretch of water more than 24 people have drowned since 1977, with an estimated 50 more near drownings.
Beaches all over the island have potentially dangerous conditions, and often areas that seem safe pose potential hazards for people inexperienced in the water. On O‘ahu, in a period of less than one month—between June 6 and July 2, 2002—there were seven drownings, mostly tourists in shallow water. Two more persons died on July 19, 2002 near a spot called Witch’s Brew at the mouth of Hanauma Bay.
On June 30, 2002 an 18-year-old male became the third person since 1969 to die at Hālona Blowhole, a famous wave-generated spout of water on O‘ahu’s southeast shore near Hanauma Bay. As he leaned over the blowhole, a spout of water sent him flying up into the air and then down into the blowhole.
On April 13, 1986 an 18-year-old man fell into the Hālona Blowhole and died, and on July 24, 1969 a 26-year-old man died after falling into the blowhole. In 1967, a soldier from Schofield Barracks fell into the blowhole and survived. He later said that he found himself in a large cave before a wave arrived and caused him to hit his head. The next wave washed him out into the ocean where he was rescued.
Always stay behind railings and heed warning signs. Blowholes may be completely quiet one moment and the next moment sends an explosive plume of water more than 50 feet (15 m) into the air.
Water Safety
When venturing into the ocean in the Hawaiian Islands, be extremely careful, no matter how safe it may appear. Waves are often more powerful than they look, and currents along the shoreline may be hard to detect until you find yourself in a dangerous situation.
Always pause and look before going in the ocean. For at least 20 to 30 minutes before going in, patiently watch the ocean area where you plan on swimming. You need to observe the largest waves that are coming toward shore, and these “sets” may only be arriving every 30 minutes or so, so you must wait and see. There is often an extended period of smaller waves or calm between the bigger sets, and this may be extremely deceptive, causing some people to think conditions are safe when they are not.
Things Aren’t Always As They Seem
Don’t always assume that just because there are numerous people in the water it’s safe to go in. Many Hawaiian Island residents have grown up around the water, and are experienced in dealing with powerful currents and waves that are extremely dangerous for inexperienced swimmers. Most of the drowning victims in the Islands are visitors, rather than the surfers and locals who frequent the ocean waters.
Many drowning victims are strong swimmers, but the powerful waves and ocean currents add another dimension to the situation, a dimension not always anticipated by those unfamiliar with the ocean. Visitors often overestimate their own abilities, and underestimate the ocean conditions.
E ‘au mālie i ke kai pāpa‘u, o pakī ka wai a pula ka maka.
Swim quietly in shallow water lest it splash into the eyes.
A cautioning to go carefully where one isn’t sure of conditions.
(Pukui: 267-33)
What To Do In a Rip Current—Remain Calm
If you do find yourself in trouble in the water, remain calm. Panic causes added difficulties in getting enough air, especially if you have to dive beneath waves.
If you are unable to swim closer toward shore or feel yourself being pulled out (away from shore), you are probably in a rip current. A rip current is an area where all the incoming water from the waves has found a channel to flow back out to sea. Rip currents tend to be fairly narrow and usually dissipate as they get farther from shore.
Don’t use up all your energy fighting the current. Instead the best thing to do is to calmly go with the flow as you slowly merge out of the rip current. Swim parallel to shore until you can feel that you are out of the current, and then make your way diagonally toward shore.
Some Tips on Water Safety—When In Doubt, Don’t Go Out!
Don’t swim alone, and always supervise children closely. Shorebreak waves are often very powerful, and body surfing or swimming even small waves, has the potential of causing extreme back and neck injuries if you are caught in the downward force of the breaking wave over a shallow sand area. Sandy Beach is particularly known for this, making it one of the two most dangerous places on O‘ahu, along with China Walls (described above).
Water Safety—Key Things to Remember:
- Ø If you get caught in a rip current, swim parallel to shore until you are out of it, then swim diagonally toward shore.
- Ø Never turn your back to the waves when you are in or near the water! Occasional rogue waves have been known to surprise unwary swimmers.
- Ø Swim with a buddy—never swim alone.
- Ø Swim at beaches with lifeguards, and ask questions if you are unsure. It’s better to be safe than sorry.
- Ø When in doubt, don’t go out—always be cautious around the ocean!
[Photograph: Big Waves]Tsunamis
[Illustration: Tsunami]
Tsunamis have killed more people in the Hawaiian Islands than all other natural disasters combined. The Hawaiian Islands have been hit by numerous tsunamis, some generated thousands of miles away, others the result of earthquakes and landslides occurring within the archipelago.
Given the numerous tsunamis in historic times, it is quite certain that the ancient Hawaiian were also familiar with this global ocean phenomenon. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Kaha aku la ka nalu o ku‘u ‘āina.” (“The surf of my land has swept everything away,” and this is said to be “...a retort to one who boasts about the value and beauty of his own land.”[2]
Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions. Potentially (and possibly historically) tsunamis may also be caused by meteor impacts. The word tsunami comes from the Japanese language, in which tsu means “harbor,” and nami means “wave.”
Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands
Date Deaths (in Hawai‘i) Islands Affected Origin of Earthquake
1837 15 Hawai‘i Island, Maui Chile
1868 47 Hawai‘i Island Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami)
1877 5 Hawai‘i Island Peru
1923 1 Hawai‘i Island Kamchatka, Russia
1923 1 O‘ahu, Maui, Hawai‘i Island Aleutians
1933 0 Hawai‘i Island Japan
1946 159 Hawai‘i Isl., Maui, O‘ahu, Kaua‘i Aleutians
1951 0 Hawai‘i Island Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami)
1952 0 Hawai‘i Island Northwest Pacific
1957 0 Kaua‘i, O‘ahu Aleutians
1960 61 Hawai‘i Island Chile
1964 0 Maui Alaska
1975 2 Hawai‘i Island Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami)
Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands
1837, Nov. 7—Kahului, Maui: An earthquake in Chile generates a tsunami that makes its way toward the Hawaiian Islands. In Kahului, Maui the beach mysteriously begins to drain out, and people rush out to pick up stranded fish. Minutes later a tsunami arrives. People, livestock, canoes, and the village’s 26 grass houses are all swept inland and deposited in a small lake. In Hilo, 100 houses are destroyed. In all, at least 15 people in the Hawaiian Islands are killed.
1868, April 2—Hawai‘i Island: An earthquake on the island of Hawai‘i causes a landslide that destroys a village and creates a localized tsunami reported to be more than 60 feet (18.3 m) high. The ancient village of ‘Āpua in Puna, Hawai‘i is swept away.
1877, May 9—Hawai‘i Island: A large earthquake occurs near Peru, and a tsunami arrives in Hilo before dawn. 37 houses are destroyed, five people killed, and many more injured.
1923, February 23—Big Island, Maui: An earthquake in the Aleutians generates a tsunami that sends waves to more than 20 feet (6 m) above normal in the Waiākea area of Hilo, also causing serious damage in Kahului, Maui.
1946, April 1—Hawai‘i Island: An earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generates a tsunami that hits the island of Hawai‘i, killing an estimated 159 people in the Hawaiian Islands, including 96 in Hilo and 24 in Laupāhoehoe on Hawai‘i Island. The tsunami brings 15 waves in all, rising up to 56 feet (17 m) above sea level in some places, and 33 feet (10 m) in Hilo where close to 500 homes and businesses are destroyed and more than 1,000 more damaged, causing an estimated $26 million in damage, including railroads, bridges, piers and ships.
1957, March 9—Kaua‘i: An earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generates a tsunami that destroys 75 homes on Kaua‘i’s north shore.
1960, May 22—Hawai‘i Island: Sixty-one people in Hilo are killed when an earthquake in Chile generates a tsunami that hits the Hawaiian Islands and destroys 229 houses and 308 public buildings and businesses. 122 are killed in Japan. In all an estimated 2,000 are killed, mostly in Chile.
1964—Maui; Hawai‘i Island: One of North America’s largest earthquakes ever recorded (magnitude 8.4 on the Richter scale) occurs in Alaska, sending tsunami waves toward the Hawaiian Islands. The tsunamis cause flooding in Kahului, Maui, where the waves rise to more than 11 feet (3.4 m) and in Hilo where the waves rise to more than 12.5 feet (3.8 m). No people die in the Hawaiian Islands, but waves also strike in Alaska and California. In all, 122 are killed (nine from the earthquake, the rest from tsunamis).
1975—Hawai‘i Island: A localized tsunami generated on the island of Hawai‘i strikes the remote Ka‘ū area on the southeast shore of the island of Hawai‘i, killing two people. This tsunami also causes damage in California.
Anatomy of a Tsunami—Period, Wavelength, Speed
The time it takes one complete wave to pass a given point is known as the wave’s period. A typical tsunami may have a period from 9 to 30 minutes (e.g., the 1946 tsunami had a 15-minute period).
A typical tsunami has a wavelength of 50 to 300 miles (80 to 480 km), with some wavelengths exceeding 465 miles (750 km). A tsunami may travel across the ocean at about 475 mi/hr (764 km/hr). The deeper the ocean, the faster the tsunami travels. For example, in water 20,000 feet (6,100 m) deep a tsunami travels in excess of 540 miles per hour (870 km/hr), but if the water is only 3,000 feet (915 m) deep, the tsunami travels less than 350 miles per hour (563 km/hr).
The Pacific Ocean is on average about 12,000 feet (3,658 m) deep, making it the deepest of the world’s oceans. Because of this extreme depth, Pacific Ocean tsunamis travel particularly fast.
When traveling across the open ocean, a tsunami is typically only several feet high. This low wave height is due to the fact that a tsunami’s wavelength reaches all the way to the seafloor, which may be more than 20,000 feet (6,100 m) from the ocean’s surface. The small surface height of a tsunami on the open ocean makes tsunamis hard to predict. Often the full terror of a tsunami becomes apparent only when the wave finally reaches shallow waters.
When a Tsunami Arrives
As a tsunami wave reaches land, the front of the wave moves slower in the shallower water. The back of the wave, still up to 100 miles (160 km) out to sea where it is much deeper, continues to move at hundreds of miles per hour while the front of the wave may slow to 30 mi/hr (48 km/hr).
When there is unequal speed between the back and front of the tsunami (or any wave), it causes the wave’s water to pile up upon itself. The result is that the tsunami grows in height, and may rise from 10 to 30 feet (3 to 9 m) or more. The extremely long wavelength of a tsunami may also cause a tremendous surge of water onshore, and may send water up to ½-mile (.8 km) inland.
When a tsunami nears shore, the trough of the wave arrives first, and may drain out a bay before the surge arrives about five to ten minutes later. Once a tsunami collides with a shoreline, it may then bounce (reflect back into the open ocean. The oscillations of a major tsunami may ripple back and forth across the whole Pacific Ocean for several days.
Each tsunami has unique characteristics depending upon its wavelength and direction, as well as how the tsunami was generated (e.g., landslide, earthquake, etc.) among other factors. Two other factors important in determining how severely a tsunami will affect any particular stretch of coastline are the angle at which the tsunami approaches the coast and the seafloor and bay configurations of the coastline area. The 1946 tsunami hit Kaua‘i like huge breaking surf, but the 1957 tsunami arrived on Kaua‘i more like a massive flood tide, causing the sea to rise up to 32 feet (9.8 m) above normal.
The 1946 Tsunami
The 1946 tsunami that inundated part of the city of Hilo on Hawai‘i Island, was similar to one that hit Lisbon in 1775. During both tsunamis people drowned because they were curious at the sight of an empty bay and went out to look around, only to have the tsunami waves arrive a few minutes later to sweep them away.
The 1946 tsunami was caused by an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands, 2,400 miles (3,862 km) north of the Hawaiian Islands. Forty-seven minutes after the quake, a tsunami sheared the Scotch Cap Lighthouse at Unimak Island off its base, killing five people. The first of the tsunami waves hit the Hawaiian Islands about four hours later, around 6:30 a.m.
The first wave was said to resemble an extra high tide surrounding homes and buildings. The third and fourth waves were the biggest of some 15 tsunami waves, each arriving about 15 minutes after the previous one, with some of the waves reaching heights up to 56 feet (17 m) above sea level, killing people and destroying property. The natural shape of Hilo Bay amplified the waves, which then surged onto land.
As each wave receded it revealed the floor of Hilo Bay. Then the tremendous surge of water would arrive again, sweeping inland and destroying everything in its path. Ninety-six people in Hilo were killed by the waves. Nearly 500 homes and businesses were destroyed and more than 1,000 more damaged along with railroads, bridges, piers and ships, totaling an estimated $26 million of damage.
Other coastal areas on the island of Hawai‘i were also affected, including Laupāhoehoe where 24 people were killed. The 1946 tsunami also hit other Hawaiian Islands, killing 17 people on Kaua‘i, 13 on Maui, and six on O‘ahu (one at Makapu‘u, two at Kahuku, and three at Kahana).
1957 Tsunami
Certain bay shapes (e.g., Hilo Bay) tend to increase the size of tsunami waves approaching from particular directions. When Hawai‘i Island’s northeast coastline was hit by a tsunami in 1957, the tsunami waves rose to great heights only in certain places. The greatest wave heights occurred in small open bays with underwater topographies that had an amplifying effect on the wave’s size as it approaches shore.
The 1957 tsunami destroyed or severely damaged more than 75 homes along Kaua‘i’s north shore, including 25 of the 29 homes in the area called Hā‘ena. At O‘ahu’s Pōka‘ī Bay, more than 50 boats and six yachts were smashed against the breakwater.
An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Mimiki ke kai, ahuwale ka papa leho.” (“When the sea draws out in the tidal wave, the rocks where the cowries hide are exposed,” meaning, “secrets will out on the day of wrath.”)[iii]
[Photograph: 1957 tsunami]
The 1960 Tsunami
The last major Pacific-wide tsunami to hit the Hawaiian Islands was on May 22, 1960, and was caused by an earthquake in Chile. The Chilean earthquake occurred 6,600 miles (10,622 km) away from the Hawaiian Islands, moving a piece of land the size of California about 30 feet (9 m) in just minutes. The tsunami waves generated by the earthquake took more than 15 hours to reach Hawai‘i’s shores.
Hilo once again took the brunt of the damage as it was hit by at least seven significant tsunami waves over a 2-hour period. The third wave was the most destructive. In Hilo Bay, the tsunami created a bore that rushed ashore at a speed reported to be more than 37 miles per hour (60 km/hr), surging water as high as 36 feet (11 m) above sea level.
In all, 61 people were killed in Hilo, with 43 more requiring medical care for their injuries. In addition, at least 229 homes were destroyed, as well as 308 public structures and businesses. The destruction was most severe near Hilo’s Kamehameha Ave., where entire city blocks were washed away. Damage was estimated up to $50 million.
Many people died because they went to the shoreline to investigate what was happening as the water drained out from the bay and river. In all, the Chilean earthquake and the resulting tsunami caused the death of an estimated 2,000 people, mostly in Chile, but also 122 in Japan.
Localized Tsunamis
1868—Ka‘ū District, Hawai‘i Island
In 1868, an earthquake estimated to have a magnitude of 7.9 on the Richter scale struck the south end of the island of Hawai‘i. The quake caused a giant mudslide that killed hundreds of people and buried a small village, destroying nearly every European-style home in the Ka‘ū district.
The 1868 earthquake also generated what is known as a localized tsunami. Water reportedly surged ashore high enough to cover the tops of coconut trees, at least 60 feet (18.3 m) high at some spots along the Ka‘ū coast. The ancient village of ‘Āpua in Puna on Hawai‘i Island is swept away. The localized tsunami killed 48 people.
1975—Halapē, Hawai‘i Island
On the morning of November 29, 1975, two strong earthquakes shook the southeastern coastal area of the island of Hawai‘i. One of these was earthquakes was at least a 7.2 magnitude on the Richter scale, and the epicenter of the earthquake was near an old Hawaiian village site called Halapē. The ground in the area sunk some 12 feet (3.7 m) and rocks fell from the cliffs above.
The earthquakes caused a small eruption of Kīlauea Volcano and generated a localized tsunami. When the tsunami came ashore at Halapē, it swept some Boy Scouts and their leaders who were camping there up onto a rugged lava field, and many were washed into a huge crack in the lava.
Nineteen people were injured, many severely, and two were killed, including a scout leader and a local fisherman. A huge piece of land actually slid into the ocean and the tops of the palm trees were sticking up from the water. One of the tsunami waves traveled more than 300 feet (91 m) inland.
Ancient Landslides and Tsunamis
Until recently many scientists accepted one researcher’s assertion that a giant landslide about 105,000 years ago had generated a tsunami that sent a wave as high as 1,000 feet (305 m) up the slopes of Lāna‘i. This theory has recently been largely discredited, though it may have occurred on a smaller scale.
It is likely, however, that about 1½ million years ago a massive landslide occurred on O‘ahu. Researchers believe this ancient landslide on O‘ahu involved nearly one-fourth of the island and sent a 100-mile (161-km) long piece of coastline on the Ko‘olau’s up to 50 miles (80 km) out to sea. Involving an estimated 25% of the island of O‘ahu, the landslide produced also produced a massive tsunami. Researchers believe that the tsunami reached a height of up to 100 feet (30 m) when it hit California.
Another landslide-generated tsunami is believed to have sent a wave over the “saddle,” the relatively narrow strip of land connecting east and west Maui. Mauna Loa volcano also shows evidence of similar massive landslides.
The next potential great landslide area is believed to be on Hawai‘i Island’s still-active Kīlauea Volcano where the entire south flank is moving about 4 inches (10 cm) per year—an average of about 3-1/3 feet (1 meter) every ten years—along the Hilina fault system. The moving piece of the volcano extends an estimated 5 miles (8 km) deep and covers an estimated 72 square miles (186 sq. km).
An increased rate of slippage occurred in November 2000 when it the flank moved about 3½ inches (9 cm) in just 36 hours, which is more than 200 times the normal speed. Satellite-based Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment installed from 1995 to 1999 allowed precise detection of the rapid flank movement.
No earthquake was associated with the increased rate of movement, which may instead have been related to heavy rains that had fallen five to ten days earlier. About 3 feet (.9 m) of rain had fallen on the south side of Kīlauea Volcano over a period of several days. Though this type of movement is not associated with an earthquake, it is often referred to as a “silent earthquake.”
Researchers theorize that the water may act as a lubricant along the fault line, also adding weight to the massive piece of Earth. Water pressure may also act like a wedge to pry open the fault system, which may have been the same system that caused the 1975 localized tsunami that killed two people at Halapē. A large earthquake that occurred in the region in the 1860s may also have been due to a movement of this flank area directly south of Kīlauea Volcano’s caldera.
Worldwide—Other Historic Tsunamis
In 1883, more than 36,000 people were killed near Java and Sumatra when an explosion of Krakatoa Volcano created waves more than 100 feet (30 m) high. More than 22,000 people were killed in 1896 by an earthquake that hit Japan, creating a tsunami that also caused great damage in California, the Hawaiian Islands, and Chile.
The March 2, 1933 tsunami that was generated off Japan caused damage on the island of Hawai‘i and also destroyed 2,800 homes in Japan, killing 1,600 people. Worldwide, one of the biggest tsunamis on record occurred in 1958 when a landslide in a small Alaskan bay sent a wave surging 1,740 feet (530 m) above sea level on the opposite shoreline.
The Alaskan earthquake of 1964 created a tsunami that killed 107 people in Alaska, 15 more in northern California, and caused damage in the Hawaiian Islands. On September 1, 1992 an earthquake offshore of Nicaragua moved 170 miles (274 km) of seafloor and drained a 20-foot (6 m) deep harbor before the tsunami waves crashed ashore—170 died and 13,000 were left homeless. In December, 1992 a tsunami killed more than 1,000 Indonesians.
One of the largest tsunamis ever to hit Japan occurred in July, 1993, when an earthquake occurred in the Sea of Japan. Waves from the tsunami inundated areas up to 97 feet (29.6 m) above sea level, resulting in 120 deaths.
A 7.7 earthquake in Java, Indonesia in 1994 created a tsunami that killed more than 200 people and sank 278 boats. More than 2,200 people died on July 17, 1998 when a wall of water up to 40 feet (12 m) high hit Papua New Guinea with little warning.
In the last century, tsunamis have killed more than 70,000 people worldwide. There have been ten major tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean since 1990, killing a total of more than 4,000 people. A total of 82 tsunamis were reported worldwide during this period. This rate of tsunamis and tsunami deaths is much higher than previous historical averages. This is attributed to several factors, including increased populations in coastal areas as well as improved global communication technologies.
Tsunami Warning Systems
The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center at ‘Ewa Beach in O‘ahu is run by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and can detect an earthquake anywhere in the Pacific Ocean. The Center uses computers to determine the strength of the quake, and to determine the likelihood that a tsunami is generated.
There are more than 100 tide gauges in the Pacific Ocean that report to satellites, and these tide gauges can generally reveal if a tsunami is coming toward the Hawaiian Islands. The exceptions, however, are tsunamis arriving from north of the Hawaiian Islands, where there is no land (or tide gauges) for thousands of miles.
Tsunamis generated in the Aleutian Islands and heading toward the Hawaiian Islands have historically been difficult to positively detect. For example, warning sirens in the Hawaiian Islands sounded in 1975 when a major earthquake occurred near Japan. Coastal areas of the Hawaiian Islands were evacuated, and the daylong shutdown of businesses cost the state’s economy an estimated 30 million dollars. There was no tsunami. New tsunami warning devices are now overcoming the technological difficulties and providing reliable early warnings.
Ocean Floor Sensors
New technological advances are improving the ability of scientists to determine if a tsunami has been generated. This improved technology will help to avoid false alarms and allow advance warnings to be given as early as possible. The new detection tools include deep ocean sensors with seafloor pressure gauges, broadband seismic sensors, buoys, and hydrophone arrays.
In 2001, scientists began installing a new tsunami detection system throughout the Pacific Ocean. These ocean floor sensors, costing about $250,000 each, send sonic data to a buoy on the ocean’s surface. The information is then transmitted via satellite to system computers.
One device was placed off the Oregon coast, another off Vancouver, British Columbia, and three more devices were placed off Alaska’s Aleutian Islands Chain. There are plans for a sixth device to be installed on the ocean floor between the Hawaiian Islands and Chile, near the Equator. The tsunami detection devices are up to 18,000 feet (5,486 m) deep on the ocean floor.
As detection improves, officials will be better able to alert the public, helping to avoid loss of life from future tsunamis. The Pacific Tsunami Museum in Hilo also provides tsunami education programs and historical information regarding tsunamis.
[Photograph: Tsunami]
Hurricanes
[Illustration: Hurricane]
For well over an hour on September 11, 1992, Kaua‘i’s north shore residents endured ferocious winds as they huddled in shelters throughout the island. They could hear windows being smashed by the airborne debris that filled the air and crashed violently into buildings. Sometimes a whole roof would detach and lift upward in one large piece before breaking up in the vortex of wind. Entire houses were blown off their foundations.
Then suddenly the wind stopped, and some people went outside. It was still cloudy all around, but straight above there was pure blue sky, which was a welcome sight amidst all the destruction. The hurricane had not passed, however, but instead was actually directly overhead! They were right in the middle of the hurricane’s eye!
Within minutes, as the hurricane’s eye moved past, the full force of the hurricane was felt again, this time all at once in a devastating rush of wind with gusts well more than 100 miles per hour (161 km/hr). Because the wind was now going in the opposite direction, structures that had been weakened to the point of collapse by the first half of the hurricane were now quickly finished off as the destruction continued.
Given the many hurricanes that roam across the Pacific each year, and the numerous hurricanes that have hit the Hawaiian Islands in historic times, it is likely that the ancient Hawaiians were quite familiar with these infrequent but massive and devastating storms. A Hawaiian proverb states, “O ka makani ke ala o ka ‘ino.” (“Wind is the source of storms.”)[iv]
Anatomy of a Hurricane
When a tropical storm has winds that reach 74 miles per hour (119 km/hr) it becomes a hurricane, an organized system of thunderstorms whirling around a low-pressure center. Hurricanes are about 300 miles (483 km) across, on average, but not usually more than 9.5 miles (15.3 km) high.
Formation of a Hurricane
For a hurricane to form there needs to be a source of rotation for the air—that source is the Earth’s rotation. Air tends to curve away from the equator and toward the poles, forming a low-pressure area. Air is drawn toward this low-pressure center, which becomes the eye of the hurricane, and may be 10 to 40 miles (16 to 64 km) across.
As more air is drawn into the hurricane, the air has no place to go but up, sometimes to nearly 50,000 feet (15,240 m). The rising moist air moves out the top, further reducing pressure in the eye, which then draws in more surface air in an increasing cycle that continues to fuel the storm. During the June to November hurricane season, an average of five storms each year reach the vicinity of the Hawaiian Islands.
Hurricane ‘Iniki—September 11, 1992
In 1992, the eye of Hurricane ‘Iniki passed directly over Kaua‘i. ‘Iniki began brewing far southeast of the Hawaiian Islands. The winds within the hurricane continued to grow to more than 100 miles per hour (161 km/hr) as the whole hurricane slowly moved north-northwest at about 20 miles per hour (32 km/hr). Eventually the path of the hurricane turned due north and the hurricane made a direct hit on Kaua‘i
As Hurricane ‘Iniki proceeded over the island of Kaua‘i, a ferocious gust of wind within the hurricane was clocked at 227 miles per hour (365 km/hr), a measurement that was taken by the Navy’s Mākaha Ridge radar station. Soon after that digital readout was sent, the wind gauging equipment was blown off the mountain!
Property damage due to Hurricane ‘Iniki totaled more than three billion dollars, including damage to over 70% of Kaua‘i’s homes. In all, about 14,000 homes and apartments were damaged, including 1,421 that were completely destroyed. The community of Princeville topped the list with 279 homes destroyed. At the time of the hurricane there were 8,200 hotel, condo, and bed and breakfast rooms on Kaua‘i, and ‘Iniki shut down 90% of them. It was a rough time for many island residents.
The natural landscape of Kaua‘i was also changed by Hurricane ‘Iniki, and there were long-term effects on the island’s native flora and fauna. Much of the native forest canopy was stripped of its leaves as well as the fruit and flowers that forest birds depend on for food. Can you imagine those poor little birds hiding as the hurricane winds blew?
[Photograph: Native forest bird (e.g., feeding on flower)]
The hurricane didn’t leave a lot of food for the honeycreeper species that depend on flower nectar. Two such species are the small, red ‘apapane (Himatione sanguinea), and the crimson colored ‘i‘iwi (Vestiaria coccinea). The ‘i‘iwi’s long, down-curving bill fits perfectly into the long cup-shaped flower of the native lobelias.
Some fruit-eating forest bird species such as the honeycreeper ‘ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea) and kāma‘o (Myadestes myadestinus, Large Kaua‘i thrush) may have already been extinct before Hurricane ‘Iniki, but if they weren’t, the storm’s reduction of the food supply may have dealt the final blow. The last sighting of the ‘ō‘ō‘ā‘ā occurred in Kaua‘i’s Alaka‘i Swamp in 1987.
The endangered puaiohi (Myadestes palmeri, small Kaua‘i thrush) was also near extinction, but the species survived and now captive propagation efforts hold hope for saving the bird. Researchers remain particularly concerned about five extremely endangered forest birds, the Kaua‘i ‘akialoa (Hemignathus procerus), Kaua‘i nuku pu‘u (Hemignathus lucidus hanapepe), kāma‘o (Myadestes myadestinus), ‘ō‘ō ‘ā‘ā (Moho braccatus), and ‘ō‘ū (Psittirostra psittacea), all of which were already on the verge of extinction when the hurricane hit Kaua‘i. None of them have been seen since Hurricane ‘Iniki.
Hurricanes That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands
Hurricanes are not a new experience for Kaua‘i. Hurricane Hiki passed just north of the island in 1950, bringing 70 mi/hr (113 km/hr) winds. Hurricane Nina caused $100,000 damage on November 30, 1957. Then Hurricane Dot passed over the island in 1959, bringing winds well over 100 mi/hr (161 km/hr) and causing six million dollars in damage. On November 3, 1982 Hurricane ‘Iwa passed between Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, bringing gusts of wind with speeds of more than 100 miles per hour (161 km/hr) and causing damages totaling 239 million dollars.
Hurricanes hit the other Hawaiian Islands as well. An unnamed hurricane hit Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and Moloka‘i on August 9, 1871, causing $10,000 in damage. On July 23, 1986, Hurricane Estelle caused two million dollars of damage on Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and O‘ahu.
Satellites and Supercomputers
The new GOES-9 satellite, at a cost of 200 million dollars, now provides forecasters with an accurate view of approaching hurricanes. The satellite is in high, stationary orbit, remaining right over a spot on the equator about 1,900 miles (3,058 km) southeast of the Hawaiian Islands, providing continuous coverage of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean.
Scientists are using new supercomputers to predict hurricane movement with much better accuracy than before. Hurricanes result from high concentrations of heat in the lower tropical atmosphere, leading some researchers to theorize that global warming may cause an increase in the frequency and intensity of hurricanes. Hawaiian residents are well advised to have emergency provisions, and take other precautions to prepare for the unfortunate possibility of another strong hurricane passing over the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: After ‘Iniki (showing devastation)]
Rainbows
[Illustration: Water droplet refracting spectrum]
In ancient Hawai‘i a rainbow, or ānuenue, symbolized the presence of a god or a chief. Today the Hawaiian Islands’ tropical climate and misty rainshowers provide many opportunities to see a rainbow painting the sky with colors. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “Kau ka ‘ōnohi ali‘i i luna.” (“The royal eyes rest above.”), referring to the sight of “a rainbow—a sign that the gods are watching the chiefs.”[v]
Light Dispersion
Rainbows are caused by drops of water in the atmosphere, and are spectacular illustrations of a phenomenon known as dispersion, in which light is separated into different colors arranged according to their frequencies.
Different frequencies of light travel at different speeds when passing through transparent materials, such as water droplets. Water droplets cause the various components of light to refract differently, bending the rays at different angles.
For example, if violet light from a single water droplet enters your eye, the red light from the same droplet will fall below your eye, and so you will not see it. To see red light you have to look at a raindrop higher in the sky (e.g., higher on the rainbow). Since our eyes see different colors from droplets at different heights in the sky, when there are many water droplets in the sky we will see a rainbow.
[Illustration: Diagram—Anatomy of a Rainbow]
The Anatomy of a Rainbow
Each water droplet in a rainbow disperses a full spectrum of colors, but from where you’re standing you will see only one of the colors from any particular drop. You will see the color that refracts at just the right angle to reach the place where you are standing. For example, you’ll see red when the angle between a beam of sunlight and the dispersed light (at the water droplet) is 42 degrees, and violet when the angle is 40 degrees.
The top of a rainbow is red and the innermost arc is violet—this is because a water droplet bends violet the most and red the least. The light forms a “bow” because when you see a rainbow, you are actually seeing a three-dimensional cone with the apex of the cone at your eye. To help understand the geometry of this, put your arm out at a 42-degree angle to the side and then move it to 45-degrees up from horizontal in front of you, and then to the other side—you have traced out the shape of a bow.
Double Rainbows
Not uncommon in the Hawaiian Islands is the beautiful sight of a double rainbow. A double rainbow is actually two completely different rainbows, one directly over the other. The secondary rainbow is larger than the primary rainbow, and has its colors reversed, with violet on the outside (the top), and red on the inside (the bottom). Double rainbows are caused by a double reflection within the raindrops.
Ka wela o ka ua.
Heated rain.
Warrior chiefs in feather cape and helmets.
They look like little rainbows—rain “heated” by the sun.
(Pukui: 1664-180)
Seeing Rainbows
To see a rainbow, you have to have your back to the sun because rainbows always occur opposite the sun. Generally, the sun also has to be less than 42 degrees above the horizon and this only occurs in the morning and evening (the most common times to see rainbows).
[Photograph: Rainbow]
Chapter 4 Source Notes
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published.
See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
[Note: This list is still in progress and being updated.]
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Altonn, Helen. New Mauna Kea camera: The wide-field device helps researchers investigate broad expanses of the sky. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/20/2003.
Altonn, Helen. UH enlisted to spot ‘killer asteroids’: Its Astronomy Institute will help design an array of telescopes. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/09/2002.
Altonn, Helen. Unique telescope will seek new stars: The dish antenna array on Mauna Kea focuses on radiation from cold regions. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/20/2003.
A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings II. Edited by Alison Kay. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999.
Ancient chants and hula at Historical Society dinner. The Garden Island, 5/26/1994.
Antone, Rod. A drowning season: A rash of ocean deaths has officials studying the situation with concern. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/06/2002.
Ariyoshi, Rita. The National Geographic Traveler: Hawaii. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2000.
Astronomers find strongest evidence yet of solar system around star visible from earth. The Garden Island, 4/12/2002.
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[1] p. 251, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2307.
[2] p. 140, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1285.
[iii] p. 235, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2157.
[iv] p. 264, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2422.
[v] p. 174, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings.// Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1614.