Humpback Whales Koholā Part I. Information about Humpback Whales Part II. Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales Preface Introduction A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales Chapter 1—Glacier Bay Chapter 2—Ocean Voyage Chapter 3—Tlingit Arrives At The Islands Chapter 4—Koholā is Born Chapter 5—A Meeting with Spinner Dolphins Chapter 6—Songs of the Humpback Whale Chapter 7—More Dolphin Encounters Chapter 8—Leaving Hawaiian Waters Chapter 9—Back in Northern Waters Chapter 10—One Year Later—Continuing On Gentle Giants Appendices Appendix 1: The Evolution of Whales and a Brief History of the Life on Earth Appendix 2: Guide to the Taxonomy of the Humpback Whale Appendix 3: Adaptive Radiation and the Evolution of Cetaceans Appendix 4: A Brief History of Whaling Appendix 5: Timeline of Hawai‘i’s Whaling Era List of Sources for Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales Spinner and Bottlenose Dolphins Nai‘a Hawaiian Monk Seals ‘Ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua Sea Turtles Honu Sharks Manō Rays Hāhālua; Hīhīmanu Coral Reefs Kohola
Chapter 6. In the Water Native Marine Life of the Hawaiian Islands
Humpback WhalesKoholā Part I. Information about Humpback Whales
Anatomy
Baleen
Feeding Breaching Other Humpback Behaviors
Humpback Songs Population Migration Other Cetaceans Around the Hawaiian Islands Facts About Humpback Whales
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">Anatomy</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Humpback Life Cycle</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Physiology</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Humpback Gestation and Birthing</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Humpback Population Estimates </span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Odontocetes—Toothed Whales</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Mysticetes—Baleen Whales</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Cetacean Sound Transmission</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Humpback Songs</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> The Ocean </span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;"> Water and Air</span>**
Part II. Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales Preface Introduction A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales Chapter 1—Glacier Bay Chapter 2—Ocean Voyage Chapter 3—Tlingit Arrives At The Islands Chapter 4—Koholā is Born Chapter 5—A Meeting with Spinner Dolphins Chapter 6—Songs of the Humpback Whale Chapter 7—More Dolphin Encounters Chapter 8—Leaving Hawaiian Waters Chapter 9—Back in Northern Waters Chapter 10—One Year Later—Continuing On Gentle Giants Appendices Appendix 1: The Evolution of Whales and a Brief History of the Life on Earth Appendix 2: Guide to the Taxonomy of the Humpback Whale Appendix 3: Adaptive Radiation and the Evolution of Cetaceans Appendix 4: A Brief History of Whaling Appendix 5: Timeline of Hawai‘i’s Whaling Era List of Sources for Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Spinner and Bottlenose DolphinsNai‘a Spinner Dolphins Bottlenose Dolphins Echolocation Dolphin Research
Hawaiian Monk Seals‘Ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua Gestation and Life Cycle Population and Habitat Evolutionary History of Monk Seals Newborn Pups in the Islands First Documented Big Island Monk Seal Birth Protecting the Hawaiian Monk Seal
Green Sea TurtlesHonu (and other Hawaiian Sea Turtles) Hawaiian Sea Turtle Overview Green Sea Turtles Sea Turtle Nesting Hawksbill Sea Turtles Leatherback Sea Turtles Olive Ridley Sea Turtles The Evolutionary History of Sea Turtles
SharksManō Native Shark Species of the Hawaiian Islands Anatomy Birthing Shark Finning
Sharks in Ancient Hawai‘i Shark Attacks in Hawaiian Waters Avoiding Shark Encounters
What Sharks Eat New Technologies To Protect Against Sharks
RaysHāhālua, Hīhīmanu
Coral ReefsKohola Cnidarians Types of Coral Reefs
Coral Species of the Hawaiian Islands Spawning Importance of Coral Reefs in Hawaiian Waters
EelsPuhi Moray Eels Dragon Moray Eel Dwarf Moray Eel Snowflake Moray Eel Stout Moray Eel Viper Moray Eel Whitemouth Moray Eel
Jellyfish; Portuguese Man-of-WarPololia; Pa‘imalau Winged Box Jellyfish Jellyfish Reproduction Nematocysts Portuguese Man-of-War
What if I’m Stung? Other Jellyfish Species
Hawaiian Bobtail SquidMūhe‘e Bioluminescence Luciferase and Cell-to-Cell Communication
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**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Humpback Whale </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(</span>****//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Megaptera novaeangliae</span>//****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">)</span>**
**Hawaiian Name: //Koholā//**
Indigenous (migratory).
Status: Endangered Species.
[Illustration: Humpback mother with calf]
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">It’s not often you see a animal as big as a large school bus fly up into the air and then come crashing down on the water in a chaos of sound and water. In the Hawaiian Islands, however, where humpback whales are known for their spectacular breaches, this is not an unusual sight.</span>
Adult humpback whales may be 45 feet (14 m) long and weigh more than 40 tons (36 mtons). Newborn humpbacks are very light colored (almost white), but their color begins darkening within the first two weeks. Humpback calves are about 12 feet (3.7 m) long at birth, weigh about 1.5 tons (1.4 mtons), and may feed on more than 100 gallons (379 liters) of their mother’s milk each day.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The humpback whales around the Hawaiian Islands are part of the North Pacific humpback population, which spends the summers near Alaskan waters feeding. Less than two-thirds of the North Pacific humpbacks migrate to the tropical seas around the Hawaiian Islands each winter to mate and give birth. The remainder migrate to other areas near Mexico, California, Japan, and the Marianas Islands near Taiwan. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Anatomy</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Humpbacks have two blowholes, called nares, on the top of their head. On the front of the humpback’s head (on the upper and lower jaws) are many sensory nodules, which are golf-ball sized bumps also referred to as tubercles. Each tubercle contains a hair called a vibrissa, which helps the whale sense vibration and temperature. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Twelve to 30 ventral pleats, or throat grooves, span two-thirds of the length of the humpback whale’s underside. These long, furrowed ventral pleats contain the extra skin that allows the whale’s huge mouth to expand open during feeding. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Baleen</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The humpback is a baleen whale. Instead of having jaws with teeth to grab prey, they filter their food from the water using the plates of baleen that hang from their upper jaw. The baleen is comprised of chitin, which is similar in hardness to human fingernails. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The humpback’s hair-like strips of baleen fuse together to form larger plates, about 335 of them, each about 6 inches (15 cm) wide and 2.5 feet (.8 m) long with about 35 bristles. The ends of the baleen strips are frayed, and intertwine to form a food-filtering system. Before plastic was invented, baleen was used for women’s corsets, hoop skirts, umbrellas, and a variety of other products that required strong, flexible material.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Feeding</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">North Pacific humpbacks feed in northern waters during the winter, feasting mostly on the tiny shrimp-like creatures known as krill, as well as small fish such as herring. The feeding humpback fills its mouth with more than 1,000 gallons (378,500 liters) of water, and then strains the water out through the baleen, which keeps the food inside. The whale then uses its 2-ton (1.8-mton) tongue to help swallow the food in gulps down its relatively small throat, which only opens to about 10 inches (25 cm) in diameter.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In their summer feeding waters off the coast of Alaska, humpback whales sometimes use a technique known as bubblenet feeding. While spiraling inward around a school of fish such as herring, the humpback whale releases air, which confuses the fish and then traps them within the curtain of bubbles. The whale then swims below the school, opens its huge mouth, and scoops up a nice meal by coming right up through the chaotic frenzy of fish. With fish jumping at the surface and birds diving down to get the fish, whales may sometimes accidentally swallow a bird or two.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Bubblenet feeding]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Breaching</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In the last two decades, whale-watching has become a worldwide recreational industry, and seeing a whale breach is the highlight of any whale-watching trip. During a typical breach, the humpback whale leaps upward (usually about 2/3 of the whale’s body comes out of the water), spins around 180 degrees in mid air, and then lands on its back with a huge splash. Breaching humpback whales are a common sight in Hawaiian waters during winter. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Breaching Whale]</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Researchers theorize that humpback whales may breach for a variety of reasons. Humpbacks have a special eye lens adapted to seeing in air, and may breach to look around above water. They may also breach to knock barnacles off their body, and male humpbacks may breach to impress females during the breeding season. Breaching may also be a form of communication. Often one whale will breach, and then another whale will suddenly breach some distance away, possibly in response to the sound of the first whale hitting the water.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Humpback calves are sometimes seen breaching over and over again, and this may simply be the baby imitating the behavior if its mother. Researchers also have not been able to rule out the possibility that breaching may be a form of play for the whales. In other words, whales may complete these amazing acrobatic pirouettes simply because it’s fun!</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Other Humpback Behaviors</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Aside from breaching, there are numerous other humpback behaviors commonly seen by whale watchers. These typical behaviors include:</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Pec Slap</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Slapping a pectoral fin down onto the surface.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Fluking</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Lifting the tail fluke up out of the water in preparation for diving down.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tail Slap</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Slapping just the tail fluke down onto the surface.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Peduncle Slap</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Lifting the whole back region of the body out of the water and then slapping it down onto the surface.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Head Slap—</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Slapping the lower jaw onto the water’s surface.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Spy Hop</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Rising up from the water head first, as if to look around.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Spouting</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Sending up sprays of mist (from the blowholes) while breathing at the water’s surface.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Round Out—</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called peduncle arch. Arching its back above the surface and then raising its tail fluke and diving below. This behavior led to the name “humpback.”</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Singing—</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Emitting patterned sounds (described below).</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Humpback Songs</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Humpbacks don’t have vocal cords, yet they sing beautiful, complex songs. Generally, only the males sing, and they only sing in the winter mating waters (such as the waters around the Hawaiian Islands). Male humpback singing is thought to be related to the courtship of females, and may be a sort of love song to win the favor of the females. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scientists analyzing humpback singing have found that the songs are composed of a series of repeated phrases and themes. One song may last about 20 minutes, and may be repeated over and over again, often for many hours in a row. Though humpbacks have no functional vocal cords, they nevertheless have a broad tonal range, producing the highest and lowest frequencies humans can hear, as well as tones beyond the range of human hearing.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">All of the humpback whales around the Hawaiian Islands are basically singing the same song, perhaps imitating the mating song of the most successful whale. Each week the song changes just a little bit, and all the humpbacks make this same change. In this manner, the group’s song changes gradually over time so that, by the end of the mating season, the song is very different than it was at the beginning of the season. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">When the whales return to their feeding waters in Alaska they stop singing until the next year when they come back to the Hawaiian Islands. When the whales return to the tropical waters of the Hawaiian Islands, they take up singing the same song just as it was when they left Hawaiian waters the year before. The humpback whale is the only animal known to have such an evolving song, and to have an actual rhythm in its complex songs.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Population</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Before commercial whaling there were approximately about 200,000 humpbacks in the world’s oceans. Commercial hunting of humpbacks throughout the 1900s decimated the species. From 1960 to 1965, more than 5,000 North Pacific humpbacks were killed. When the total ban on hunting humpbacks was enacted by the International Whaling Commission in 1966, there were likely fewer than 1,000 humpbacks left.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Today the population of North Pacific humpback whales is estimated at less than 9,000 (estimates range from 6,000 to more than 8,000), with about 3,700 to 5,000 of the whales migrating to the Hawaiian Islands each year to mate and give birth. This number has been growing about 7% per year for the last decade. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Added protection was given to the humpback species when a large area around the Hawaiian Islands was designated as the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary on November 4, 1992. Governor Benjamin Cayetano approved the Sanctuary in State of Hawai‘i waters on June 5, 1997.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Numerous humpback studies have been undertaken in recent years. A 2002 study of humpbacks utilized satellite transmitters on humpbacks off Brazil’s Atlantic coast, tracking the whales to the Antarctic more than 2,000 miles (3,219 km) away. The research’s conclusions about migration paths will be used as part of the case for establishing a whale sanctuary in the South Atlantic.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In 2003 at least 100 scientists from North America, Central America, Russia and other countries began developing a new study known as Structure of Populations, Levels of Abundance and Status of Humpbacks (SPLASH). The study’s goals include obtaining a more accurate humpback whale population estimate as well as a better analysis of humpback genetics and evolution using biopsy sampling. Also to be studied is humpback diet, mating, mortality, migratory routes, and regional populations. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Another 2003 study analyzing humpback whale DNA concluded that historical North Atlantic humpback whale populations were much larger than previously thought, as were populations of fin and minke whales. Conducted by Harvard’s Stephen R. Palumbi and Stanford’s Joe Roman and published in July, 2003 in the journal //Science//, the study estimated the pre-hunting humpback population at 240,000, up from a previous estimate of as little as 20,000. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The new DNA study also raised the estimate of the pre-hunting fin whale population to 360,000, up from previous estimates ranging from 30,000 to 50,000. The pre-hunting minke whale population estimate was raised to 265,000, up from about 100,000. Continuing research will attempt to explain the wide disparity between the new estimates and the previous estimates, with broad implications for when a species is considered endangered, which is based on considering the current population in comparison to historical populations.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Migration</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">After spending the summer months northern waters, the first humpback whales begin arriving near the Hawaiian Islands around November. These first whales are usually the whales that gave birth the previous year along with their yearling calves, which will be weaned during their winter stay in Hawaiian waters. Sometimes males and yearling calves arrive together. The last humpback whales to arrive in Hawaiian waters are the pregnant mothers who stay in northern waters as long as possible to be well fed for the rigors of giving birth and nursing, not to mention the long migration to the Hawaiian Islands. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The humpback population around the Hawaiian Islands peaks around January, and then in spring the whales begin to leave again. The last whales to leave Hawaiian waters are the mothers with their newborn calves, who typically leave around May to begin the journey north. A mother humpback may have lost up to 25% of her body weight from the time she leaves Alaskan waters to the time she returns.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In 1995, Oregon State University researcher Bruce Mate used satellite-monitored radio transmitters (shot into the whales from a crossbow) to monitor humpback whales, recording distances of up to 90 miles (145 km) per day traveled by tagged whales. Three tagged whales began their annual migration from Kaua‘i’s Nāpali coast, swimming separate but basically parallel routes toward the Gulf of Alaska. The direction of two of these whales, an adult and a sub-adult, was almost directly magnetic north, while the third tagged whale, which was accompanied by a calf, traveled in a direction just east of magnetic north.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Interisland travel was also tracked among several whales. One tagged whale swam near five islands in a ten day period, and also spent time at Penguin Bank, a coral-covered shoal west of Moloka‘i that is often frequented by humpbacks and various other cetaceans. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">To report a stranded or entangled whale, or a whale being harassed by humans, call the Marine Mammal Hotline at 888-256-9840.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Other Cetaceans Around the Hawaiian Islands</span>**
Of the 78 species of cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) worldwide, 22 species are known to inhabit Hawaiian waters, and thus may be considered native to the Hawaiian Islands. These native cetacean species include 17 Odontocetes (e.g., toothed species, such as dolphins), and five Mysticetes (e.g., baleen whales, such as the humpback).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">One whale with a prominent role in ancient Hawaiian culture was the palaoa </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Physeter macrocephalus,// sperm whale)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, which is a toothed species (//Odontocete//), unlike the humpback whale, which is a baleen whale (//Mysticete//). The teeth of the palaoa were used by ancient Hawaiians to make the prized lei niho palaoa (whale tooth pendant). </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(See //Lei Niho Palaoa// in //Lei Flowers// section, //Chapter 3.//) </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In August of 2001 a 10-foot (3-m) long, 1,200-pound (544-kg) babysperm whale (//Physeter macrocephalus//) beached itself on the island of Hawai‘i’s Kona shoreline. Though public volunteers and officials attempted to save the whale, placing it in a tank and feeding it, the whale died. </span>
Another whale historically seen in the Hawaiian Islands is the right whale <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Eubalaena glacialis//)</span>. In the 1800s, commercial whalers killed 97% of all right whales. Today there are about 200 right whales left in the North Pacific Ocean.
Other whales also seen around the Hawaiian Islands include short-finned pilot whales <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Globicephala macrorhynchus//)</span>; killer whales <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Ornicus orca//)</span>; false killer whales<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> (//Pseudorca crassidens//)</span>, pygmy killer whales <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Feresa attenuata//)</span>, melon-headed whales <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Peponocephala electra//); </span>pygmy sperm whales<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> (//Kogia breviceps//);</span> dwarf sperm whales <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Kogia simus//)</span>; minke whales <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Balaenoptera acutorostrata//)</span>; northern bottlenose whales <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Hyperoodon ampullatus//)</span> and two species of beaked whales: the Cuvier’s beaked whale <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Ziphius cavirostris//)</span> and the Blainville’s beaked whale <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Mesoplodon densirostris//)</span>.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The largest of all whales is the blue whale </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Balaenoptera musculus//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, not known to be native to the Hawaiian Islands, though blue whales do inhabit the Pacific Ocean and so they may sometimes come near the Hawaiian Islands. The largest blue whale on record measured 190 feet (58 m), which is bigger than the biggest known dinosaur. The largest humpback whale ever documented was 88 feet (26.8 m) long.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Breaching whale]</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//__<span style="font-size: 24pt;">Whales of the Hawaiian Islands</span>__//****//<span style="font-size: 16pt;">*</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"> </span></span>
**<span style="font-size: 18pt;"> __Female__ __Male__</span>**
**__<span style="font-size: 18pt;">Whale Species</span>__** **__<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Length/Weight</span>__****<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> (average) </span>****<span style="font-size: 13pt;"> __Length/Weight__</span>****<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> (average)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Humpback Whale</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 45 feet (14 m) / 35 tons (32 mtons) 43 feet (13 m) / 35 tons (32 mtons)</span>
(//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Megaptera novaeangliae</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">) </span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Fin Whale </span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 75 feet (23 m) / 76 tons (69 mtons) 65 feet (20 m) / 68 tons (62 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Balaenoptera physalus//) </span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Bryde’s Whale</span>** <span style="font-size: 11pt;">45 feet (14 m) / 20 tons (18 mtons) 40 feet (12 m) / 20 tons (18 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Balaenoptera edeni//) </span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Sperm Whale</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 40 feet (12 m) / 18 tons (16 mtons) 55 feet (17 m) / 40 tons (36 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Physeter macrocephalus//) </span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Right Whale</span>** <span style="font-size: 11pt;">50 feet (15 m) / 70 tons (64 tons) 50 feet (5 m) / 70 tons (64 mtons) </span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Eubalaena glacialis//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Pilot Whale</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 12 feet (4 m) / 1.5 tons (1.4 mtons) 16 feet (5 m) / 2.5 tons (2.3 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Globicephala macrorhynchus//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Killer Whale</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 23 feet (7 m) / 4 tons (3.6 mtons) 28 feet (8.5 m) / (8 tons (7.3 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Ornicus orca//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">False Killer Whales</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 13 feet (4 m) / 1 ton (.9 mton) 16 feet (4.9 m) / 500 pounds (227 kg)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Pseudorca crassiden//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Pygmy Killer Whales</span>** <span style="font-size: 11pt;">7 feet (2.1 m) / 330 pounds (150 kg) 7.5 feet (2.3 m) / 375 pounds (170 kg)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Feresa attenuata)// </span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Melon-Headed Whales</span>** <span style="font-size: 11pt;">7.5 feet (2.3 m) / 350 pounds (159 kg) 7.5 feet (2.3 m) / 350 pounds (159 kg)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Peponocephala electra//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Pygmy Sperm Whales</span>** <span style="font-size: 11pt;">10 feet (3 m) / 800 pounds (363 (kg) 10 feet (3 m) / 800 pounds (363 (kg)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Kogia breviceps//) </span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Dwarf Sperm Whales</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 8 feet (2.4 m) / 375 pounds (170 kg) 8 feet (2.4 m) / 375 pounds (170 kg)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Kogia simus//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Minke Whales</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 30 feet (9 m) / 8.5 tons (7.7 mtons) 26 feet (8 m) / 8.5 tons (7.7 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Balaenoptera acutorostrata//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Bottlenose Whale</span>** <span style="font-size: 11pt;">24 feet (7.3 m) / 3 tons (2.7 mtons) 28 feet (8.6 m) / 4 tons (3.6 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Hyperoodon ampullatus//) </span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Cuvier’s Beaked Whale</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 21 feet (6.4 m) / 4 tons (3.6 mtons) 20 feet (6 m) / 4 tons (3.6 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Ziphius cavirostris//)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Blainville’s Beaked Whale</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">15 feet (4.6 m) / 2 tons (1.8 mtons) 15 feet (4.6 m) / 2 tons (1.8 mtons)</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Mesoplodon densirostris//)</span>
**//<span style="font-size: 16pt;">* </span>//**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">All of these species are considered native to the Hawaiian Islands because they have been seen in waters near the Hawaiian Islands. However, some of these species are migratory, and seen only seasonally, while others are seen only occasionally or rarely in Hawaiian waters.</span>
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<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;">Facts About Humpback Whales</span>//**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Anatomy</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Humpback Life Cycle</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Physiology</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Humpback Feeding / Baleen</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Humpback Gestation and Birthing</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Humpback Population Estimates </span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Odontocetes</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Toothed Whales</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Mysticetes</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Baleen Whales</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Cetacean Sound Transmission</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Humpback Songs</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">The Ocean </span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Water and Air</span>**
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;">Facts About Humpback Whales</span>//**</span>
**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Anatomy</span>__**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average length of adult female: 45 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average length of adult male: 43 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Largest recorded humpback: 88 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical width of tail fluke: 10 to 15 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical weight of mature adult: 40 tons.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of total body weight comprised by the skeletal system (adult): 15%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of body weight comprised by the skeletal system of a typical terrestrial mammal: 50%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Number of vertebrate: 53 (7 cervical, 14 thoracic, 10 lumbar, 22 caudal).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical number of tubercles on each side of lower jaw: 10 to 15.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical length of sensory hairs (vibrissa): 1 inch.</span>
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Humpback Life Cycle
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average size of calf at birth: 10 to 16 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average weight of calf at birth: 2 tons.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Age of puberty: 2 to 4 years.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Age of sexual/reproductive maturity: 3 to 6 years.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Age of physical maturity: 10 to 12 years.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Natural life span: 30 to 60 years.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Oldest recorded humpback: At least 50 years.</span>
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Physiology
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Adult resting metabolic rate: 340,000 kilocalories per day.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Kilocalories devoted to breathing per day: 68,0000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of energy expended by humpbacks for breathing: 20%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of air in lungs exchanged during typical breath for humpbacks: 90%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of air in lungs exchanged during typical breath for humans: 15%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical time underwater before surfacing to breathe: 10 to 15 minutes.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of their life that humpbacks spend at surface: 70%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Swimming speed of humpback: 3 to 20 miles per hour.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Humpback body temperature: 97 to 99 degrees Fahrenheit.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Ratio of marine mammal’s heat dissipation to land animal’s heat dissipation: 24 to 1.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Number of lobes in humpback’s kidney: Up to 3,000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical number of lobes in a cow’s kidney: 25.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Function of humpback kidney lobes: Remove salt from water.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Weight of acorn barnacles typically found on one humpback in Alaskan waters: 1,000 pounds.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Speed of air emitting from humpback blowholes during exhalation: Up to 300 m.p.h.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Length of wax ear plugs in auditory canal of adult humpback: Nearly 3 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Use of wax ear plugs by researchers: Annual light and dark layers provide age estimates.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average rate of humpback heartbeat: 10 to 30 beats per minute.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Breathing rate: Typically 1 to 2 times per minute at rest; 4 to 8 times per minute after a deep dive.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical swimming speed: 3 to 9 miles per hour.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Dive depth: May exceed 700 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Most common pod size: 2 to 3 whales.</span>
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Humpback Feeding / Baleen
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Length of expansion of humpback mouth during feeding: 15 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Length of intestines: 200 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Number of vestigial teeth in fetal humpback: 56 upper, 84 lower (all eventually reabsorbed into gums).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Length of baleen plates prior to birth: 1 to 2 inches.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Number of baleen plates in mouth: 270 to 400 (average 335).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Maximum length of baleen: 2.5 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average width of baleen plates: 6 inches.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Number of bristles per baleen plate: 35 or less.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Color of baleen: Dark gray to black; lighter and more yellowish near end-bristles.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Gallons of water taken into mouth during feeding: 500 to 1,000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical number of ventral pleats (throat grooves, chin to navel): 12 to 36.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical food quantity in one mouthful: 40 to 50 pounds.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical bubblenet diameter: 30 to 40 feet.</span>
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Humpback Gestation and Birthing
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Gestation Period: 10 to 12 months.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of fat in mother’s milk: 40 to 50%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical fat content of milk of domestic animals: 2 to 17%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of humpback milk that is water: 40 to 50%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical percentage of water in milk for domestic animals: 80 to 90%.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Gallons of milk produced by nursing humpback mother per day: 100 to 130.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Lactation Duration of Mother: 8 to 12 months.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical length of newborn humpback: 12 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical weight of newborn humpback: 2 tons.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical increase in length in first year: 12 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Preferred temperature of breeding waters: 75 Fahrenheit, 25 Celsius.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Preferred depth of bays for breeding: 600 feet or less.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average weight loss of mother during pregnancy and birth: 25% / 6 to 8 tons.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Length of migration (round-trip): About 7,000 miles.</span>
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Humpback Population Estimates
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">1905 North Pacific humpback population estimate: 15,000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Year intensive commercial harvesting of humpbacks began: 1910.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">1930 North Pacific humpback population estimate: 6,000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">1960 North Pacific humpback population estimate: Less than 1,000 whales.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">North Pacific humpbacks killed from 1960 to 1965: 5,000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">1966 North Pacific humpback population estimate: 1,000-2,000</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Year that International Whaling Commission banned killing of North Pacific humpbacks: 1966.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">1985 population of humpbacks in Glacier Bay: 10; 1992: 27; 1994: 17.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">1986 North Pacific humpback population estimate: 1,500 (800 to 2,000).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Worldwide humpback population estimate before intensive whaling: 200,000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">2006 North Pacific humpback population estimate: More than 10,000 (population is growing 6-8% per year).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">2006 population of humpbacks wintering in Hawaiian waters: Estimates range from 3,000 to 5,000. </span>
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Odontocetes—Toothed Whales
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Species of toothed whales: At least 70.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Species of toothed whales seen around Hawai‘i: 19.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average length of largest Odontocete: 55 feet (sperm whale).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Number of teeth in Odontocetes: From 1 to 260.</span>
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Mysticetes—Baleen Whales
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Species of baleen whales: At least 72.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Species of baleen whales seen around Hawai‘i: 5.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Length of largest baleen whale, the blue whale: 110 feet.</span>
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Cetacean Sound Transmission
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical duration of echolocation click: 50 to 128 microseconds.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Bottlenose dolphin range: .25 to 150 kHz.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Low frequency (social communication): .75 to 50 kHz.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">High frequency (echolocation): 40 to 150 kHz.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Human hearing range: 16 to 20 kHz.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical baleen whale sound frequencies: Less than 5 kHz.</span></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Baleen whale frequency range: Up to 200 kHz.</span>
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Humpback Songs
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical length of humpback song: 6 to 30 minutes.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Length of song session: May exceed 24 hours.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical number of themes in one song: 7.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Typical humpback song volume: 170 decibels.</span>
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The Ocean
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Summer: Typical surface temperature of Alaskan waters: 42 degrees Fahrenheit.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Winter: Typical surface temperature of Hawaiian waters: 72 degrees Fahrenheit (25 degrees Celsius).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Air Pressure at sea level: 14.7 pounds per square inch (equal to one atmosphere).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Weight of one-inch square column of air from sea level to 100,000 feet: 1 atmosphere.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Increase in air pressure for every 33 feet of depth in water: 1 atmosphere.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Average depth of Pacific Ocean: 12,000 feet.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Cubic miles of water in Earth’s oceans: 300 million.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of Earth’s surface covered by oceans: 70.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of Earth’s water in oceans: 97.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Percent of volcanic activity on Earth that occurs underwater: 80.</span>
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Water and Air
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Ratio of weight of water to weight of air: 800:1.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Ratio of water density to air density: 900:1.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Speed of heat conductivity in water vs. air: 30:1.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Speed of sound in water: ~.9 miles/second (1.5 km./sec.).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Ratio of speed of sound in water vs. speed of sound in air: 4.5:1.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Ratio of heat dissipation</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">—</span><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">marine animals:land animals: 24:1.</span>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 20pt;">Humpback Whale Journey</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 20pt;">A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"> </span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">Table of Contents</span>**</span></span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Preface</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Introduction</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Gentle Giants</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Appendices</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Sources</span>**
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">(Expanded) </span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">Table of Contents</span>**</span></span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Preface</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Introduction</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Chapter 1</span>—****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Glacier Bay</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Chapter 2</span>—****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Ocean Voyage</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 3</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tlingit Arrives At The Islands</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 4</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Koholā is Born</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 5</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">A Meeting with Spinner Dolphins</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 6</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Songs of the Humpback Whale</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 7</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">More Dolphin Encounters</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 8</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Leaving Hawaiian Waters</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 9</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Back in Northern Waters</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 10</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">One Year Later</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Continuing On</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Gentle Giants</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Appendices</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Appendix 1: The Evolution of Whales and a Brief History of the Life on Earth</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Appendix 2: Guide to the Taxonomy of the Humpback Whale</span>**
Appendix 3: Adaptive Radiation and the Evolution of Cetaceans
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Appendix 4: A Brief History of Whaling</span>**
Appendix 5: Timeline of Hawai‘i’s Whaling Era List of Sources for Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> **Preface**</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit and Koholā, the principal characters in the story that follows, are fictional. They are used to describe a typical year in the life of humpback whales. The scientific information presented in the book is factual, providing an accurate portrayal of the whales and their environment.</span>
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Introduction
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Every winter about 5,000 humpback whales migrate to Hawaiian waters to mate and give birth. They come from Alaskan waters and the Bering Sea far to the north where they feed on a variety of small fish and the tiny shrimp-like creatures known as krill. The humpback migration may be more than 5,000 miles in length, making it the longest migration by any mammal.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpbacks begin arriving in Hawaiian waters in late October. The first to arrive are the juveniles, followed by adult males and females, and then pregnant females who give birth in Hawaiian waters and may mate again. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Around April or May the whales head north again for the summer months. The last whales to leave Hawaiian waters are new mothers and young calves, and their journey back to Alaskan waters completes the migratory procession of another mating and birthing cycle. </span>
All whales, dolphins, and porpoises are members of the scientific order Cetacea. Cetaceans are carnivorous, aquatic, air-breathing mammals found in all of the world’s oceans. The word “cetacea” comes from the Latin “cetus,” which means whale.
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The two main evolutionary lines of cetaceans are the baleen whales, including humpbacks, and the toothed whales, including dolphins and porpoises.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Humpback whales are scientifically classified as a Megaptera novaeangliae, their genus and species names. Megaptera means “Big-winged,” in reference to the humpbacks’ exceptionally long front fins, called pectoral fins, which are the largest pectoral fins of any whale species. Novaeangliae refers to New England, where early whalers first pursued humpbacks. </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Kingdom: //Animalia//</span>__**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Includes all animals.</span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Phylum: //Chordata//</span>__**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Chordates have a precursor to a backbone.</span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Subphylum: //Vertebrata//</span>__**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Vertebrates are animals with a backbone.</span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Class: //Mammalia//</span>__**[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn1|**__**__[1]__**__**]]</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Mammals are warm-blooded vertebrates that nurse their young.</span>**</span>
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Order: Cetacea
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<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Cetaceans are aquatic, air-breathing mammals, including all porpoises, dolphins, and whales.</span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Suborder: //Mysticeti//</span>__**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">The baleen whales are characterized by two blowhole openings, a symmetrically shaped skull, </span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">vestigial leg bones, and the use of baleen for feeding. </span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Family: //Balaenopteridae//</span>__**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Balaenopteridae have a streamlined body, dorsal fin, and ventral pleats. Feed by engulfing and filtering.</span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Genus: //Megaptera//</span>__**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">From the Greek //“megas”// meaning great, and //“pteron”// meaning wing, referring to the long pectoral fins.</span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Species: //Novaeangliae//</span>__**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Refers to New England waters where humpbacks were once abundant.</span>**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;">A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales</span>//**</span>
Chapter 1
Glacier Bay A rumbling sound sweeps across the landscape like distant thunder, echoing off the steep mountains and over the Glacier Bay waters. The loud sound emanates from the end of the bay where the face of a glacier calves a giant iceberg into the water. From deep in the sea, a 50-foot-long humpback whale rises up from the depths, arcing her dorsal fin above the surface and exhaling a column of mist into the chilled northern air. The whale scans the water for food as another chunk of the massive glacier breaks off and tumbles into the sea, creating more sounds that resonate through the water and over the surrounding hills. These are the ancestral lands of the Tlingit Indians, who called these sounds “white thunder.” The whale releases a powerful blast of air, breathes in, and then dives below. The vapor of her breath hovers above the mirrored surface of the water in a fine mist that slowly dissipates, eventually leaving the northern air again perfectly still. The entire Glacier Bay region is ringed by the sea and the steep peaks of the St. Elias and Alsek Mountain Ranges.//**[ii]**//
Glacier Bay Two hundred years ago, Glacier Bay was beneath 4,000 feet of ice. The glaciers were retreating, however, and by 1794 they had receded retreated five miles up the bay, 48 miles up the bay by 1879, and 65 miles today. The mountain ranges surrounding Glacier Bay include the 18,000-foot peaks of the Alsek Range and St. Elias Mountains to the north, and the Beartrack Mountains to the south. To the east are the Takhinsha Mountains and the Chilkat range, and to the west the Fairweather Mountains, including 15,300 foot tall Mount Fairweather. The Glacier Bay region is accessible to humans by plane or boat. [Map: Glacier Bay region mountains]
During each long winter, new layers of snow settle over the mountains. This snow never fully melts during the region’s short, cool summers, and year upon year the layers of precipitation accumulate. This has gone on for millennia in these northern ranges, and the layers of snow are now packed and frozen into dense and seemingly permanent glaciers that are actually rivers of ice slowly but surely moving down the deep valley slopes. Where the exposed faces of ice meet the sea, huge icebergs periodically break off and fall into the ocean, producing an accompanying roar of sound, the white thunder of Tlingit myth.//**[iii]**// The sounds of these calving icebergs are also recognized by the region’s humpback whales, including the whale we will call Tlingit, who breaches again and lets out a raucous blow as her body slams down onto the surface. As if in response to these loud demonstrations, another whale breaches nearby. Tlingit continues to signal her own presence by slapping her tail fluke on the water’s surface. The vast icefields of this northern region formed long before the first humans arrived. Today these ancient glaciers glisten in the sun, reflecting shades of intense blue. This is a place of elemental beauty. Large bergs drift through the crystal bay waters like castles of ice, frozen pieces of ancient time. Searching for food, Tlingit swims to a depth of about 500 feet and then slowly rises toward the surface light. She has patrolled these waters off the coast of Alaska for the last six months, feasting on the summer bounty of marine life including the herring, krill, copepods, and plankton that fill the northern waters during summer and provide plenteous food for the whales.
Tidewater Glaciers Thirteen of Glacier Bay’s 16 tidewater glaciers are actively calving bergs into the ocean. Such tidewater glaciers are found only in Alaska, Scandinavia and Chile. The Glacier Bay region also contains over 100 alpine and valley glaciers. These are just some of Alaska’s 10,000 glaciers still holding on from the most recent ice age, which began 2.5 million years ago.
Tlingit spent most of the summer months north of Glacier Bay before she swam across the Gulf of Alaska and then down along the southeastern coast to Glacier Bay.
Glaciers Glacier Bay is rare in that one may see there both advancing and retreating glaciers. Six are advancing and three are retreating, while the rest are mostly stable. Advancing tidewater glaciers move over the land, erasing all life in their path before eventually calving into the ocean. A retreating glacier moves back up the mountains revealing the land underneath. Glaciers often advance slowly over many years, but then sometimes they move suddenly and rapidly, scraping away the land and leveling whole forests. Advancing glaciers may surge downward up to 300 feet in a single day. This may be caused by earthquakes, melting patterns, or simply by the dynamics of the glacier’s formation on the mountainside. When a large piece of a glacier falls into the ocean, a local tsunami may be generated. One of these localized tsunamis in Alaska sent water 1,700 feet up an adjacent hillside. As glaciers retreat along Glacier Bay’s shores, the temperate rainforest slowly returns through a natural process of succession. First come the lichens, then moss and algae, then dryas and fireweed, until eventually the trees take over - predominantly willows, alder and spruce — until finally the glacier-torn lands are again reclaimed by the forest.
Navigating by instinct, Tlingit swam up the length of Glacier Bay until she reached the landlocked end of the bay, about 65 miles up from the mouth. Here at the terminus of the bay near the calving glaciers Tlingit makes one last search for feeding opportunities. The isolated inlet is surrounded by mountain ranges rising up steeply from the azure waters of Glacier Bay. Temperate rainforest cover the lower slopes surrounding the bay, and encircling these sprawling woodlands are higher peaks all capped with snow. Swimming unhurriedly through the bay waters, Tlingit rises to the surface and then turns on her side, lifting one of her pectoral fins into the air. The elongated fins possess a well-developed tactile (touch) sense, and are almost one-third of the length of her 50-foot-long body. Tlingit pauses now at the surface and takes several breaths, each explosive exhalation producing a tall, white spout of mist. After sending up one last spray of air and water, Tlingit fills her lungs as full as possible and dives again into the dim ocean light. Nearly twenty minutes later she reemerges, her back barely rising above the water as the air of her massive lungs is again propelled out through her blowholes, emitting a low, sonorous tone. Tlingit then draws in another giant breath and slips beneath the water.
...
[Diagram: Humpback blowholes] Humpbacks have two blowholes, or nares, as do all baleen whales. Baleen whales are classified as mysticetes. Toothed whale species are classified as odontocetes, and have only one blowhole. All dolphins and porpoises are odontocetes. The humpbacks’ blowholes are well-positioned so the whale barely needs to arch its back above the surface to breathe, and can easily breathe while continuing to swim forward. Humpbacks open and close their nares voluntarily, and they are able to control their blowholes as dexterously as humans are able to move their lips.
...
Far in the distance, a triangular dorsal fin ten feet tall slices the surface of the bay and then disappears with barely a riffle. To Tlingit, it is just a distant speck on the horizon, but she is instantly aware of what she sees—only one animal has such a tall dorsal fin: the orca, or killer whale, a predator of the humpback. Tlingit also has a dorsal fin, but the humpback’s dorsal fin is only about one foot tall, much smaller than the orca’s.
Tlingit is attuned to the high-pitched acoustic signals that confirm the orca’s presence. Conscious of the prospect of danger, Tlingit steers clear of the potential predator. She could probably out-swim or out-dive the orca if necessary, although Tlingit’s great size makes her generally less mobile than the orca. In a direct confrontation, Tlingit could ram the orca with her huge head, or rostrum, but more likely, she would use her muscular tail region, called the caudal peduncle, to ward off the killer whale with powerful slapping blows. The humpback’s caudal peduncle is the most powerful muscle in all the animal kingdom, and it is Tlingit’s best protection and ultimate defense, particularly since humpback whales have no teeth. Today there will be no violent encounter between the two whales because the orca knows better than to challenge a healthy, adult humpback. Tlingit also avoids a direct confrontation by staying her course, and increasing the distance between herself and this
These are the misty days of fall when fog creeps up the hillsides and the land is barely visible. Clouds of sea mist drape the inlets, forming and dissolving above the Glacier Bay water. Suddenly a rumbling noise sounds throughout the bay, and it is unlike the deep thunderous booming of a calving glacier. When Tlingit surfaces she sees a large ship approaching, and the people on the ship see the humpback whales. Tlingit’s huge spout of misty air causes shouts to come from the people on the boat’s upper deck. Tlingit sends her whole body up into the air with two strong strokes of her tail, and she spins half way around in midair before crashing loudly back onto the water. This creates a huge splash to the delight of the onlookers dazzled by the magical moment, a close encounter with a breaching humpback whale. Some of the whale-watchers are briefly frightened as the 45-ton humpback then swims directly toward them on a collision course with the boat. Not a moment too soon the giant creature slides beneath the surface and disappears. In the medium of water, Tlingit’s enormous body moves with a lightness and apparent ease that makes her seem almost weightless.
...
Humpback Behaviors—Why Whales Breach Humpback whales engage in many different behaviors that are categorized and analyzed by researchers. They roll, lunge, breach, mill around, and often slap the surface with their pectoral fins or tail flukes. Humpbacks also “spy hop,” poking their heads straight up out of the water, and male humpbacks sing long, complex songs, often with their head down and their tail near the surface. Perhaps the most notable humpback behavior is breaching—no other whale species breaches more often than humpbacks. Breaching may be done by whales to gain a view of their surroundings above the surface, to loosen attached barnacles or parasites, or to send acoustic signals through the water to other whales in the area. Breaching may also be used by the whales to intimidate or deter a predator, or to demonstrate fitness to other humpbacks during the mating season, and thus attract mates. Young whales are often seen breaching over and over again as they practice their skills in imitation of adults. Also, we cannot discount the possibility that humpbacks breach simply because they enjoy doing it—in other words, because it is fun! Numerous hypotheses are put forward about why particular humpback behaviors occur. Voluminous amounts of data are gathered and studied, yet in the end the conclusions are often partial and uncertain, leaving much to be determined.
Humpback Whale Behaviors
ØBlow—Emitting air from the nares (blowholes) and sending up a spout of misty air and water.
ØBreach—Leaping from the water, the whale usually spins around 180 degrees and then lands on its back.
ØFluke Up Dive—Lifting the tail fluke up out of the water in an upward arch and then rolling the tail underwater while diving down. Also called Fluking.
ØHead Lunge—Lunging forward with the head out of the water; may be done during competitive situations. Also called Head Rise.
ØHead Slap—Slapping the lower jaw onto the water’s surface.
ØPec Slap—Slapping one or both pectoral fins down onto the surface, possibly as a means of communication.
ØPeduncle Slap—Lifting up the back half of the body (the peduncle) and slapping it down onto the surface.
ØRound Out, or Peduncle Arch—Arching the back above the surface and then raising the tail fluke and diving below. This behavior led to the name “humpback.”
ØSpy Hop—Rising the head straight up out of the water, as if to look around.
ØSpouting—Sending up sprays of mist (from the blowholes) while breathing at the water’s surface.
ØSinging—Emitting patterned sounds.
ØTail Slap—Slapping just the tail fluke down onto the surface; may be done repeatedly as a warning.
...
Tlingit’s speed averages about five miles per hour as she maintains a leisurely pace through the bay waters, zigzagging along and coming up for air about every eight minutes. She comes across some schools of herring in Glacier Bay, but they are only sparsely concentrated and hardly worth the effort required to capture them. These are Tlingit’s last days in northern seas. Loons call out in the coves as crows and ravens let loose with their own distinctive sounds. Eagles soar high overhead, and onshore are remnants of the vast northern forests, the ancient home of the native people who plied these waters in dugout canoes fashioned from the region’s giant trees. The woodlands stretch on uninterrupted for miles, supporting a cornucopia of wildlife. Many trees in these undisturbed, old growth forests have reached the end of their lives and now lay across the forest floor like fallen giants, slowly decomposing back into the soil to nourish new life. Dense conifer forests filter the rainwater that fills myriad streams that all eventually find their way to the ocean. Salmonberry lines the shoreline along with the golden fall cottonwoods. During the northern summer the waters of the Inside Passage are teeming with salmon, shrimp, herring, crab, steelhead, grayling, sea urchins, rainbow and cutthroat trout, and many other species. Summer is over now, and the abundance of life has diminished. Tlingit uses more energy than she gains as she searches the water for edible life. On this late November day Tlingit senses a change—perhaps it is the shift in the water or wind currents, or the end of the great plankton blooms. Tlingit interprets these changes as a directive to leave these waters. It may be the migrating movements of other species, the air and sea growing cooler, or more subtle clues that cause Tlingit to begin her annual journey south. This is the end of summer, and time for the beginning of Tlingit’s long migration to tropical seas. Tlingit has spent every summer of her 28 years of life feeding in the northern waters of the Pacific Ocean. Tlingit will now once again journey southward to the shallow contour of warm water surrounding an archipelago (island group) in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. The archipelago is called the Hawaiian Islands, and is thousands of miles from the nearest continent. Instincts encoded into Tlingit’s genes over the millions of years of her ancestors’ evolution now once again urge her to begin her migratory path from Alaskan to Hawaiian waters. Every winter of her life she has basked in Hawai‘i’s tropical seas, often mating there and giving birth. In the last seven years Tlingit has given birth to four calves. Now pregnant once again, Tlingit will be among the last of the whales to leave the northern Pacific and swim to Hawaiian waters where once again she will give birth and then nurse her offspring. Tlingit can feel the young one inside of her now, and its subtle and sometimes sudden movements are quite familiar.
...
Humpback Population and Migration The North Pacific humpback whale population totals more than 8,000 whales, and is increasing by up to 7% each year. About two-thirds of these humpback whales migrate to the Hawaiian Islands each winter. The warm and relatively shallow bays around Hawai‘i are an ideal place for humpback whales to give birth to their young.
Humpback Birthing Areas Other birthing areas of North Pacific humpbacks include waters off Taiwan, southeast of Japan, off the coast of Baja, California, near the Socorro and Revillagigedo Islands off Mexico, in Central American waters, and near Ryukyu, Bonin, and the Mariana Islands.
The pathways followed by humpbacks on their annual migrations are only generally known. For decades the whales defied attempts to track them with tags and satellites, and information about the species was gained primarily from photographs of humpback tail flukes collected in various locations and catalogued by researchers. Scientists continue to compare and cross-check fluke photographs taken throughout Hawaiian and Alaskan waters and other areas where mating and feeding occur. Improved satellite tracking methods provide valuable data about humpback migrations, as do new techniques of genetic analysis and acoustic monitoring.
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Southern Hemisphere Humpbacks</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> In the southern hemisphere, humpback whales respond to the extending ice edge that comes with the Antarctic autumn. The winter freezing of the Southern Ocean is the biggest seasonal climate change on the planet. By late February a thin skin of ice begins to form, and soon thereafter the southern end of the Earth becomes a frozen continent. </span>
By May the size of Antarctica is doubled, with some 20 million square miles covered thick with ice. Thousands of humpbacks spend the summer in Antarctic waters, but during winter they are far away, having migrated north to the tropical waters of the Great Barrier Reef. In both hemispheres, humpbacks prefer relatively calm, shallow breeding and birthing waters, such as Hawai‘i’s protected bays that are less than 600 feet deep and are around 75 degrees Fahrenheit.
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Humpback whales have migrated between polar and tropical seas for millions of years, and Tlingit knows instinctively how to repeat this journey she has made every year of her life. She feels now the urgency of these last days of feeding and pursues every available food source, yet she finds little to eat so late in the season. Raising her tail fluke above the water, Tlingit slams it down repeatedly, each time sending up a raucous splash. Finally, as if to say goodbye, she dips her giant head below and with one powerful thrust of her tail fluke propels her great mass down into the sea. Tlingit suddenly feels something biting into her outer flesh. It is just a cookie-cutter shark (Isitius brasiliensis), and so small it is hardly an irritation to the giant whale. With its suction-cup lips, the shark grabs hold of Tlingit’s side and then sinks its teeth into her skin and blubber and waits. As Tlingit swims she creates a water current that flows over the cookie-cutter shark, turning the fish’s body and driving its teeth deeper into Tlingit’s skin. Eventually the tiny shark extracts a two-inch circle of flesh from the whale, creating a small, scoop-like incision that the massive humpback barely feels. Tlingit bears many tiny scars from these little sharks as well as from her encounters with other marine creatures. Now surfacing, Tlingit shoots up a spray of mist at full power. The air is powered by her huge lungs, and comes out of her blowholes at more than 200 miles per hour.
...
Humpback Whale Breathing With each exhalation a humpback whale expels 90% of the air in its lungs. In comparison, a human only expels about 25% of his/her lung capacity. A complete humpback exhalation takes about ½-second, and an inhalation takes about one second. Breathing requires significantly more energy in cetaceans than in land mammals, in part because water is about 900 times denser than air. Density is a measure of the mass of a substance in a given volume (e.g., pounds per square inch). Whales are conscious breathers, choosing when to breathe and doing it with intention, unlike humans, who breathe reflexively in response to the level of carbon dioxide in the blood.
As Tlingit sets off across the vast sea to Hawai‘i, she is fortunate enough to come across one last school of herring. The fish are alerted by the movements of Tlingit’s giant form approaching, and within seconds they assemble into a single synchronous group moving as if they were one organism. The fish dodge and dart through the water in an attempt to escape the massive predator. Tlingit swims below the school of herring and then circles around in a wide arc as she releases a thick stream of tiny air bubbles. Then she spirals inward and upward, carefully controlling her release of air as the miniscule bubbles rise to the surface. The spiral of air released by Tlingit forms a giant bubble net about 40 feet in diameter, encircling the fish and reining them in. As the large school of herring is pushed closer together by the narrowing curtain of air bubbles, the fish quickly become confused. They are disoriented by the seemingly impenetrable barrier, and the ocean’s surface boils with all the trapped herring that are now crowded into a dense knot. The summer sun is hot and bright, and shines brilliantly off the flanks of the leaping fish. Above this whole scene, opportunistic seabirds are drawn to the chaos of sound and movement, and they swoop down to catch the fish in midair. Tlingit didn’t herd these fish together to provide a feast for the seabirds, however. The fish are her prey also, and she is causing them to congregate for a very specific reason—she is hungry. Tlingit dives straight down beneath the roiling mass of herring and then quickly turns upward and gives her flukes two strong strokes that send her body racing up toward the surface. Then she opens her jaws as wide as they will go and plows directly up through the school of frenzied fish. Tons of water are instantly taken into Tlingit’s enormous cetacean mouth along with thousands of herring. The mesh-like trap of Tlingit’s baleen keeps the fish in as rivers of water stream out the sides of her mouth and flood back into the sea. Tlingit’s head rises up and her jaws clap shut as her 45-ton body lunges forward and slaps down onto the water.
Tlingit has no teeth, only baleen hanging from her upper jaw. The brush-like plates of baleen are comprised of a rigid, fingernail-like material woven together into a strainer that filters the tiny fish and crustaceans from the sea.Tlingit’s tongue weighs nearly two tons, and she uses it to push the water through the fine-fringed baleen and out of her mouth. As the contents of Tlingit’s mouth are strained through the bristly baleen, her tongue is already pulling the food back toward her throat, which only opens to about ten inches in diameter. In great gulps Tlingit consumes thousands of the tiny prey as well as one unlucky bird that had swooped down to grab a leaping fish just as Tlingit came up through the school. The bird was caught up in the maelstrom and now resides in Tlingit’s stomach. This latest meal brings Tlingit’s consumption for the day to nearly three thousand pounds of food. She’ll need this nourishment for her journey south since there will be little or no food in Hawaiian waters. These last additions to Tlingit’s fat layer are very important as she begins her journey because only her thick layer of blubber will provide sustenance during her migration to and from Hawaiian waters. The seas around the Hawaiian Islands are relatively safe and protected, but lack any significant food supplies for humpbacks. The whales return to Alaskan waters in late spring after the northern ice retreats, when the immense schools of herring and blooms of tiny krill again flourish in the nutrient-rich northern waters. This explosion of life forms during the summer will provide plenteous food for the whales and ensure the survival of the North Pacific humpback population. Tlingit continues to move further away from land. Her ocean crossing has begun in earnest now, and she will not stop anywhere or diverge from her migratory path until she reaches tropical southern seas. Tlingit will swim virtually non-stop across the open waters of the Pacific Ocean until she reaches Hawaiian seas where she will once again give birth. Tlingit will encounter many other marine species during her open ocean journey. With each degree of latitude nearer to the equator, the water surface temperature will become warmer and the species she encounters will be different.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 2</span>**
**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Ocean Voyage</span>//**
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">During her southern migration and for the length of her stay in tropical seas, Tlingit’s fat layer will provide her not only with food but also with the water she needs to survive. This substantial fat layer will be Tlingit’s sole source of life, and also a storehouse of energy that will feed not just one whale but two.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The baby now in Tlingit’s womb already weighs about one ton. The whale was conceived eight months earlier in Hawaiian waters, just about one month after Tlingit gave birth from the previous year’s conception. That calf made it through the dangers of its infant year, and is now weaned and surviving independently.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit’s shape has changed considerably since she became pregnant. Her body is normally __fusiform__ (torpedo-shaped), but now has become much wider in the middle, more bulbous and round. The tiny whale now in Tlingit’s womb grows each day to look more like the whale it will soon become. When Tlingit reaches Hawaiian waters her calf will be born and her body will return to its normal shape.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Since humpbacks have baleen instead of teeth, it may seem strange that the lower and upper jaw of the fetal whale in Tlingit’s womb holds rows of tiny teeth barely emerging from the gums. These teeth are a remnant of the humpbacks’ ancestral past, and will be reabsorbed into the gums before the whale is born. An explanation for these teeth is found in the fossil record, which reveals that baleen whales evolved from toothed whales tens of millions of years ago.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">At a certain stage of the development of a humpback whale, the DNA seems to suddenly activate the whale’s knowledge that it is a baleen species and not a toothed species, and the tiny teeth begin to reabsorb into the gums and baleen begins to form. All of this happens before the whale is born.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Humpback Evolution</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The medium of water has been the prominent factor in the evolution of humpback whales. In the early days of the whales’ evolution, from about 60 million years ago to 40 million years ago, gradual changes from generation to generation allowed the whales’ land mammal ancestors to become increasingly aquatic. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Over millions of years, the whale ancestor’s body began to elongate and became streamlined. The forearms began to develop into pectoral fins, the back legs slowly disappeared, and the tail grew into a massive fluke. The fossil record supports the conclusion that these changes occurred as predicted by the theory of evolution, which is based on the concept of natural selection, and is concerned with a species’ traits, the specific and sometimes unique physical and behavioral characteristics of individual members of the species. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Natural selection describes the process by which species change over time. Changes in a species occur because individuals with traits beneficial to survival in a given environment tend to produce more offspring than other members of the same species not possessing the particular trait. As more and more members possess the desirable traits, the species as a whole changes.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> For example, if a broader tail assists an animal in getting food, the animals of the group with the broadest tails will be the best fed and thus stronger, and so will likely produce more babies. These babies are likely to possess the beneficial trait (e.g., a broad tail), since they are offspring of parents with the beneficial trait. The members of the population without the beneficial trait will be at a disadvantage and, on average, will get less food and have less offspring. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Through this natural selection process, broader tails eventually become more common among the surviving population of the species. In this way the species as a whole changes, or evolves over time. The natural selection process directs which traits persist or disappear in a species, how the species changes over time, and ultimately, which species survive on Earth.</span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Size of the Humpback Whale</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Female humpbacks are on average 45 feet long, while male humpbacks are about three feet shorter. Humpbacks are the fifth largest whale species. The largest documented humpback whale was an 88-foot humpback caught in the Caribbean by a whaling ship. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Blue whales are the largest of all whales, measuring about 100-feet long on average. The biggest blue whale ever recorded measured 190 feet, which is bigger than the biggest of the ancient dinosaurs. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit is far from any land, and she is guided by the currents of the sea as well as the movements of the sun and moon across the sky. Suddenly Tlingit sees an elephant seal, the largest of all seal species. This particular male elephant seal weighs nearly four tons and is nearly 18 feet long. Tlingit has seen this type of seal before, in past years in these open ocean waters.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">When the elephant seal submerges and begins to sink, Tlingit also swims below. Together the two ocean creatures slowly drop deeper and deeper until they are about 500 feet down. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">As Tlingit descends into the ocean depths her lungs are compressed by the extreme pressure of the water. The air in Tlingit’s lungs is forced into her nasal passages and the surrounding air sacs, and as she swims deeper the oxygen is stored in her blood. Tlingit turns and heads back toward the surface, but the seal continues its descent into the dark abyss</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000 feet deep! </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tlingit, however, cannot see or visit the depths of this ocean where the seal now feeds. Eventually the elephant seal will make its way to a __rookery__ on a California beach where elephant seals arrive each year to mate and give birth.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Elephant Seals</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The elephant seal has evolved certain abilities that allow it to deal with the enormous pressures of the deep ocean. This is necessary for the seal to be able to search for the food sources that have helped the species survive. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Seals are mammals, as are humans and whales, and all mammals share numerous physiological characteristics. They are also very different. Elephant seals may sink into the ocean depths, while a human would quickly die from any deep submersion. If a human were to descend in a similar manner as an elephant seal, the human would quickly succumb to nitrogen narcosis and death. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Elephant seals are a mystery in their ability to resubmerge with very little rest between dives. Most other deep-diving creatures, such as sperm whales, spend time resting at the water’s surface between dives, but some elephant seals engage in continuous diving, descending and ascending 24 hours a day for up to eight months.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Many seals regularly come ashore to sleep, but it’s believed that elephant seals may go a long time without sleeping. Sea lions are the only seals that even approach the sleepless feats of elephant seals, as sea lions may go three days diving and resurfacing before coming ashore for a rest.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Scientists are investigating whether deep-diving elephant seals may be catching some sleep as they sink into the inky black depths, or if sleep may simply be a trait evolved in land mammals to conserve energy. Perhaps elephant seals do not need to conserve energy due to the nature of their environment and their feeding habits. In other words, they may not need to sleep.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Elephant seals may dive more than one mile deep in just 20 minutes. At that depth the pressure of the water exceeds one ton per square inch, which is enough pressure to crush steel. As depth increases, pressure increases. At sea level, the pressure in the air is 14.7 pounds per square inch, and is known as one atmosphere of pressure. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">One atmosphere of pressure is also defined as the weight of a one-inch-square column of air from the ground to 100,000 feet high. Water weighs about 800 times as much as air. In the ocean the pressure increases one atmosphere for every 33 feet of depth.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Humans can only go about 250 feet deep at most without specialized equipment. Ascending too rapidly will cause a human to get “the bends” as decompression sickness causes nitrogen to froth in the blood. The elephant seal, however, is able to withstand the extreme pressures of the deep ocean and then rise again fairly rapidly to the surface without harm.</span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>**
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Humpback Diving</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The humpback whale’s capacity to hold oxygen in its muscle and blood allows the whale to dive more than 600 feet deep in the ocean and to stay under for significant lengths of time. During a deep dive, the whale’s lungs collapse under the extreme pressure and then expand again when the whale rises toward the surface.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Humpback whales have a substance in their bloodstream called __myohemoglobin__, which holds oxygen and delivers it to the body. The muscle tissue also has an oxygen-holding substance, called __myoglobin__, suffusing the tissue with large amounts of oxygen and making it deep red to purple in color.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">For weeks Tlingit has maintained a steady pace across the ocean. She is now more than 2,000 miles from the protected waters of the Inside Passage, far from the glaciers and far from the land of bears, caribou, moose, and eagles. There are no longer any swarming blooms of krill or great schools of herring like those that recently satisfied her nearly insatiable appetite and provided the staples of her summer diet. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In Alaskan waters, Tlingit consumed as much as two tons of food per day. For the duration of her migration south, however, Tlingit will go without any significant food supply, and she won’t resume significant feeding until she returns to northern waters. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">As Tlingit swims across the vast Pacific Ocean toward the Hawaiian Islands, the young one inside her continues to grow.</span>//
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Earth’s Oceans</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Two-thirds of Earth’s surface is covered by oceans, and these oceans are all interconnected. The Pacific Ocean is the deepest of Earth’s oceans, averaging about 13,000 feet deep. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The surface of the Pacific Ocean covers 25 percent more area than all of Earth’s entire land surface combined. If the surface of the Earth was smooth, then the whole planet would be some 12,000 deep under water. Because Earth’s terrain is so uneven the water on Earth fills the low areas and a vast amount of land remains above water.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The highest spot on Earth is Mt. Everest in the Himalayas, rising to 29,028 feet above sea level. The lowest spot is the western Pacific’s Marianas Trench, more than 37,000 feet below sea level.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Ocean water is a rich soup of many different substances, mostly hydrogen and oxygen, but also sodium, chlorine, magnesium, sulfur, calcium, potassium, bromine, carbon, strontium, boron, silicon, fluorine, and other elements.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Earth’s oceans include about 300 million cubic miles of water in all, which is more than 97 percent of all the water on Earth. Most of the other three percent of Earth’s water is locked in the polar icecaps.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 3</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tlingit Arrives At The Islands</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Instinctively Tlingit interprets the ocean currents in a way that affects the path she chooses on her annual migration. These migratory instincts are dictated by rules of nature that change over time, including global weather patterns as well as water temperature variations in the North Pacific Ocean. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Now three weeks into her journey south, Tlingit begins to notice subtle differences in the sea and air, revealing that land is near. Finally after three weeks of traversing the vast expanse of the Pacific, the fathomless depths suddenly begin to have a bottom. Tlingit is nearing the waters where she was born, and now when she surfaces she sees land in the distance.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit finds her way each year back to these islands, the Hawaiian Islands, a group of relatively tiny specks of land in the middle of the enormous Pacific Ocean. Utilizing various navigational clues, Tlingit crosses the open ocean waters to find the archipelago of the Hawaiian Islands.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Many factors contribute to Tlingit’s ability to find the isolated Islands, including the position and movement of the sun and moon, and even the stars in the sky. Perhaps even the flights of birds provide clues, along with the winds that drive the ocean currents, the changing texture of the water, and the different look of the cloud formations in the distance.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>//
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Coriolis Force</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">A prominent feature of Earth’s weather is the prevailing wind patterns that circulate in large predictable ways due to the rotation of the Earth and the heat of the sun. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Earth’s curvature also affects sunlight reception, which is different in the tropics than in the polar regions. This difference in sunlight also affects global wind patterns. Prevailing winds are deflected to the right by Earth’s spin, and this effect is called the __Coriolis Force__.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Finally Tlingit reaches the northern shore of the northernmost Hawaiian Island, the very waters where she was born. Off the coast of Kaua</span>////<span style="font-size: 12pt;">‘</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i, Tlingit swims past bays and peninsulas she has seen many times before during her winters in Hawaiian waters. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tlingit recognizes the underwater reef that fringes the shoreline as well as the shallow inlets and the deeper bays. Finally she reaches the place that feels most familiar, the site of her own first days, Kaua’i’s Nāpali Coast.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The rugged shoreline of the Nāpali is like no other. Sheer lava cliffs rise thousands of feet straight up from the sea as waterfalls thunder down from the peaks. The mountains are topped with steep spires and long, fluted ridges separated by deep-carved valleys. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> S</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">treams cascade down from the high ramparts and tumble over the coastal cliffs before converging in the lower valleys and flowing into the ocean. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">For hundreds of centuries the mountainous winter surf has pounded at this seacoast, and with each passing year a few more inches of coastline are lost to the sea. Some of the sea-cut chambers along the base of the Nāpali cliffs are large enough for Tlingit to swim into, but she simply registers the memory of these massive caverns and continues on her way.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>//
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Caves of Hawai‘i</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The younger Hawaiian Islands to the southeast, especially Hawai‘i Island (also called The Big Island), have coastal caves formed by lava tubes. These lava tubes were created during volcanic eruptions and serve as conduits for streams of molten earth. Lava tubes usually form near the surface when the liquid lava drains out leaving the shell behind.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The caves of Kaua‘i’s Nāpali coast are different, however. They were formed when certain sections of hard lava fractured and then were subsequently filled by lava flows, forming dikes. Centuries of powerful surf then created caves by smashing the dikes’ relatively weaker and less dense surrounding rock. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Waves push water into the crevasses, resulting in extreme compressional forces scouring out caves from the zones of weakness all around the dikes. Eventually a cave’s ceiling may fall in, further increasing its size.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In past years, Tlingit has spent time in the waters all around the island of Kaua‘i, moving to different areas depending on the prevailing winds and weather. Compared to the long distance Tlingit migrated across the ocean, the distance around the island is relatively small. </span>//
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>**
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">The Hawaiian-Emperor Chain</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian Island Chain extends in a line from the southeast to the northwest for about 1,523 miles, crossing through the Tropic of Cancer. At the southeast end of the chain are the eight main Hawaiian Islands, including Hawai‘i Island (the Big Island) located at 19 degrees north latitude. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">At the northwest end of the Hawaiian Chain is Kure Island, located at 28.5 degrees north latitude. To the north of Kure is a chain of undersea volcanoes known as the Emperor Chain. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Together the Hawaiian Island Chain and the Emperor Chain comprise the 3,726-mile-long Hawaiian-Emperor Chain. Only the eight main Hawaiian Islands and the relatively tiny reefs, shoals and atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands rise above the water.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
**//__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Northwestern Hawaiian Islands</span>__//**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Combined Land Area: 6 square miles.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Size Comparison: One-tenth of one percent of Hawai‘i’s land area.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Also called: The Leeward Islands.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">The eight main Hawaiian Islands comprise 99.9% of the total land area of the State of Hawai‘i. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands constitute the other .1% (one-tenth of one percent) of the State of Hawai‘i’s land area.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands extend for about 1,200 miles to the west-northwest of Kaua‘i, and include 124 scattered islets, shoals, and atolls beginning at Nihoa, about 150 miles west-northwest of Kaua‘i. Most of the tiny islets of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands barely rise above the water’s surface.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">After Western contact, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands were visited by various ships, including whalers, fishermen, coal transport ships, salvage ships, guano miners, collectors of bird eggs and feathers, and hunters of seals and turtles. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">In 2000, a Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was declared on 99,500 square nautical miles northwest of the main Hawaiian Islands, including the previously designated Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge. The Reserve bans oil and gas drilling as well as dumping, and places new restrictions on fishing. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">The Reserve contains about 70% of the United States’ coral reefs, and supports at least 7,000 species of fish, birds, marine mammals and other flora and fauna, about half of which are endemic (unique) to the Hawaiian Islands.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">... </span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Island of Kaua</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">‘</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The island of Kaua‘i is more than five million years old, and rimmed with white-sand beaches and relatively flat lowlands that taper gently upward before rising steeply into the heartland’s volcanic summits. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The interior of the ancient island consists of the towering remnants of several extinct volcanoes, the most prominent being 5,148-foot-tall Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale, which once was thousands of feet taller than it is today. Surrounded by a wild river and canyon wilderness, Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale is considered the wettest spot on Earth.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Mt.</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Wai</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">‘ale‘ale</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Wai‘ale‘ale, means “//Rippling water//,” and refers to the lake that sits atop the plateau at the volcano’s summit where the Hanalei River begins. Located at the center of the island of Kaua‘i, Wai‘ale‘ale is said to be “the wettest spot on earth” due to the extreme amount of rainfall there, including 681 inches in 1982. Wai‘ale‘ale has an average annual rainfall of 451 inches, the highest in the world.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Wai‘ale‘ale’s actual rainfall may be even more than 451 inches because high winds at the summit are known to blow the rain horizontally over automated rain gauges that relay weather information via satellite. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The single rainiest year on record at Wai‘ale‘ale’s summit was in 1982, when 681 inches were recorded. India’s Cherrapunji Village received 905 inches of rainfall in 1861, but only has an average annual rainfall of about 428 inches.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Like a giant cup, Wai‘ale‘ale’s summit crater gathers water from the clouds and filters it downward into the island’s aquifers. The dense trees and shrubs in the highland crater comb the moisture from the sky and percolate it down through the igneous rock to the island’s porous lava interior. The rainwater replenishes the mountain streams that flow out in all directions from the summit into the lower valleys.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Along the coast a small swell rolls in against the cliffs as waves tumble onto the white sands of each isolated beach. Between the green, furrowed fingers of the Nāpali sea cliffs are high, inaccessible valleys, and where the lower valleys meet the ocean the isolated coves give way to broad sandy beaches. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">For three days the tradewinds have been blowing strong from the northeast, but now the winds have subsided. Bright clouds form and dissipate over the foothills and coastal cliffs where sprinkling rains scatter the sunlight and create rainbows that add even more color to the majestic land.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tlingit feels an instinct that tells her she has reached the very waters where she was born, and all of her senses confirm this. Perhaps Tlingit’s magnetic sense also helps her recognize this place, just as it helped her travel thousands of miles to Hawaiian waters. The sea bottom beneath her has its own unique magnetic signature, imprinted in her memory at birth and now possibly again recognized by her in these native waters.</span>//
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Magnetoreception</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Humpbacks possess a __magnetite__ substance in their brain, which makes attunement to Earth’s magnetic field possible. The whales are __magnetoreceptive__ animals that have the ability to use their own internal compass to help determine direction, and this magnetic sense helps guide them in their navigations over the globe. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Earth’s magnetic field radiates up and out from the surface of the ground at every point on the planet. Humpbacks migrating to Hawai‘i may be aided by their recognition of consistent global changes in the magnetic field as it emanates up from the planet’s center and out from the Earth’s surface.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Animal Magnetoreception</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Every latitude and longitude on Earth’s surface differs in the strength of its magnetic field, as well as the angle at which the magnetic field comes up from Earth’s surface. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Certain magnetoreceptive animals, many of them migratory species such as whales, have the ability to sense the subtle differences in these magnetic field strengths, as well as the angles at which the field emanates up from Earth’s surface. This assists the whale’s navigation process during its long migration.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> While latitude and longitude qualities of Earth’s magnetic field are predictable over long distances, in some particular places there are sudden changes in the Earth’s crust that cause the strength of the magnetic field to vary significantly. These magnetic anomalies, or localized differences, may become familiar over time to magnetoreceptive animals. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Earth’s magnetic energy is generated by the planet’s molten iron core, and constantly rejuvenated by the planet’s spin. The Earth spins at a speed of 1,035 miles per hour to the east at the equator, so there is plenty of movement to keep the magnetic field strong. Earth also moves at 60,000 miles per hour in orbit around the sun.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">To Tlingit, the land is a foreign place that her aquatic nature prevents her from visiting. In ancient times her ancestors walked on land, so perhaps somewhere deep in her genetic memory Tlingit retains a sense of this terrestrial past. Tlingit’s only connection to the land now is that she swims near the streams and rivers that are gradually returning the islands back to the sea. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">During times of heavy rain, the ocean near the large rivermouths is clouded with suspended sediments carried down from the mountains, and this is noticed by the whales. All along the coast the red earth flows down from the highest volcanic peaks and into the sea in a process of erosion that began many millions of years ago, even before the island had finished forming.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tradewinds blowing over the ocean gather up the moisture of the sea. As the winds reach land and rise up the mountain slopes the moist air cools and condenses into clouds that rain down upon the islands. The tradewind showers slowly but persistently carry the land back into the ocean, and this is all part of a larger process of volcanoes growing up from the seafloor, rising above the surface to become islands, and then over millions of years slowly eroding back down beneath the waves.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> With the experience Tlingit has gained during her 28 years of life, she instinctively knows what her ancestors have for centuries known, that these Nāpali waters are her home. This is where she was born and where her offspring were born, and where they will return each year of their lives. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tlingit swims along the northern shore of the northernmost Hawaiian Island, basking in the warm, tropical waters that allow for the continuation of an eternal cycle.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 4</span>
==//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Koholā is Born</span>//==
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //A fiery sunset blazes across the western sky where cumulus clouds glow red as if lit from within. Slowly the colors blend into deeper tones and then dissolve into the darkness of night. Soon the eastern sky begins to radiate light and a silver moon emerges full and bright over the water.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The sea is as smooth as glass, its calm surface mirroring the moon and stars. Tlingit comes up for a breath and water pours off her back reflecting the heavens above. Her body shines with celestial light as she exhales a spray of phosphorescent mist into the still night air. Silently again she slides beneath the surface.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> There in the shallow waters of a sheltered Nāpali cove, Tlingit brings into the world a baby humpback whale. Born into the watery moonlight the baby is nuzzled upward by her relieved mother and swims to the surface. We will call this whale Koholā, the Hawaiian word for whale. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Koholā is confused for a moment as she crosses the boundary between air and water. The newborn whale’s eyes are dazzled by the luminous sea as she takes her first breath.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Swimming below the surface, Koholā finds her mother’s teat and the milk begins to flow plentifully into the infant’s suckling mouth. For Koholā’s first year of life, the milk will provide her with all the nourishment she will need to grow. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Born twelve feet long and weighing two tons, Koholā will gain as much as 100 pounds per day and grow about one foot longer each month. Her light-colored skin will darken within days, but for now it is a silken color that perfectly matches the pearl moon above.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Morning arrives. The sun climbs above the mountains in the east and the moon is still visible on the western horizon. From opposite sides of the sky the two bright beacons welcome Koholā into the daytime world.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">As the sun rises higher the moon disappears, and Koholā lingers at the water’s surface. She feels the warmth of the sunlight on her skin, and she is curious about this strange round object above beaming down golden light.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Though she is just an infant, Koholā naturally begins to utilize her innate abilities that help her make sense of her environment. Like all humpback whales, Koholā has the ability to see in air as well as underwater. Her __cornea__ is like a bifocal lens, allowing efficient vision both above and below the water’s surface. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">When Tlingit is underwater she looks through the more rounded portion of her eye’s cornea. When she is above the water, Tlingit rolls her eyes back a bit in order to look through the more flattened portion of the cornea, which has a narrower lens and is better able to focus light on her __retina__. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Koholā slowly becomes familiar with her dual vision ability, which allows her to focus her eyes in this strange other medium, this world above her underwater world. Perhaps it is not surprising that humpback whales have retained some adaptations to seeing in air, since their evolutionary ancestors lived on land. About 60 million years ago those mammalian land dwellers roamed the shores of the Tethys Sea.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The evolutionary connection spans even farther back through time, to some 370 million years ago when the whales’ ancestors lived in the sea. They crawled up from that primordial ocean to inhabit the land before eventually returning to the water. The evolutionary process has come full circle, from the water to the land to the water.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>//
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Mesonychids</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Between about 60 and 30 million years ago, the whale ancestors called mesonychids ventured into the oceans to search for food, and gradually became more aquatic. (See //Appendix 4// for more details.)</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">...</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Koholā’s responses in her new environment are guided by instincts passed down through the centuries from one generation to the next and now encoded in her genes. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">She pauses now with her eyes just above the sea, reveling in her newfound ability to see above the ocean’s surface.</span>//
[[code]]
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //For several weeks now the two whales have lingered near the stretch of coastline where Koholā was born. With each passing day the young one grows more accustomed to her surroundings in these warm Hawaiian seas, showing all the exuberance of a healthy calf as she comes to the surface and repeatedly slaps her pectoral fins down on the water.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Many of Koholā’s antics are in imitation of her mother as well as other humpbacks she encounters nearby. Some of Koholā’s behaviors, however, are just curious experiments that express her interest in exploring the ocean world around her and her own developing abilities.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> As the whales move along the northern coast, the infant swims just in front and to the side of her mother’s dorsal fin, and above her pectoral fin. Pushed forward by the maternal current, Koholā is able to keep up with Tlingit’s fast pace, and the calf’s efforts are supplemented by Tlingit’s graceful power. The two whales move as one, with Koholā gliding effortlessly in the slipstream flow provided by her mother. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Quite naturally attuned to the water currents, Koholā swims below again and then rises to the surface where her mother uses a pectoral fin to push forward a sizeable wave of water that propels the baby forward. Koholā excitedly rides the rushing water, sliding down the wave’s face before veering off and circling back around again to be next to her mother.</span>//
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Koholā gets stronger each day, and more proficient at using her tail fluke, which is already extremely powerful. Soon Koholā discovers her ability to breach. With just a few strokes, her whole body comes flying out of the water. She is exhilarated by this breaching activity and repeatedly thrusts her tail fluke to send her body surging up from the sea, then turning over in midair before crashing down on her back with a splash. Koholā makes one particularly high breach and then swims excitedly toward Tlingit, circling her mother twice as if celebrating the new skill she has learned.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Perhaps as a demonstration to her calf, Tlingit occasionally exhibits her own breaching ability, soaring up from the surface and then landing with a regal splash. Tlingit’s full breach makes a loud sound under the water as well as above, and just seconds later a similar sound is heard from another whale in the distance. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Communication with other whales is just one of the possible reasons for breaching, just as the sounds produced by breaching are just one of many ways whales communicate with each other. Koholā’s breach is still somewhat of a clumsy child’s attempt compared to her mother’s acrobatic pirouettes.</span>//
Tlingit has several ways of sensing her environment. Adorning the front of her lips and upper and lower jaw are numerous golf-ball-sized sensory nodules called tubercles. Each of these fleshy bumps contains a single hair follicle called a vibrissa, which is a coarse bristle about one-inch long connected to sensory nerves. Tlingit’s vibrissae determine temperature, currents, and other information about her surroundings.
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Tlingit mills about as she watches Koholā frolic in the water. The work of birthing is done now and Tlingit enjoys the company of her new child and the relative safety of warm Hawaiian seas. Tlingit swims toward Koholā and allows the young one to nurse and gain the sustenance she needs to grow.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit produces over 100 gallons of milk per day, and this milk is comprised of nearly 50% fat. The milk provides ample nutrition for Koholā, who will double in length by her first birthday. The infant barely needs to suckle her mother as the milk is pushed out voluntarily by Tlingit with a pressure that sends it flowing into Koholā’s mouth. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Satiated for the moment, Koholā swims just below the surface and glides effortlessly through the sea’s prism of light. As each day passes, Koholā’s white skin is slowly darkening. Her body grows at a rapid pace, nourished solely by her mother’s milk. </span>//
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 5</span>**
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A Meeting with Spinner Dolphins
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Now fast approaching are five small spinner dolphins (Stella longirostris), known to Hawaiians as nai‘a. The dolphins are about four feet long and swimming straight for Tlingit. Speeding along at about 20 miles per hour, all five dolphins arch above and below the water in synchronous motion. About every 30 feet, the curves of their backs appear and then as quickly disappear again beneath the water.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Two of the dolphins demonstrate why they are called spinners when they suddenly leap straight up out of the water, spinning and flipping head over tail before landing with a splash. As they approach Tlingit and Koholā, the dolphins group together again and swim in a wide arc around the pair of whales. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Sounds are streaming through the water as the dolphins bounce high frequency pulses off their fellow cetaceans and interpret the returning sound waves. In the distance more dolphins appear and join the pod.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Echolocation</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> All toothed cetaceans, including all dolphins, have the ability to send out pulses of high frequency sound. They bounce these sound pulses off objects, and then interpret the returning echoes. This use of sound pulses is known as __echolocation__, and allows marine mammals to “see” an acoustic image of their surroundings and also to communicate with other dolphins. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Echolocation is used by dolphins to locate and identify fish and other prey. Echolocation pulses are also used to stun prey, making it easier to catch.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Dolphins send out sound pulses through an area of their head known as the __melon__, a lens-shaped organ that extends from the __rostrum__, or beak, to the blowhole. The melon is filled with a fine, waxy oil held in suspension by web-like tissues. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Implosive movements of air through the dolphin’s nasal passages produce the echolocation. The sound waves are then focused through the melon and emitted through the forehead in a narrow stream of high frequency waves.</span>
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Echolocation</span>**
Dolphins are considered vocal learners, which means that they modify their vocalizations as a result of the vocalizations of other individuals (e.g., other dolphins). Many birds are capable of vocal learning, but it is thought to be rare among mammals. Humans, harbor seals, and cetaceans are the most versatile vocal learners, readily able to imitate and use new sounds for communication. Pods or extended families of dolphins and whales may develop their own distinct dialects of echolocation.
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Some nonhuman primates have been conditioned to alter the amplitude and duration of their vocalizations, but the only other mammals known so far to be able to change the frequency parameters of their vocalizations are Greater Horseshoe bats, which learn the main frequency of their echolocations from their mother.</span>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit and Koholā are now surrounded by dolphins, more than 20 of them. Some jump up repeatedly while others swim just beneath the surface with only their dorsal fins showing. Two of the dolphins leap skyward in perfect unison as if in a choreographed dance.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> One dolphin jumps higher than all the rest, twirling through the bright sunlight as it flashes off her wet skin. Two other dolphins swim around the whales in a wide circle, the dolphins’ backs and dorsal fins slicing up through the water and then disappearing.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> These coastal spinner dolphins now encircling Tlingit and Koholā are quite different than the open ocean dolphin pods that live far from shore and follow __pelagic__ (deep-water), schools of tuna. The coastal pods of spinners never venture too far from the Islands, and seeing them reassures Tlingit that she is in her home waters. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> All around Tlingit and Koholā the water is filled with high frequency echolocation pulses resounding off the humpback whales and enveloping their bodies. The whole experience feels new to Koholā, although she has felt these particular sound vibrations before.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Kohol</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ā</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">’s mother encountered these same spinner dolphins just before Koholā was born, and they echolocated Tlingit with high frequency sounds. This awakened Koholā in the womb as the pulses sounded out her form and likely revealed to the dolphins that inside of Tlingit there was another whale soon to be born. </span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit is familiar with the sounds of the dolphins that now surround her. The presence of this pod extends back centuries in these northern Kaua‘i waters, and Tlingit has encountered these particular dolphins many times before. In the echolocation pulses that now penetrate her skin, Tlingit recognizes the pod’s signature sounds.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Playful and curious, the spinner dolphins send out a chorus of pulses that fill the water with high frequency sounds. One of the dolphins swims near to Koholā and examines her using echolocation. Seventy pulses each second bounce off Koholā and reflect back to the dolphin, revealing information about the young whale.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> When she feels the sound vibrations on her body, Koholā instinctively swims near her mother who swims on unconcerned. Koholā soon decides that these visitors are not threatening, and she briefly follows after the dolphins.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> For Tlingit a certain comfort comes from seeing these nearshore dolphins and hearing their echolocation pulses that fill the water with sounds and remind her of years past in tropical waters. The dolphins continue on their way and Tlingit uses her huge tail fluke to generate speed and catapult her body into the air.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> As if in response to Tlingit’s breach, a spinner dolphin zooms out ahead and repeatedly flies up with exuberant spins and gyrations. Each splashdown sends up a misty spray that catches the sunlight and divides it into a rainbow of colors that quickly dissipate in the ocean breeze. </span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //The skills that Koholā learns during her first year of life will help her make the transition to self-sufficiency. Humpbacks are carnivores, and though their prey is small, capturing it still requires the strategies of a predator. Young humpbacks learn these skills from older whales, and the old continue to learn from experience, always adapting and refining their ability to hunt for food.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā will be trained by her mother in the skills she will need to survive. Eventually she will no longer be dependent upon her mother’s milk and her mother’s protection. Koholā may eat some small fish or __euphausiids__ (krill) during her first summer in Alaskan waters, but she will also continue to nurse.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> When Kohol</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ā</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> is about ten months old, she will be weaned and will no longer rely on her mother’s milk for sustenance. Koholā’s survival will then require that she learn to catch an adequate amount of food each day to sustain her rapidly growing body. </span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Seasonal Behaviors</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpback whales, like all other mammals, instinctively follow complex social and biological rules that help the species survive. Humpbacks feed and increase their size and strength during summer in northern waters in preparation for the next migration south. Food supplies in Alaskan waters dictate humpback distribution as well as social interaction among the whales.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Reproductive processes determine when the whales arrive in Hawaiian waters their distribution around the Islands during the winter months and when they leave for Alaskan seas. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The annual migration of humpbacks to Hawaiian waters occurs not all at once, but in a long parade of whales arranged according to their reproductive status. The first humpbacks to begin their southward migration are the previous year’s mothers along with their calves, who will be weaned during the winter in Hawai‘i. Then the subadult whales begin their journey, followed by mature whales.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The last humpback whales to head south are expectant mothers, who stay in the food-rich northern ocean as long as possible. Finally they too head for tropical seas where feeding opportunities are scarce and all facets of the whales’ lives are affected by the desire to mate, give birth, and raise young. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Integral to the humpback mating process are the whales’ songs, which are elaborate and operatic vocalizations that permeate Hawaiian waters during winter.</span>
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Tlingit has overcome great odds in her lifetime, and her body bears many marks inflicted upon her by other ocean creatures. Tlingit’s 15-foot-wide tail fluke is scarred from an attack by a killer whale (Ornicas orca) and her left pectoral fin is missing a small piece due to a tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvieri). Her body also has numerous smaller scars and markings from various encounters with other ocean life. A large area of Tlingit’s back is colored by the presence of countless diatoms, the one-celled algae that live in northern waters. Algae growth had tinted the lighter patches of Tlingit’s skin yellowish-green, but these colors have mostly faded since she returned to Hawaiian waters. Tlingit’s body also bears many small, circular, white marks created by several types of barnacles that were attached to her skin in northern waters. Since Tlingit arrived in Hawaiian waters most of the barnacles have fallen off, leaving only the white rings of scar tissue. Tlingit is among the last of the North Pacific humpbacks to arrive in the tropics. In Alaskan waters she ate up to two tons of food per day, and she stored the energy she needed for her long journey and for the rigors of birthing and nursing. Now she basks in warm but nutrition-poor tropical seas.
More than 1,000 pounds of barnacles may be attached to a humpback whale’s skin in Alaskan waters. The most common barnacles attached to humpbacks are acorn barnacles (Cornula diaderma, and Coronula reginae), and long-necked goose barnacles (Conchorderma auritum). Some barnacle species are endemic (unique) to particular species of whales, meaning they grow only on that species and are found on no other whales. These endemic barnacle species favor certain whales due the particular chemical make-up of the secretions on the whales’ skin.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Instinctively Tlingit knows the rhythms of this ocean. She senses the daily pulse of the tides and is familiar with the storm-driven swells that arrive from the North Pacific Ocean. Tlingit easily navigates the currents along the island shorelines as well as the deep-water currents that move in seasonal and semi-predictable ways. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Today a winter swell pulses energy through the sea and sends waves toward Hawaiian shores. Big winter storms spawned near the humpbacks’ Alaskan feeding grounds now move over polar seas thousands of miles from the Hawaiian Islands. The energy of these massive weather systems radiates through the whole ocean as the storms progress northwest across the top of Earth. Today powerful ocean waves buffet the northern coastlines of all the Hawaiian Islands. </span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Waves</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> A wave’s period is determined by the time it takes for one complete wave to pass a stationary point. To surfers, anything above a 12-second period wave constitutes a “swell,” and usually means the beaches have great waves for surfing. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Wave height is measured from the peak to the trough, and may exceed 50 feet on the outer reefs during the biggest of swells. Large waves are sent toward the Hawaiian Islands by low pressure storm systems that form hundreds and even thousands of miles from Hawai‘i.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> A wave’s wave period is the time it takes one complete wave to pass a given point. The longer the wave’s period, the bigger the height and power of the wave. A big swell generated in Alaska may produce a swell that arrives in Hawai‘i days later with a period of up to 25 seconds between each wave.</span>
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> On Kaua</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">‘</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i’s northern shore, great upwelling mountains of water appear on the horizon and then roll in with a thunder from the open sea. The waves slowly take form as they surge toward land, each peak rising and curling over into a white explosion of foam and spray. Each time Tlingit surfaces to breathe, she sees the billowing mass of the giant, breaking waves.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Every point and bay is alive with crashing waves as the energy of the ocean releases itself upon the island beaches. Tlingit and Koholā linger near the outer reefs not far from where giant waves are breaking. Tlingit has swam near such large ocean waves many times before in northern as well as southern waters. </span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //The wind is calm, and a salty mist lingers over the foothills where clouds hang low. Intermittent sunlight shines down golden light on the land and water, and a cool vapor rises from the sea and drifts over the coastal mountains. Offshore a double-hulled canoe sails totally silent, pushed by an almost imperceptible breeze. The six-person crew occasionally paddles as they gaze in quiet appreciation at the majestic beauty of the Nāpali coastline.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Recently the rains have been plentiful over the island mountains and the rivers are flowing full. Near the seacoast, where the land drops away sharply, the high ridges are lined with waterfalls that plunge down each pali (cliff). Steep pinnacles and tall spires stand sentinel over the valleys like sacred monuments. The vertical green faces are lined with silver streams that reflect the sun like ribbons of light.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Sculpted by centuries of rains, the Nāpali mountains on Kaua</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">‘</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i’s northern coast have been honed into sheer cliffs and razored ridges. Amidst the monumental seacliffs are pockets of higher land that allow no gradual path to the ocean, sending the streams plunging down steep descents into deep pools that calm the tumultuous flow. The myriad streams of the upper valleys converge into thunderous watercourses that cascade over tumbled boulders before finally finding their way to the sea.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> For thousands of centuries this Nāpali coastline has been relentlessly pounded by rains, winds, and giant surf carving away at the shoreline cliffs that now drop nearly straight down for thousands of feet directly to the ocean. Year upon year the wind-driven waves explode against the rocky headlands, making the cliffs ever steeper and causing huge chunks of land to collapse into the sea. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Offshore the coral reefs fringing the island and are part of the whales’ habitat. This tropical environment is very different from the humpbacks’ summer waters far to the north. </span>//
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit and Koholā swim along the coast about one mile offshore from the northeast tip of the island. They pass several small bays</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Kē‘ē, Wainiha, and Lumaha‘i</span>////<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">and then come to the great sandy crescent of Hanalei Bay.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> A sizable swell is now arriving, and the waves are still growing in size. There are no boats in Hanalei Bay this time of year because its northern exposure provides no protection from the large winter waves. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Waves are breaking along the whole length of the Hanalei Bay shoreline. These waves form perfectly at the points on each side of the bay and at various spots along the great, curving shoreline. Surfers paddle their surfboards to catch the waves, and ride down the huge, curling wave faces.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Perhaps unaware or at least unconcerned about all this surfing activity, the two whales swim onward, eventually reaching a rocky outcropping of land known as Kīlauea Point where an old lighthouse is perched atop the peninsula bluff. The opposite cliff is dotted with thousands of nesting red-footed boobies. Many birds circle above while others arrive and leave in a continual procession from their cliffside homes.</span>//
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Offshore of K//</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ī</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">lauea Point is a rocky islet is known as Moku‘ae‘ae, which means “Fragment frothing in the rising tide,” referring to the tumultuous whitewater created when the big waves hit the point’s craggy rocks. Moku‘ae‘ae is the northernmost point of the main Hawaiian Islands, and the islet is the habitat of a multitude of other seabirds including petrels, terns, noddies, albatross, and shearwaters. Gliding high overhead are great frigatebirds as well as red-tailed and white-tailed tropicbirds.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Some of these seabirds nest on the rocky cliffs or in burrows on the shoreline bluffs. Some of the birds are just passing by the Hawaiian Islands on their migratory paths</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">—</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">from every direction they come and go on their annual migrations that connect all of the Earth’s land and sea.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Pacific Golden Plovers</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Pacific golden plovers, known to Hawaiians as kōlea, migrate to Hawai‘i each winter, just like the humpback whales. While the plovers fly the distance in just two or three days, however, the humpbacks take a few weeks to swim the distance. Plovers come to Hawai‘i to feed, and then fly north to polar regions to lay their eggs. This is just the opposite of the humpback whales, which feed in the north and come to Hawai‘i to give birth.</span>
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Chapter 6
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**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Songs of the Humpback Whale</span>//**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Koholā stays relatively close to her mother. Day by day Kohol//</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ā</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> learns about the various life forms in Hawaiian waters, and is often puzzled by the strange creatures she encounters. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā surfaces and sees a noddy bird plunge into the sea and emerge with a fish in its mouth. Beneath the water, she sees another diving bird penetrate the surface and scatter a school of fish in all directions. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā will become even more familiar with seabirds when she learns to feed in northern waters. There she will plow up through the swarms of krill and herring, and occasionally will scoop unsuspecting birds into her mouth as the birds dive down to catch the leaping fish.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> As she swims along in the relatively shallow nearshore waters, Koholā suddenly notices a creature foraging along the bottom of the sea. It is a Hawaiian monk seal </span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">(//Monachus schauinslandi//), //known to the Hawaiians as ‘ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua. The monk seal is// </span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">about the same size as a dolphin but rounder and fatter, and uses its whole body to undulate through the water.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā swims closer but this startles the monk seal, who swims away quickly and resumes the search for food</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">octopi, lobsters, eels, and reef fish. Soon the curious seal returns to investigate the whales, circling around at a distance, but eventually both species </span>//
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Days roll by one into the next as Koholā learns from each new experience in tropical seas. Tradewinds blow strong off the sea and rise up the hillsides where the moist air condenses into billowing clouds creating small passing rainstorms over the hills and nearshore waters.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The rains give Koholā an exhilarating feeling as moisture falls through the bright sunlight forming a giant rainbow over the water. As evening arrives the sunset sky dazzles Koholā’s eyes with even more curious colors.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> This same weather pattern continues for several weeks as Koholā increases in size and develops her skills. The bay waters are cradled by great stone cliffs and soft breezes play along the sandy shoreline.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The winds of these islands are rich with the scents of ferns and flowers, from the wild jasmine and ginger of the lowlands to the wind-twisted forests of ‘ohi‘a lehua and koa in the uplands. As Koholā swims near the shore, she senses the subtle differences in the ocean water, especially near the larger rivermouths. </span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Native Birds of the Hawaiian Islands</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Kaua‘i’s mountainous regions provide habitat for Hawai‘i’s many native bird species. In the forested uplands and mountains are such native avifauna (bird life) as the pueo (Hawaiian owl) and a variety of colorful honeycreeper birds, each with a specialized beak adapted to a specific food source. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> One of these honeycreepers is the ‘i‘iwi with its long down-curving bill, ideally shaped to feed from the long, cup-shaped flower of the native lobelia flower. The ‘i‘iwi beak and native lobelia flower fit each other perfectly.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> On the slopes of the volcanoes live the nēnē, descendents of Canadian geese. Nēnē have adapted to walking on high, dry lava flows on Hawai‘i Island. Nēnē also take to the air and are seen gliding in formation over the lowlands and along the coast.</span>
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> There is a history to these islands that Koholā perhaps also senses, a feeling of connection rooted in her evolutionary history. Deep in her genetic memory there may still be a link to those ancient days when whale ancestors walked on land, just as all life forms on land may retain some sense of their own ancient origins in the vast and mysterious sea. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit was born in Hawai‘i’s tropical waters, and each year of her life the booming sounds of her breaches have echoed off these same seacliffs that rise above her now. For the last two thousand years the island’s tropical breezes have also carried the sounds of the native people, the Hawaiians. Their ancient chants accompanied the graceful and rhythmic movements of hula, the enduring passion of a people and culture interwoven with the land and sea.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> For Tlingit and Koholā these tropical seas are home, yet only for a part of each year. The humpbacks’ life involves a migration between two worlds, Hawaiian and Alaskan waters, and each of these native places has its own separate purpose for the whales. Island waters provide shelter for mating and birthing while northern waters provide bountiful summer feasts.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit is quite exhausted from her recent activities, and her movements are now gentle and relaxed. She has completed her long journey from polar to tropical seas and has given birth to a healthy calf who now swims around exploring her new world.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Winter has ended and Tlingit feels the desire to begin feeding again. She would eat now if food were available, but the small fare she feeds upon is nowhere to be found in these tropical seas. Soon Tlingit will make the journey north and swim through great clouds of tiny ocean creatures that will once again nourish her massive body. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Now nursing her young one in Hawaiian seas, Tlingit is beginning to feel the hunger for food. Yet the allure of these warm equatorial seas still remains. Hawai‘i’s tropical waters provide Tlingit with suitable conditions for the propagation of her species, and mating is once again a possibility.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> When Tlingit left Alaskan waters in the fall, she weighed about 45 tons. Her weight is now down to just 37 tons, and won’t begin to increase until she returns north. Meanwhile Tlingit has little time to rest because her calf needs continual guidance and plenteous milk.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Both mother and daughter must gather their energies for the coming migration north. Koholā swims near Tlingit again to nurse upon her swollen mammary glands, and with an insatiable thirst the infant drinks gallon after gallon of the rich, nourishing liquid.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> When she is not nursing Koholā, Tlingit meanders through the water, mostly milling near the surface or submerging only several feet before barely swishing her tail fluke to lazily move forward. Today Tlingit is in that half-awakened state, her body tired from the demands of migration and motherhood</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">as she lounges in the land of leviathan dreams.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Unihemispherical Sleeping</span>**
Humpback whales must be at least partially conscious to breathe, and so they let just half of their brain sleep at a time. This is known as unihemispherical sleeping.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> In the productive northern ocean Tlingit will feed upon great blooms of krill, copepods, and small fish such as herring, capelin, smelt, and sand lance. Using the long baleen strips that hang from her upper jaw, she will seine the tiny quarry from the sea. Tlingit’s frayed strands of baleen are woven together into a mesh that filters the minuscule prey from the ocean water.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Tlingit suddenly becomes aware of a long, plaintive noise suffusing the water all around her. The song begins with a series of deep, rumbling low notes followed by long, wailing high notes as the pitch rises and then lowers again into deep bass tones. This is the mating song sung by the humpback male, and the sounds beckon the females of the species.</span>//
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The whale sounds emanate from about 400 yards away where a humpback is singing just beneath the surface. The ocean is alive with the sounds of the singer, and Tlingit can feel the song as much as hear it, absorbing it through her skin and sensing it with her many vibrissae, the long coarse hairs that emerge from knobby protuberances on her upper and lower jaws.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //The songs of the humpback whale have resounded through the ocean for many millions of years. To Tlingit, the songs are full of soothing and welcoming noises that stir inside her the urge to mate again. Perhaps the songs awaken memories of past winters in these tropical seas//</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">—</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">being courted by males, mating, and becoming pregnant. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The male humpback’s symphony of sounds, from the deep booming bass notes to the tremulous high tones, attracts Tlingit and awakens certain instinctual feelings</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">—for </span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">this is the species’ signature song.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Listening to the song of the male humpback is calming to Tlingit even as it triggers a certain wariness due to all the work involved in raising a calf. Tlingit has given birth to four calves in the past seven years, including the recent birth of Koholā. The songs that now fill the water have started the rituals of reproduction once again, and Tlingit swims nearer to the sounds as she feels the vibrations pulsing through the water. </span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Suddenly Tlingit breaches and then swims deep below. Her daughter follows and is excited by the strange and enticing noises she hears. As the two whales move nearer to the sounds they can hear the singing male humpback in his full glory.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Koholā feels the rumbling throughout her whole body as high and low tones vibrate through the water in long crescendos of repeating musical phrases that fill the sea with music. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The singing whale is positioned just beneath the surface with his head down, as if suspended from above by his tail</span>////<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">this is a common singing posture. The sounds are new to Koholā, yet familiar, for this is indeed the language of her species.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit is impressed by the quality of this particular whale’s song. The series of tones is consistent and smooth, and the song continues for a long time between breaths.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Over and over the whale repeats the song, as if calling out to a potential mate and unwilling to stop singing until the mate is finally wooed. Hour after hour the singer perfectly reproduces the complete pattern, carefully regulating the song’s tone and volume.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Humpback Songs</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpback songs consist of phrases lasting a few minutes each. Phrases are combined to form themes, and two to nine themes constitute a song. The song is a continuous vocal display that lasts anywhere from about six minutes as long as 30 minutes before it is repeated, often for many hours at a time. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpback whales are able to emit a broad range of vocalizations despite the fact that they have no functional vocal cords. The whale produces these sounds by controlling implosive movements of air between a series of muscles, valves, and blind sacs that branch off the respiratory tract.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpback whales are prodigious singers, yet they don’t release air while singing. Instead the sound is created by forcing air into dead-end branches off the larynx or directed over a throat constriction. This is similar to how sound is produced by pinching a balloon near where the air is escaping. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The acoustic range of humpback whales, from their lowest to their highest notes, exceeds all other animals, land or sea. Humpbacks use the whole span of this vocal range, and may produce two completely different sounds simultaneously.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpbacks may adopt a head-down position in the water while singing so more blood perfuses their brain, which is understandable considering the complexity and precision of the singing and the incredible memory required to repeat the lengthy songs. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> All of the humpbacks in an area sing the same general song, perhaps imitating the most successful singer in the hopes that it will bring them a mate. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Each week the song being sung by a population of humpback whales changes by a small degree, and all the singers make this same change. Week after week, humpback whales alter their song just slightly, and so by the end of the mating season the song may be very different than it was at the beginning of the season. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpbacks generally stop singing when they leave their mating and birthing waters. When the whales return the next year, all of the singers again begin singing the same song, taking up where they left off the year before. The humpbacks’ song-sharing behavior plays a key role in the species’ social dynamics as the song evolves simultaneously throughout the humpback population.</span>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit is attracted by the sounds of the singing whale, and now swims closer to the alluring rhythms. Little Koholā is a bit confused by these deep melodious tones pouring through the sea. She can tell that the noises do not frighten her mother, yet Koholā is still a bit wary as she swims toward the origin of the sounds.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā swims ahead but then swims back around toward her mother for assurance, circling around Tlingit and staying relatively close. For Tlingit, the sounds reverberating through the water are a reminder that she is not yet finished with certain important activities that will occur here in Hawaiian waters, and Tlingit possesses other urges besides feeding. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Several males in the area would like to mate with Tlingit. She is receptive, and will choose one of the whales, but this will almost certainly be Tlingit’s last year of mating, becoming pregnant, and giving birth</span>////<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">then the reproductive phase of her life will be over. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Several males draw near, and then Tlingit gives Koholā a nuzzle as if to signal that she is leaving but will soon return. Then Tlingit slaps her broad tail onto the water, rolls onto her side, and submerges. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Moments later Tlingit erupts from the water amidst a rainbow of spray and foam. Rising up to the peak of her breach, Tlingit lets out an explosive exhalation as she spirals upward and spins around 180 degrees. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Again Tlingit launches skyward, her 15-foot pectoral fins extended out to her sides as she whirls around and gains a brief view of the whole panorama of the island/ocean scene. Just as quickly she comes down onto the surface with a booming splash.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Onshore the steep seacliffs rise precipitously from the breakers. Garlands of mist encircle the upper peaks and hide the origins of waterfalls that seem to fall from the sky. Tlingit swims back down into the ocean, her elongated fins extended like the wings of a giant bird soaring through the depths. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Long-jointed bones run the length of Tlingit’s pectoral fins, making them nimble and flexible. She bends the fins gracefully as she glides through the ocean water. </span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit breaches again and lands with a huge splash. Where her giant body enters the sea the great volume of displaced water creates a vacuum of air. Then the water rushes in again from all sides, sending up a secondary splash as Tlingit’s massive form disappears beneath the surface. She breaches not only to view her surroundings, but also to make sounds on the surface that other whales will hear.// </span>
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Tlingit finally ceases her aerial displays and lingers for a few minutes near the surface. Then she begins to swim rapidly, and suddenly turns and dives straight down. Minutes later Tlingit again flies up from the water in a full breach, and now her behavior distinctly changes. She moves along the surface purposefully, swimming rapidly, and with three other humpback whales now swimming in formation behind her. Such a grouping of males in close formation behind a receptive female is known as a competition pod.
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //The whales are courting Tlingit’s favor as each whale tries to displace the others from the front position nearest Tlingit. This closest male behind Tlingit is known as the __primary escort__, and is in the ideal position for winning the favor of Tlingit and being given an opportunity to mate with her.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit tests her suitors, taking them through a series of turns and maneuvers</span>////<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">up and down and left and right</span>////<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">all this to challenge the strength and coordination of the whales competing for the position of the primary escort. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Over a period of several hours, the competition pod is put to the test by Tlingit. They bump and jostle each other, occasionally breaching and then coming down from above to inflict punishment on the whale below by hitting the whale with their hard __jaw plate__. Finally one of the whales distinguishes himself without a doubt, and it is this male that has proven himself the most worthy of mating with Tlingit.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit and the primary escort now begin a series of close interactions, including the touching of pectoral fins and bellies, and much diving around and over and under one another. The other escort whales linger nearby, aware that their attempts at courtship were unsuccessful.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit and her mate continue their interactions, including slapping their pectoral fins on the water’s surface. The male turns on his back with his belly above the water and repeatedly hits both fins down onto the water, each time bringing his fins up and crossing them over his stomach before slapping them back down onto the water on either side of his body. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Soon the two whales swim underwater together away from the others. There in crystal blue Hawaiian seas a humpback whale is conceived.</span>//
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Chapter 7
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**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">More Dolphin Encounters</span>//**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //In about one month Tlingit will be back in Alaskan waters feeding on the bounty of sea life. Herring, krill, and copepods will fill the northern waters so thickly that she’ll need to expend very little energy to acquire food. She’ll take in great mouthfuls of the fish-filled water and strain the catch through her fringed baleen plates. Eventually Tlingit will regain the weight she lost during the winter months, and the food she eats will nourish yet another infant humpback whale.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> For hours upon hours Tlingit will swim through dense swarms of krill, her gaping mouth surging through the enormous clouds of underwater life like a giant mower plowing a path through the sea. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit may eat two, three, even four tons of food per day, rejuvenating her energy and providing her with the strength she will need for the next migration south. Here in Hawaiian waters, however, there is little for Tlingit to eat, yet Hawai</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">‘</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i’s tropical seas are a perfect environment for other important activities, such as mating and giving birth. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Just days after her encounter with the male humpback, Tlingit feels a subtle sensation that indeed a seed has been planted within her. Yet the tiny whale now inside Tlingit’s belly will not begin to grow until she reaches the northern feeding waters. Then the fetal cells will begin to divide and multiply at a rapid pace as the mother feeds and also returns her own body to full size in the northern seas. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> By the end of summer the whale inside Tlingit will have grown to weigh over one ton. Then, as the water grows colder again, Tlingit will repeat her annual southern migration to Hawai</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">‘</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i where she will give birth.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Now rounding the point and gliding into Hanalei Bay, Tlingit and Koholā come upon some dolphins that are different than the spinner dolphins they encountered earlier. These are bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), which look somewhat similar to spinner dolphins, but are larger and have a distinct, robust snout.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit has encountered bottlenose dolphins many times before, and she swims on unconcerned. Koholā is curious and swims near the new visitors, noticing right away that the dolphins are a bit different than others she has met.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Bottlenose Dolphins</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian name for dolphins is nai‘a. Bottlenose dolphins are found in virtually all oceans except at higher latitudes. Sleek, streamlined creatures that dive over 150 feet for food, they often stay underwater more than ten minutes. A bottlenose dolphin trained by humans once dove 1,795 feet, though dolphins don’t often dive so deep on their own.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The dorsal fin of the bottlenose dolphin is taller than the spinner dolphin’s dorsal fin, and also more curved back, or falcate.</span>
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One of the bottlenose dolphins swims below and playfully exhales air that floats upward and dissipates as it hits Koholā, who is exhilarated by the feeling of the air bubbles on her skin.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit breaches and then swims deep below as Koholā continues to watch the dolphins, circling around curiously but then swimming deep underwater after her mother. When the two whales come to the surface again, the dolphins are particularly curious about Koholā, and then swim nearer to investigate her. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā is excited at the nearness of the dolphins, and is also interested in their strange activities. Koholā sees that they aren’t much bigger than her, but so very different. Using echolocation, the dolphins are able to sense how excited and curious Koholā is about them also.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The dolphins repeatedly swim around the two whales and send out echolocation pulses. These particular bottlenose dolphins are resident to this coastal area and only venture into deeper waters to feed. This is different than some other groups of bottlenose dolphins that swim the distance between the islands. </span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //For a short time the dolphins continue to encircle the two humpback whales as they all swim near the mouth of Hanalei Bay. Tlingit is unfazed by the encounter, surfacing to breathe and continuing on in her own relaxed rhythm of aquatic movement. Koholā leaps above the water in a full breach as she follows after her mother.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit’s graceful movements in this watery world hide the fact that her ancestors walked on land. Tlingit is not conscious of her species’ terrestrial past, nor is she concerned with the principles of evolution by which populations of species change over time</span>////<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">perhaps only humans ponder such things.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit herself will not evolve, though her species as a whole will evolve over many generations. The evolution of a species occurs not in one or two lifetimes, but over thousands and millions of years.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Evolution occurs solely on the basis of some individuals of a population of a species, such as humpback whales, giving birth more than other individuals of the population. These particular members of the population that are more successful at reproducing pass on their particular traits to the next generation, and so that trait becomes more common in the population.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Mesonychids</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Ancestors of Whales</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">More than 50 million years ago some land mammals that were slightly bigger than dogs but smaller than bears began to venture into the shallow coastal waters searching for food. These were the mesonychids, the terrestrial ancestors of whales, and they looked somewhat like the hyenas of today. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The mesonychids’ forays into the aquatic realm were driven solely by the species’ need to survive. The terrestrial habitat of the mesonychid did not provide sufficient food, and so the mesonychids increasingly ventured into the sea in search of feeding opportunities. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Over many generations the mesonychids evolved small variations in their physical traits, including wider tails that allowed them to stay underwater longer and get more food. Individuals with beneficial traits were generally stronger and healthier, and consequently had more offspring, thus passing on their favorable traits.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The sea provided food, and so traits that were beneficial in the aquatic realm were favored by the evolutionary process of __natural selection__. Generation by generation, the overall mesonychid population changed, with each generation becoming slightly better adapted to venturing into the water for food. In this way the species as a whole became more efficient when pursuing prey in the ocean. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Over many thousands of years, the body of this ancestral whale became more elongated and streamlined as it adapted to the ocean environment. The hind limbs became smaller and eventually disappeared altogether as the forelimbs lengthened and flattened, becoming pectoral fins. The nasal passages migrated to the top of the head to become the blowholes, allowing for more efficient breathing at the surface. The teeth of the evolving species disappeared as baleen evolved to strain small prey from the sea. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Perhaps the most critical trait that evolved in the ancestral whale species was the flattening of the tail into a broad, horizontal fluke that increased propulsive power and helped the whale capture prey. The evolving fluke, powered by the undulations of the entire back half of the creature’s body, also provided the power for a significant breaching ability that in turn allowed for more effective vision and communication. The powerful tail region also helped the whale defend itself in the unpredictable, undersea world.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> All of the attributes that humpbacks possess today developed over time through the process of natural selection. These traits, by definition traits that increased the species’ chances of survival in their ancient ocean habitats.</span>
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Humpback Evolution
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpback whales are the products of the entirety of all of their ancestors’ past habitats. It was the buoyant medium of water that allowed the baleen whale to attain its huge stature. A similar sized creature on land would need much more energy to maneuver and would need a much more massive skeletal structure to support its weight.</span>
Environment dictates form and function, and because environmental conditions change over time, so do species — this is according to the theory of evolution and the principles of natural selection. This is also why, in modern whales, we still see reflections of their ancient past, as natural selection is the driving force of the species’ physical changes. The form of the humpback whale today is a reflection of all of the specific habitats where it struggled to find food and survive. Some adaptations, or traits, that have persisted in the anatomy of humpback whales are traits that were beneficial to their survival and reproduction in ancient oceans. In the teeth that recede into the fetal whale’s gums before birth, we see a remnant of the humpbacks’ toothed ancestors that survived in ancient oceans before humpbacks evolved baleen that helped them feed on large quantities of small prey. The humpbacks’ vestigial bones are remnants of their now-disappeared hind limbs. Traits that are still present in today’s humpback whales reveal the species’ storied past. Looking at a modern humpback whale, we may discern its behaviors by the shape and structure of its intestines, which reveal its current diet. The humpback’s dual-lensed eyes reveal the duality of the whale’s habitat above and below the surface.
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The humpback’s enhanced abilities to transmit sound reveal the evolution of its communication abilities specifically adapted to the properties of acoustic transmission in water.</span>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Just as the baleen whales’ long pectoral fins and wide, powerful tail fluke evolved for propulsion, feeding, and defense, they also evolved a super-sized mouth for efficient feeding. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> These evolutionary processes occurred over millions of years as the emerging cetacean species of humpback whales evolved from the mesonychid, a hoofed, shore-dwelling mammal that walked on land some 65 million years ago before venturing back into the sea to become a fully aquatic mammal.</span>
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit’s distant ancestors were terrestrial creatures, yet to her the land is a foreign place that is not her domain. In the past she has heard the distressed cries of stranded and beached whales, and she also knows the perils of strange northern waterways where whales are sometimes trapped by quickly changing tides. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Many years earlier, during the peak years of commercial whaling, the water around Tlingit was filled with the blood of dying whales. Tlingit was very young when the killing stopped</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">—</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">the memories linger now only in the back reaches of her mind, barely there. Perhaps even deeper in Tlingit’s memory, passed down through her direct ancestors, there is some distant recollection of those experiences that threatened the very survival of humpbacks they were hunted mercilessly throughout the world’s oceans. </span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Tlingit and Koholā now swim through Island waters that appear unthreatening to the whales. They sometimes come across sharks or other marine life, but for the most part the whales’ days are uninterrupted by any need for defensive behaviors. Occasionally a boat will cut off their path or approach too rapidly, and when this happens Tlingit submerges and swims away with Koholā following. The whales sometimes swims closer to the boats for a curious look, and this usually causes boat captains to shut off their engines in order to quietly observe the beautiful marine mammals.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The coves and bays of the Hawaiian Islands are mostly welcoming and free of predators, but when Tlingit and Koholā begin their journey north they will leave behind the relative safety of tropical seas. In the open ocean and far northern waters of the Pacific, pirate whalers continue to prey on the humpback species. Also found predominantly in northern waters is Ornicus orca, the killer whale, the most voracious natural predator of the humpback whale. Young humpbacks are particularly vulnerable to orcas.</span>//
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Chapter 8
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**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Leaving Hawaiian Waters</span>//**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //It is early May now and most of the humpbacks have headed north. Spring is in full swing, and all along Kaua‘i’s northern shores the warm breezes are cradled by great stone cliffs. Tropical tradewinds rise up the mountain slopes where the air cools and condenses into billowing clouds that create small passing rainshowers. The uplifting winds release their quarry of moisture and spawn rainbows that tint the horizon with radiant tropical light.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Huge ocean swells roll in from the open ocean and crash against the cliffs. Wave after wave pounds against the coastline rocks, slowly but relentlessly carving away at the towering ramparts that rise up steeply from the sea. Tlingit and Koholā will head north soon, and they will be among the last of the humpbacks to depart Hawaiian waters on their annual migration. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The ocean temperature around the Hawaiian Islands has already risen almost two degrees from its winter low, gradually increasing as summer approaches. Onshore the emerald green mountains glow in the bright sun. Recent rains have energized the waterfalls that cascade off the sheer cliffs with a thunderous roar before gathering in the lower valleys and then empty into the sea.</span>//
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A week of constant rain has muddied the nearshore waters and turned the river estuaries murky brown. With each downpour and powerful storm, the hills lose another layer of earth to the process of erosion. Year after year and layer by layer, the island returns to the sea.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The steady downpour of rain has ended now, and Tlingit and Koholā swim in a peaceful ocean. A single day of bright sun has dried the island’s white sand beaches. About a mile from where Tlingit and Koholā now swim, two other humpbacks breach from the water simultaneously. One of them is a calf, like Koholā, and she breaches twice more while her mother swims below. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā is aware of the nearby activity and cautiously swims toward the other whales before swimming back toward her mother. Again Koholā hears and also sees the other calf breach, and she responds by energetically circling around Tlingit and then diving down into the water with an increased level of energy.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> One of the distant whales breaches again. These two newly arrived humpback whales spent the winter months in waters off Hawai‘i Island (the Big Island) after the young one was born, and now have now ventured to Kaua</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">‘</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i at the north end of the Hawaiian Island chain. Like Koholā and Tlingit, these whales will also soon begin their migration north to Alaskan waters. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> This is the last night in Hawaiian seas for Tlingit and Koholā. Tlingit feels the natural urge toward migration, and she moves deliberately in the prevailing current. Koholā follows, already sensing that this is part of her destiny, though not fully aware that it will be just her first ocean crossing along a migratory path she will eventually follow during every year of her life.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā has actually traveled the distance between Hawai‘i and Alaska twice before. The first time, going north, Koholā was barely a group of cells inside Tlingit. Kohol</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ā</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> remained in this dormant embryo state until her mother reached the feeding waters and began to find nourishment, and the time for increase began. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> On Tlingit’s journey back south after summer was over, Koholā was still unborn, though growing rapidly in Tlingit’s womb. Now Koholā is her own free-swimming being, a humpback whale beginning her first migration across the vast sea to distant northern waters. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit continues to swim north, not randomly now, but purposefully. Koholā senses this change in her mother’s behavior as well as the changes in her ocean environment. As the evening sky begins to darken, a different horizon greets Koholā’s eyes when she comes above the surface. She is still a bit confused by the bright celestial sphere above, the vast sky glittering with stars barely conceived by her infant cetacean eyes. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> On the night Koholā was born, she was greeted by the huge white orb of the moon, which then reappeared each night as it gradually diminished to nothing and then slowly grew full again. This slow cycle of the waxing and waning moon is now starting to become familiar to Koholā, just as she has already become familiar with the sun’s daily movement across the sky. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tonight the moon is once again full, a bright beacon shining over Tlingit as she nurses her calf near the sea’s surface. A gentle swell rocks the water as a fine moonlight glazes the silver-colored sea.</span>//
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Tlingit and Koholā have now begun their journey north toward polar waters. There food will be plentiful and they will feed among all of the other North Pacific humpback whales.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The journey across the open sea will be a familiar one to Tlingit, though still it will not be easy. For the young Koholā the journey will be especially difficult, but also constantly exciting and full of new discoveries. Kohol</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ā</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> will encounter many species not seen in tropical waters, which are so far the only waters she has known.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> When Koholā arrives in northern waters, there will be strange landforms rising up from the shores. She will see glaciers calve and eagles soar overhead, and she will swim near bears at the river mouths clawing salmon from the water. Koholā will also encounter other whales that are very different from herself, such as the narwhal with its unicorn-like tusk, and the beluga with its canary-like whistles. A very different world lies ahead for Koholā.</span>//
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As she swims north, Koholā notices the ocean temperature slowly decreasing and the water currents changing. Subtle variations in color and water composition occur with each degree of higher latitude, and Koholā is a bit confused about the different character of the sea around her. Even the sky looks different.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The ocean where Koholā now swims is so deep she cannot see the bottom, even when she swims hundreds of feet below the surface. Above the water there is no land in sight, and Koholā struggles to keep up with her mother. For the first time the youngster cannot rest when she is tired and must follow her mother across an ocean that now seems infinitely deep. With her young one in tow Tlingit pushes on, vigilant to the mission of migration. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā’s primary fear in this new and foreign world is separation from her mother, her sole source of food (mother’s milk), and her only link to the knowledge she will need to survive. Koholā catches up to Tlingit and nuzzles against her, signaling a desire to feed. Not so easily persuaded, Tlingit continues on a steady pace toward northern waters. The young one’s persistence finally wins out, however, and Tlingit pauses as rich milk flows into Koholā’s mouth. The two whales are now about 50 miles north of the Hawaiian Islands.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Suddenly Tlingit is alerted by a dark form rising from below, but quickly recognizes the creature as non-threatening. It is a dense-beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris), brownish-silver in color on top and white underneath. The whale weighs about two tons and measures just over 14 feet long, which is about average for mature members of this species. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā is close by practicing her breaching, and the splashes of her pectoral fins and tail fluke cause Tlingit to circle around and dive below before gliding upward toward her calf. Koholā sees the dense-beaked whale and is aware that this creature is somewhat alike but also very different than herself. Two oversized teeth protrude upward from the mouth of the dense-beaked whale. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā begins to swim away before looking back curiously and noticing the many marks all over the whale’s body. The marks were caused mostly by altercations with other dense-beaked whales, and this particular whale that Koholā encounters is quite old and bears many scars.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //As the dense-beaked whale nears the surface, its teeth poke up out of the water. The whale thrusts its chin and rostrum above the surface and then submerges its front as its dorsal fin appears.//</span>
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Dense-Beaked Whales </span>**
Dense-beaked whales are also known as Blainville’s beaked whales. Until 1922, no dense-beaked whale had been found alive, and 26 species were found in museums. There have been encounters since then, but sightings remain rare, including strandings on Hawai‘i’s Leeward Islands.
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The two very different whales look at each other quite closely, and rather than scaring Koholā, the eye contact somehow calms her. Perhaps Koholā senses that this other creature is similar to her, or at least less different than other creatures she encounters in the ocean.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Dense-Beaked Whale</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The dense-beaked whale is a deep-diving, toothed cetacean that feeds on squid and fish. The male of this species has two large barnacle-encrusted teeth, each about eight inches long. These prominent teeth stick straight up from the sides of the whale’s lower jaw. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Dense-beaked whales are rarely seen by humans, and prefer very cold water. The species is more common in Hawaiian waters than anywhere else because Hawai‘i’s offshore waters get deep very quickly compared to continental waters. This rapid drop-off in depth makes the cold, deep water readily accessible to the dense-beaked whale.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The temperature of the ocean beneath about 3,000 feet deep is just above freezing. This is true in all the oceans at all latitudes, from the equator to the poles.</span>
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Chapter 9</span>**
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Back in Northern Waters
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //About three weeks after leaving Hawaiian waters, Tlingit and Koholā finally reach their destination, the food-rich northern seas where Tlingit begins to partake in a summer feast and regain the weight she lost over the long winter without food. Koholā is still nourished each day by her mother’s milk, and continues to grow rapidly, about one foot per month. The young whale will double in size during her first year of life.//</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Above the rolling swells of water, Tlingit sees Alaska’s Kodiak Island where huge brown bears onshore lumber alongside a river. These are grizzly bears, Ursos arctos horribilis, the largest bears on Earth. These particular grizzlies are also known as Kodiak bears. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> One of the large Kodiak bears walks into the river’s current and then swoops its massive paw down to claw a salmon from the rushing water. The salmon are born high in the mountain lakes and streams and then swim downriver to the ocean. Years later the salmon return upriver to their home waters to spawn the next generation. </span>//
To Tlingit, the movements of these strange creatures she may see on the shoreline are only a mild curiosity. Tlingit swims along at a moderate pace, about five miles per hour, surfacing every few hundred feet for another breath of air while occasionally diving beneath the sea in search of food. Occasionally Tlingit ventures into coves and bays to explore some feeding opportunities. In one of these bays she comes upon a northern sea lion, a large marine mammal quite common in these waters. Tlingit veers to the right, inspecting the sea lion closely with her left eye. The young male sea lion is about seven feet long and 700 pounds, and swims around Tlingit in a smooth circle. The seal then surfaces as Tlingit surfaces, and together the two different species take a breath and re-submerge, casually inspecting each other before going their separate ways.Within two years this young sea lion will weigh more than one ton and measure more than twelve feet long.
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Chapter 10
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**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">One Year Later </span>//****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>****//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Continuing On</span>//**
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In southeast Alaska, off the northern shore of Mitkof Island where the Fredrick Sound meets the fast-flowing Wrangell Narrows, tall masts of boats sway gently in the Petersburg harbor. North of the tiny, seaside town a half-dozen bald eagles look over the inlet waters. These white-crowned birds benefit from plenteous salmon they pluck from the water with their razor-sharp talons.
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //After an unsuccessful feeding attempt, a young eagle alights on a branch. The eagle’s feathers are still a mottled color//</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">she won’t gain her adult plumage until about five years of age. The eagle’s body, like Koholā’s, is still changing even as the bird develops better hunting skills.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā has now completed her second journey north from tropical waters, and has chosen this location as her primary feeding area during the first year apart from Tlingit. Koholā was born in Hawaiian waters, traveled with her mother to Alaskan waters, and then swam back again to Hawai‘i’s tropical seas. On her second journey north, Koholā left the tropics before Tlingit. Koholā is now on her own off the southeast Alaskan coast.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Hungry from her long journey, Koholā feeds on huge schools of fish and continues to grow in size and strength. She is well on her way to reproductive maturity, which will occur around 4½ years of age, though full physical maturity won’t come until about eleven years of age.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā has now begun to understand the seasons of her life as a humpback whale migrating between the two worlds</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">of the t</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ropical and polar waters. The brief northern summer is marked by a frenzy of procreation among life’s smallest creatures, and is the time to eat large quantities of food. Winter in Hawaiian waters is the time when calves are born and whale songs fill the sea, signaling the rituals of mating and birthing. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> When Koholā was just a few months old and arrived in northern waters after her migration from the tropics, she quickly discovered an ocean full of life. Koholā fed on Tlingit’s rich milk while she learned about her new environment in northern waters, the other half of her native habitat.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> During summer months in Alaskan waters the vast soup of the sea transmutes life into more life. Large creatures feed on the small, and the smallest feed on the thick broth of microscopic plankton at the base of the food chain. A combination of sunlight, minerals and nutrients create a rich diversity of life that blossoms before Koholā’s eyes.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā’s first winter in Alaskan waters was full of new experiences and she encountered many other humpback whales as well as a great variety of other marine life. As winter approached she headed south with Tlingit, and the northern sea became dormant and seemingly lifeless. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Now millions upon millions of tiny creatures once again fill the northern sea, a teeming bounty unmatched in any ocean. The flourishing marine organisms are a testament to the abundance and diversity of life</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">—</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">its profound interconnectedness, complexity, and beauty. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Protists, fungi, lichens, vascular plants, krill upon krill, and an endless array of marine life forms fill the water. Between the tiny krill are even tinier creatures called diatoms, which are one-celled, glass-armed algae. This microscopic ocean life at the bottom of the food chain supports the most massive mammalian creatures of the ocean, including Tlingit and Koholā.</span>//
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Plankton</span>**
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The sun is the primary energy source of virtually all ocean life including plankton, the mediators of Earth’s solar energy. The term plankton refers to aquatic species at the mercy of the ocean’s currents. Many types of plankton are able to achieve some small-scale movements on their own, though it is primarily the water currents that provide transport. Plankton harvest the energy of the sun and pass it on through the food chain to more complex life forms.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Many varieties of __phytoplankton__, the ocean’s primary producers, gather the energy of the sunlight and convert it to energy in a process called __photosynthesis__. A magnesium-based molecule called chlorophyll is used by the phytoplankton to complete this conversion of sunlight to energy, and the long days of the Alaskan summer provide ample hours of sunlight for photosynthesis to occur.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Virtually all ocean life depends either directly or indirectly on phytoplankton. As the solar collectors of the sea, phytoplankton thrive near the ocean’s surface where they absorb sunlight and synthesize it into energy. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Phytoplankton are eaten by zooplankton, and both are eaten by fish—all three are eaten by whales. Inevitably, all life in the sea is either eaten or decomposes on the seafloor where bacteria transforms it once again into the food chain’s basic nutrients, including phosphates and nitrates that support photosynthetic organisms. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Winds move the sea’s surface waters, which are in turn replaced by water rising up from below. This upwelling carries the nutrient-rich waters from the ocean deeps up toward the surface, and drives the marine food chain processes. </span>
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//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Suddenly great clouds of rising bubbles shatter the tranquility of the ocean’s mirrored surface. The large circle of bubbles is coming from several whales working together to corral nearly one million herring into a confined area so they may be eaten.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> In close formation the whales, including Koholā, swim below the trapped fish. The whales, in close formation and with their cavernous mouths fully open, rise up through the trapped prey. The herring are enveloped in the frothy prison of air and are confused and helpless as they bump into one another and leap above the surface. Swirling in a mass frenzy, the herring are unable to sense the titanic forms coming up from below. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā opens her massive mouth and surges up through the trapped school, taking in thousands of gallons of fish-filled water. The whole front half of Koholā’s body expands like a giant balloon, revealing the folded skin of her __ventral pleats__, or throat grooves.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Spilling out the sides of Koholā’s voluminous mouth are the herring lucky enough to escape. The remainder of the fish see only darkness as Koholā uses her baleen to strain them from the water, and then uses her huge tongue to push the fish back toward her throat and swallow them in large gulps.</span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā participates in this feeding as part of a cooperating group of humpback whales, and the coordinated efforts benefit them with abundant food.</span>//
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Days later, Kohol//</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">ā</span>////<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> swims alone as she comes upon a great cloud in the water. It is a mating swarm of krill concentrated in one area, and thus particularly vulnerable to the feeding techniques of the humpback whale. Koholā swoops below the krill and rises with her mouth fully agape. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Again the shape of Koholā’s body is transformed as she takes in thousands upon thousands of the tiny prey. The front half of Koholā’s body expands and the ventral pleats widen with the inward flood of water. </span>//
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Koholā strains the huge quantity of food through her baleen and begins releasing the water as she swallows the krill. The water streams out of Koholā’s mouth as the baleen traps the tiny organisms like a giant sieve. Koholā’s tongue shovels the food into her throat, which then contracts and swallows in great gulps as the krill begin a journey through Koholā’s several stomachs.</span>//
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //And so we will leave the whales where we joined them, in Alaskan waters thick with herring and blooming with krill, waters surrounded by snow-capped peaks where eagles fly and bears prowl the rivers for salmon. Koholā is growing and thriving in these northern waters, and soon she will return to the tropics to fulfill her role in the perpetuation of her species.// </span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Tlingit and Koholā also enjoy the summer bounty of food as the two whales continue on through their annual cycle of seasons and migrations.</span>//
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Gentle Giants
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpback whales are among the largest and most graceful creatures inhabiting Earth’s seas. Their huge streamlined bodies glide through the ocean with ease, and two strokes of the powerful tail fluke propels the whale’s giant body up from the surface where it spins around in midair before landing with a thunderous splash. Yet humpback whales came very close to extinction due to commercial whaling.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Seeing humpback whales in their natural element is an awesome experience, and the fascination only grows as one learns more about these magnificent and highly-evolved marine mammals. Yet our understanding of humpback whales remains shallow, and we are often as perplexed as we are informed. With each new fossil or fact, each new study or reformulated conclusion, many new questions arise.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> During nearly two centuries of intensive commercial whaling, humans learned a great deal about the humpback whales’ commercial value, how to hunt them profit from the sale of their flesh, yet little was discovered about the whales themselves</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">their migration, social structure, feeding, mating, and birthing. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Modern science has only just begun to provide an understanding of the whales’ life processes and social relationships, and relatively little is known about their pronounced and subtle patterns of living. Many things remain a mystery, such as the complexities of cetacean communication methods, including the humpbacks’ structured and lengthy songs that resonate through the ocean deeps. Future studies will reveal more about the whales’ methods of sound propagation, including their amazing ability to use the broadest vocal range of any species of the land or sea. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Recent fossil finds have shed new light on the evolutionary origins of whales. Fossils such as //Ambulocetus inachus// and other “missing link” fossils are now helping researchers understand how modern whales came to be, and scientists are utilizing new DNA analysis techniques to unravel the many phases in the evolutionary history of whales. The puzzle is far from solved, however, with much yet to be learned about the ancestors of whales and their slow change over time from an ancient land mammal species into the multitude of cetacean species that inhabit the oceans today.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Just decades ago, numerous whale species were on the brink of extinction due to commercial whaling. Some of these endangered cetacean populations, including the North Pacific population of humpback whales, have now significantly recovered, while others remain extremely endangered. Ocean pollution is a continuing threat to the largest of the whales. Many smaller whales and dolphins continue to die as the unwanted by-catch of commercial fisheries that seek tuna and other fish.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Humpback whales are the gentle giants of the ocean, and they are the products of millions upon millions of years of evolution, yet they came very close to vanishing forever. The days of large scale commercial killing of humpback whales are over, and enough humpbacks somehow evaded the onslaught of whaling ships and harpoons to prevent the species from becoming extinct. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The humpback whales in the oceans today are the living links to the distant past, and their evolutionary history mirrors the processes of evolution of all aquatic and terrestrial life on Earth. While the modern history of the humpback whale is a stunning example of how profit is sometimes pursued at the expense of a species, the continuing story of humpbacks tells us that eventually human goodness may prevail as concerned individuals rally to save a unique and irreplaceable marine mammal. Humpback whales are as mysterious as they are fascinating, and learning about them is a step towards saving them and preserving the ocean environment where they live. </span>
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">
Appendix 1:</span>**
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;">The Evolution of Whales</span>//**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">and a</span>//**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Brief History of Life on Earth</span>//**</span>
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15 billion years ago: The universe is born in an explosion called the Big Bang. Out of a chrysalis of gas and dust there coalesces a substance called matter, which eventually forms into stars, galaxies, planets, and a variety of other stellar objects. Over 100 billion galaxies form, including the Milky Way Galaxy, which contains about 200 billion stars. One of these stars is our sun.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">4.5 billion years ago: </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Earth forms, 93 million miles from the sun. Earth is the third farthest planet from the sun, and one of nine planets revolving around the sun, which is the center of the solar system. Earth is the fifth largest planet, and has one moon, which orbits the planet every 29 days.</span>
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4 billion years ago: Life takes hold on Earth, most likely in Earth’s oceans.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">570 million years ago: </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Sponges and other multicellular organisms evolve in Earth’s oceans, followed by increasingly complex multicellular life.</span>
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468 million years ago: Life takes hold on land in the form of simple plants.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">370 million years ago:</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Lobe-finned fish appear. They use their bony front limbs to climb onto land in search of food. Reptiles evolve from lobe-finned fish and eventually branch out into many land animals, including mammals, dinosaurs, turtles, and other groups. </span>
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225 million years ago: Dinosaurs appear for the first time, along with the ancestors of modern mammals. Dinosaur species soon dominate the land.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">213 million years ago: </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Thirty-five percent of all animal families become extinct, including all marine reptiles except ichthyosaurs. Dinosaurs expand into many terrestrial habitats.</span>
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150 million years ago: Sea turtles inhabit Earth’s oceans.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">65 million years ago: </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Another mass extinction occurs, most likely due to an asteroid impact that devastates dinosaur populations. Only very small mammal species exist on Earth at this time, and with the dinosaurs gone, many mammal species evolve into larger species, including the **mesonychid**, a hoofed shore-dwelling mammal that is the direct ancestor of whales. The mesonychid is about the size of a large dog or small bear, and roams the shores of a large body of water called the Tethys Sea.</span>
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60 million years ago: Mesonychids, the ancestors of whales, begin to venture back into the oceans to search for food. As each generation of the species spends more time in the water, evolution brings about gradual changes allowing the species to become better adapted to the aquatic environment.
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Over the following tens of millions of years, the hyena-like mesonychid species evolves new aquatic traits: the forelimbs lengthen into pectoral fins; the hind limbs gradually become smaller until they finally disappear; the body becomes more streamlined; the nasal passages migrate upward and back on the head to become the blowholes; and the head becomes broader as the body narrows toward the lengthening tail for more streamlined and efficient aquatic movement. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The mesonychid’s tail becomes more flattened on the end, and this lateral flattening eventually leads to the horizontal tail fluke that propels the animal gracefully through the water.</span>
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53.5 million years ago: Appearance of Himalayaecetus subathuensis, considered the oldest whale.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">50 million years ago:</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The primitive whale //Pakicetus inachus// appears.</span>
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49 million years ago: An archaeocete called Ambulocetus natans (“The walking whale that swam”) appears. This otter-like whale ancestor is about 10 feet long, 650 pounds, and has shark-like teeth, but does not yet have the horizontal tail fluke of modern whales.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">46 million years ago:</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The whale ancestor //Rhodocetus// appears, and has the beginnings of a tail fluke.</span>
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40 million years ago:Basilosaurus isis appears. This whale ancestor has a body up to 65 feet long, and a well-developed tail. The evolving mesonychid has now made the transition from a land-dwelling mammal into a fully aquatic mammal.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">30 million years ago: </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Two main evolutionary lines of cetaceans emerge</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">the baleen whales and the toothed whales. The baleen whales develop giant mouths with fringed plates of baleen that are used to sift tiny prey from the water. Toothed cetacean species hunt larger prey, and work together in cooperative hunting and feeding strategies.</span>
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10 million years ago: Humpback whales inhabit the world’s oceans.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">5 million years ago:</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The island of Kaua‘i forms. It is the oldest and northernmost of the eight Hawaiian Islands.</span>
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4 million years ago: The first hominids (the ancestors of humans) appear. Called Australopithecus afarensis, they stand upright and walk on two feet.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">100,000 years ago:</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> //Homo sapiens// (modern humans) first appear.</span>
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c.1,700 years ago: Approximate time of first humans arriving in Hawaiian Islands. Estimates of the time of first human arrival range from A.D. 100 to A.D. 800.
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Today: </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The scientific order //Cetacea// includes all whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Cetaceans are carnivorous, aquatic mammals found in all the world’s oceans. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> There are two main evolutionary lines of cetaceans: baleen whales (mysticetes), and toothed whales (odontocetes). At least five species of baleen whales are native to Hawaiian waters, along with at least 19 toothed species.</span>
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Appendix 2</span>**
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Guide to the Taxonomy </span>//**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Of the </span>//**</span>
<span style="text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Humpback Whale</span>//**</span>
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Kingdom: Animalia:
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> All animals are part of the Kingdom //Animalia//.</span>
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Phylum: Chordata:
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> All chordates possess a notochord, which is the precursor to the backbone. The notochord is basically an internal skeletal rod of either bone or cartilage.</span>
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Subphylum: Vertebrata:
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Vertebrates are the most advanced group of chordates, having a skeleton that supports appendages (fins, or arms and legs) and a cranium, which protects the brain. All animals with backbones are vertebrates. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The most primitive vertebrates are fish, which give rise through evolution to amphibians (which have four limbs); and then reptiles (the first to colonize land); and eventually dinosaurs and birds. An offshoot group of reptiles eventually gives rise to a class called //Mammalia//, including humans.</span>
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Class: Mammalia:
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Mammals suckle their young and are characterized by hair and different-shaped teeth. Mammals are also warm-blooded, which means they can regulate their own body temperature.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Primitive mammals include monotremes (egg-laying mammals), and marsupials, which keep their young in a specialized pouch. Advanced mammals are called placentals, and this is the group that includes both the order //Cetacea// (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and //Homo sapiens// (humans).</span>
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Order: Cetacea:
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Cetaceans include all whales, dolphins, and porpoises. The order //Cetacea// is divided into two suborders: //Mysticeti// (baleen whales) and //Odontoceti// (toothed whales).</span>
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Suborder: Mysticeti:
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Includes all the baleen whales. Mysticetes are characterized by two blowhole openings, a symmetrically shaped skull, vestigial leg bones, and the use of baleen for feeding. </span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Note: </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">The Suborder **//Odontoceti//** includes all cetaceans with teeth. Odontocetes are characterized by a single blowhole, an asymmetrically-shaped skull, no vestigial leg bones, and the fact that they have teeth, which are used for feeding. </span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Humpback</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, fin, sei, Bryde’s, minke, and blue whales. </span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Characterized by torpedo-shaped (fusiform) body, and ventral pleats that increase mouth size while feeding.</span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Feed by gulping and filtering.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> **2) __//Balaenidae//__**: </span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Bowhead, right, and pygmy right whales. </span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Characterized by a large, deep bucket mouth and rotund figure.</span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Feed on krill, and skim through the water to filter out organisms.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> **3) __//Eschrichtiidae//__**: </span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Characterized by feeding on crustaceans stirred up from the seafloor mud.</span>
<span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> <span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Feed by vacuuming food through their baleen.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';"> Note: **Odontocetes** include //Physeteridae// (e.g., sperm whale); //Platanistidae// (e.g., river dolphins); //Delphinidae// (e.g., oceanic dolphins, killer whales); //Phocoenidae// (e.g., smaller true porpoises); //Ziphiidae// (e.g., beaked whales); and //Monodontidae// (e.g., narwhal, beluga).</span>
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===//__<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Appendix 3</span>__//===
=== ===
===<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">Adaptive Radiation</span></span>===
===<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;"> and</span></span>===
===<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">The Evolution of Cetaceans</span></span>===
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The process of one species evolving into many species is called adaptive radiation (also called evolutionary divergence). This evolutionary process occurs slowly over many generations, usually over a period of thousands or even millions of years.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Adaptive radiation occurs when a population of a species becomes divided and each separated sub-group of the species adapts to different habitats and utilizes different food sources, eventually evolving different physical traits that were beneficial in the particular environment.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The evolutionary principal of natural selection dictates that the best fed members of a population are generally the healthiest and produce the most offspring, thus perpetuating their specific traits. Over many generations, new (unique) species evolve. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">When the ancestors of whales began to spread through the oceans</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">from polar to equatorial waters, from shallow to deep seas</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">they discovered new food sources and populated new habitats. The separated sub-groups of the population began to change and adapt to their particular environments.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The great diversity of habitats and food sources, along with the processes of natural selection, led to the evolution of dozens of cetacean species</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">dolphins, porpoises, and baleen whales.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Pakicetus inachus</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> was the ancestor of all whale species, and swam through the oceans some 50 million years ago. Over a period of about 20 million years, from 50 to 30 million years ago, //Ambulocetus// gradually evolved into at least 82 different cetacean species. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Today evolution continues, though we may not discern its occurrence during the relatively short span of our lifetimes. Populations of all species slowly evolve as they adapt to changing environments, and the ancient whales lived in far different environments than are found on Earth today. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The humpback whales’ distant ancestors were land mammals that increasingly ventured into the water for food that the land no longer provided. Over millions of years the species became totally aquatic, no longer walking on land at all. Instead the species spent all of its time in the ocean.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Ancient whale populations utilized a variety of different food sources in different ocean environments. These changes led to new physical adaptations, such as a large tail that aided propulsion. New traits continued to evolve to take advantage of new feeding opportunities </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Environmental differences led to physical and behavioral changes among the emerging cetacean species. The separate whale populations eventually became distinct from one another—they looked different, behaved differently, ate different food, and eventually became completely different species.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Some of the ancient whales needed to hunt down and attack larger prey, and for this sharp teeth and the ability to swim fast were beneficial. The most successful of these hunters were better fed, and had more offspring than the less successful hunters. Among these more successful members there eventually emerged more individuals (e.g., dolphins) with physical traits that favored hunting (fast swimmers, strong teeth, etc.).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In a vastly different area of ocean, however, some of the ancestral whales (aquatic mammals) learned to eat smaller prey, such as krill and herring, and among this subgroup, evolution favored the whales with larger mouths. Teeth were not helpful for feeding on small prey, and in some species (e.g., humpbacks) the teeth gradually disappeared as baleen evolved to filter the tiny prey from the water.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Through adaptive radiation, over many millions of years, there evolved at least twelve different species of baleen whales. All of these baleen whales were extremely large and all had mouths perfectly suited for straining tremendous quantities of tiny creatures from the ocean. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Baleen whales needed large areas of ocean to forage for food, and thus became more solitary, though they sometimes utilized group feeding strategies to encircle and capture prey, also learning to use releases of air bubbles from their blowholes to surround and catch prey. The seasonal nature of the food sources of the large whales also influenced their migration patterns, which eventually tended toward polar waters during summer for feeding, and warmer, tropical waters during winter when mating and birthing occurred. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">There are now at least 82 recognized species of cetaceans, including all whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Of these cetacean species, at least 70 are odontocetes (toothed species) and at least 12 are mysticetes (baleen species).</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS';">Each of the cetacean species that exists on Earth today is uniquely adapted to its particular environment. The species’ physical and behavioral traits are the products of past and current environmental conditions—environmental changes drive the process of evolution. These environmental changes on Earth may occur relatively rapidly, as in the case of the asteroid impact about 65 million years ago that decimated dinosaur populations and allowed mammals such as cetaceans to evolve.</span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Appendix 4</span>**
A Brief History of Whaling
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Whaling was an important part of early Eskimo and Native American culture. The whales were usually hunted from canoes using stone harpoons. Records of humans hunting whales extend as far back as 220 B.C., and pictures scratched on stones depict successful hunts. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The Basques used rowboats and hand-held harpoons to hunt right whales along the coasts of France and Spain beginning in 1000 A.D. , and by the 1500s most of the right whales along Europe’s coasts had been killed. The Basques crossed the Atlantic in search of more whales. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The peak period of whaling in the New World was 1560 to 1570, when about one half million gallons of whale oil were produced annually during the five-month season. As early as the 1600s, humpback whales were hunted from Japanese shores. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> These practices of aboriginal whaling took relatively few whales, and likely had no effect on the overall population. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> By the 1630s the Massachusetts Bay Colony established a thriving commercial fishing industry off the east coast of North America, leading to whaling in New England waters and then beyond. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Right and bowhead whales were soon hunted nearly to extinction. Then gray whales were hunted along the Atlantic coast of North America by the colonists and other whalers who decimated whale populations. This began the period of hunting further offshore for sperm whales. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> The peak period of Yankee whaling was from 1800 to 1860 as ships traveled the world’s oceans in search of whales. By 1819 American whalers were hunting near the Hawaiian Islands, and by 1822 about 60 whaling ships patrolled Hawaiian seas. The peak year of whaling near Hawai</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">‘</span><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">i was 1851 when more than 600 ships docked in Honolulu and Lahaina.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Beginning in the late 1800s and through the 1900s, commercial whalers severely reduced humpback whale populations in all the world’s oceans. Nineteenth century whalers lured the youngest of the whales within range of the harpoons, speared them, and then used the calves as decoys to lure the mother within range of the weapons. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> Factory ships were built beginning around 1925, allowing whales to be winched up a ramp at the rear of the ship where they were flensed (cut-up). Smaller ships with cannon harpoons caught the whales and dragged them to the factory ship.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> At the turn of the 20th century, huge numbers of humpback whales were killed as a result of improvements in steam-driven whaling ships as well as the Norwegians’ invention of an explosive harpoon. By 1960, the North Pacific humpback whale population was less than 1,000 whales.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> In 1971, the last American whaling company shut down. All of the large whale species were declared endangered and near extinction. In 1973 the Endangered Species Act was passed, and in 1986 the International Whaling Commission placed a global moratorium on commercial whaling.</span>
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**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Appendix 5</span>**
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;">Timeline of Hawai‘i’s Whaling Era</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="display: block; text-align: center;"> </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">On September 29, </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1819</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, the //Equator// and the //Balena// became the first whaling ships to arrive in the Hawaiian Islands. The New England ships anchored in Kealakekua Bay where the //Balena// harpooned a large sperm whale that yielded more than 100 barrels of oil. This began Hawai‘i’s whaling era. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1820,</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"> the Nantucket whaling ship //Maro// under the command of Joseph Allen became the first whaling ship to enter Honolulu Harbor. Allen later discovered rich whaling waters off Japan, and soon hundreds of whaling ships headed for the area to exploit the bountiful sperm whale resource. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian Islands, being centrally located between the American west coast and Japan, quickly developed into a major staging area for ships going to and from the newly discovered whaling area. The main Hawaiian ports for the whaling ships were in Honolulu and Lahaina, and many native Hawaiians were recruited to work on the ships. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1822</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, about 60 whaling ships patrolled Hawaiian waters, and the number continued to grow into a shore-based fishery in Hawai‘i that developed specifically to hunt whales. In 1824, more than 100 whaling vessels arrived in the Islands. On May 1, </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1823</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, the //Globe//, a Nantucket whaling ship under the command of Thomas Worth, arrived in Honolulu. The //Globe// was later involved in whaling history’s worst mutiny, led by Samuel Comstock.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In October of **1825**, the Lahaina home of Reverend William Richards was attacked by the crew of the British whaling ship //Daniel.// The whalers were angry at restrictions enacted due to missionary influences in the Islands. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In October of **1827**, the sailors of the British whale ship //John Palmer// fired a cannon at a missionary house in Lahaina, Maui due to a conflict between the sailors and the missionaries. In **1828**, a total of 159 whaling ships arrived in Hawaiian ports, including 112 in Honolulu and 47 in Lahaina. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1832</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, a total of 198 whaling ships stopped in Hawaiian ports, including 118 in Honolulu and 80 in Lahaina. The whaling industry continued to grow. Honolulu merchant Henry A. Peirce outfitted the //Denmark Hill//, which was captained by G. W. Cole and became the first whaling ship to sail under the Hawaiian flag. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1834</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, the whaling ship //Helvetius//, carrying 1,400 barrels of whale oil, wrecked on the reef off Diamond Head. Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) sent men to assist, and about 500 barrels of oil were salvaged.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In the </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1840s</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, several companies in Hawai‘i attempted to hunt local whales. At this time, oil from the sperm whale sold for $1 per gallon, and oil rendered from whale blubber, such as from the humpback whale, sold for 30 cents per gallon. </span>
**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1846 </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">was the peak year for whaling ship arrivals at Hawaiian ports, with at least 596 whaling ships stopping in the Islands, including at least 429 at Lahaina and 166 at Honolulu. In **1851**, a total of 220 whaling ships stopped at Hawaiian ports in 1851. Oil from sperm whales fueled the Industrial Revolution. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">On November 8, </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1852</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, the death of imprisoned whaler Henry Burns led to a riot by thousands of sailors who set fire to the Honolulu police station. In </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1859</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, 549 whaling ships stopped at Hawaiian ports, including 249 ships arriving in Honolulu, 116 ships arriving in Lahaina, and 184 ships arriving in other ports.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">After oil was discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania in </span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1859</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, it became the new source of lubricants for industry, and this marked the end of the heyday of the whaling industry. By this date, whales were rapidly disappearing due to over-harvesting.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In</span>//**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1868</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, about 600,000 pounds of whalebone (baleen) and 775,000 pounds of whale oil were transshipped from the Islands. In **1871**,north of the Bering Strait, an early Arctic freeze destroyed the North Pacific whaling fleet, including seven Hawai‘i-owned ships. </span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">In</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1966</span>**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">, the International Whaling Commission prohibited all hunting of humpback whales in the North Pacific Ocean. The North Pacific population of humpback whales neared extinction, having declined to an estimated 1,000 whales or less. The Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary was created in **1997** to provide protection for the species and their habitat.</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">Humpback Whale Journey: </span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">List of Sources for </span>**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 14pt;">Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales</span>**</span></span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Note on Spellings: All words in the text of the book conform to proper Hawaiian spelling and punctuation, however, the source titles that follow are listed exactly as published, and not altered to conform to proper Hawaiian spelling and punctuation (e.g., diacritical marks are not added).</span>
**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Atlas of Hawai‘i: Second Edition.</span>//**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983.</span>
**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition.</span>//**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Balcomb, Kenneth C. III. **//The Whales of Hawaii: including all species of marine mammals in Hawaiian and adjacent waters.//** San Francisco, California: Marine Mammal Fund, 1987.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Communication and Echolocation.</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Internet site: [[http://www.seaworld.org/bottlenose_dolphin/echodol.html]], SeaWorld/BuschGardens, 5/13/2001.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Curtis, Paul C. //Whale of a time around Kaua‘i: Visitors, boat operators ready for another season of whale watching.// The Garden Island, 12/01/2000.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Endangered animals in the Hawaiian Islands.</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Internet site produced by the US Fish and Wildlife Service: [[http://www.r1.fws.gov/pacific/wesa/hrybatindex.html]]</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Eyre, David L. **//By Wind, By Wave//**//.// Honolulu: The Bess Press, 2000.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Jacobs, Francine, and Beath, Mary; Revised for Hawaii by Tom, Allen; Hawaiian translation by Okimoto, Analu. **//Sea Turtles: No Na Honou Kai.//** Produced by the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service with permission from the Center for Marine Conservation. Honolulu: Hagadone Printing Company, 1995.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Kaufman, Gregory Dean, and Forestell, Paul Henry. **//Hawaii’s Humpback Whales.//** Honolulu: Island Heritage Publishing, 1986.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Mate, Bruce R. //Watching whale habits and habitats from Earth satellites.// Whalewatcher, Summer, 1989, Volume 23, Number 2.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Norris, Kenneth. **//Dolphin Days//**//.// New York: W.W. Norton and Co. 1991.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Oliver, Anthony Michael. **//Hawaii Fact and Reference Book.//** Mutual Publishing, 1995.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Payne, Roger. **//Among Whales.//** New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons: Simon and Schuster Inc., 1995.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Polynesian Voyaging Society: The building of Hokule‘a</span>//**—**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">1973-1975.</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/build.html.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. **//Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition//.** Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1986.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H, with Mookini, Esther T. and Nishizawa, Yu Mapuana. //New **Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary.**// Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1992</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Ronck, Ronn. **//Hawaii Almanac//.** Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1984.</span>
**//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Fishes, Whales, and Dolphins.</span>//**<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">The Humpback Whale: The humpback whale is the fifth largest of the great whales</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">. Fact Sheet: Pacific Whale Foundation, Internet site: [[http://www.pacificwhale.org/childrens/fshumpback.html]], 1999.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Whale Anatomy and Physiology</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">. Internet site: [[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/anatomy/]], 5/13/2001.</span>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Woodford, James. //We should be so lucky.// Internet site: [[http://www.smh.com.au/news/specials/intl/whale/whalesong.html]], 5/13/2001.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Zoom Whales: All About Whales.</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Internet site: [[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/species/Humpbackwhale.shtml]], 5/13/2001.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Zoom Whales: Primitive whales and whale evolution.</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Internet site: [[http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/whales/allabout/Evol.shtml]], 5/13/2001.</span>
//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;">Zoom Whales: Whale Anatomy and Behavior.</span>//<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 11pt;"> Internet site: [[http://www.enchanted/|//http://www.enchanted//]] learning.com/subjects/whales/anatomy/Sleep.shtml, 5/13/2001. </span>
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**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 14pt;">Spinner and Bottlenose Dolphins </span>**
Hawaiian Name: Nai‘a [Illustration: Spinner dolphin flipping in air]
Spinner Dolphins (Stenella longisrostris) Endemic Hawaiian subspecies They leap up from the sea in synchronous motion, their shimmering bodies arcing gracefully through the air and then disappearing again beneath the water’s surface. These are Hawai‘i’s dolphins—playful, intelligent, perceptive, curious, and often quite friendly to humans. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “He nai‘a, he i‘a lele.” (“It is the nai‘a, a leaping fish”), and is “...said of one who jumps to conclusions.”[iv] [Illustration: Spinner dolphin]
Spinner dolphin adults average from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.2 m) long and weigh from 110 to 160 pounds (50 to 73 kg). The dolphin’s back is dark, the sides are pearl gray, and the belly is pure white. The slim beak of the spinner dolphin is blackish-colored and lined with 180 or more delicate interlocking conical teeth. Spinner dolphins earned their name because of their fondness for jumping out of the water and doing acrobatic flips and spins in the air, a sight that is common in Hawaiian waters. Spinner dolphins travel in pods, which sometimes number in the hundreds. It’s not uncommon to see several dolphins leap from the water perfectly together. The dolphins often leap high up out of the water, doing two or even three flips in the air while at the same time spinning their bodies around. Researchers believe that the energetic flips and spins done by spinner dolphins may serve the purpose of acting as geographical markers for the pod, as well as to let other dolphins know their location. Dolphins often let out a loud sound below the surface right before they leap out and spin. It is possible the leaps and spins may also be a form of play. Pods of spinner dolphins often swim in large, slow circles nearshore in the early morning. This is likely their resting phase. Dolphins may alternate brain halves while “sleeping,” allowing one side of the brain to rest while the other side stays active (an important survival trait in an ocean environment). Spinners dolphins live to about 20 years of age, on average. Pregnancy in spinner dolphins lasts about 10½ months. Baby dolphins are seen around the Hawaiian Islands mostly in the late spring and summer. About 1 time in 100, a spinner dolphin will have twins, and when that does occur, the other adult females in the pod may take care of one of the babies. [Photograph: Spinner Dolphin]
Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) Indigenous Bottlenose dolphins are also seen around the Hawaiian Islands quite regularly, though not in such great numbers as spinner dolphins. An adult bottlenose dolphin may be 8 to 11 feet (2.4 to 3.4 m) long and weigh just less than 500 pounds (227 kg). [Illustration: Bottlenose dolphin]
Bottlenose dolphins may eat more than 20 pounds (9 kg) of food per day, including fish, squid, shrimp and crabs. Dolphins usually dive less than 200 feet (61 m) for food, but one bottlenose dolphin trained by humans demonstrated its deep-diving ability by diving to almost 1,800 feet (549 m). The bottlenose dolphin is considered the smartest of all of dolphin species, and perhaps the smartest of all animals. Bottlenose dolphins actually have a cerebral cortex more convoluted (folded) than the human cerebral cortex, though it is thinner than the human cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain that corresponds with social communication, abstract information processing, problem solving and higher level thinking. The structural complexity of the dolphin’s cerebral cortex may explain the learning capabilities that are highly evolved in bottlenose dolphins. Bottlenose dolphins are also known to sometimes create elaborate bubble rings, and then to play with these bubble rings in a variety of ways. Some dolphins have shown the ability to produce stable, lasting bubble rings, including fabricating long helices (spirals) of air by swimming in a curved path. The dolphin releases air into the vortex it creates, and then uses its dorsal fin to bring the bubbles together and curl them into a helix up to 15 feet (4.6 m) long. [Photograph: Bottlenose dolphin]
Echolocation Dolphins purposefully bounce sounds off objects and then interpret the returning echo. The dolphin uses this echolocation to get an acoustic picture of its surroundings by emitting sound waves from its forehead region, known as the melon. All toothed cetaceans (Odontocetes) are believed to be capable of echolocation. [Illustration: Echolocating bottlenose dolphin with sound waves reflecting out and reflecting back and/or dolphin creating bubble rings]
The time lapse between the dolphin emitting the signal and receiving the echo indicates the distance to the object being echolocated, and also the target’s density. By determining the target’s density, dolphins are able to recognize particular species, even in the total darkness of the deep ocean. Dolphins may also analyze their prey using this echolocation “sonar,” and may even stun their prey using echolocation pulses. The advanced capabilities of dolphins using echolocation may also allow dolphins to be able to tell if a human is in distress. There have been numerous reports of dolphins saving drowning people.
Dolphin Research A National Marine Fisheries Service sponsored study took place from May 3 to June 13, 2003, and found that bottlenose and roughtooth dolphins are more abundant around Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau that around the other Hawaiian Islands. The precise reason for this remains unclear, but contributing causes may include the better availability of the dolphins’ food sources, which include fish and squid, and this in turn may be related to ocean currents around the islands. Species surveyed in the study included not just roughtooth and bottlenose dolphins, but also pilot whales, dwarf sperm whales, false killer whales, and spotted dolphins. Also seen were beaked whales, which are considered a deeper-water species along with rough-toothed dolphins. Another deeper-water species encountered was the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), rarely seen in Hawaiian waters. During the study the scientists encountered at least 12 different whale and dolphin species. Many photographs were taken, and skin samples of various species were collected for DNA analysis and comparison with other Hawaiian cetacean populations to determine if there are island-specific differences.[v] A 2003 study by researchers at the University of Hawai‘i’s Institute of Marine Biology Marine Mammal Research Program discovered that dolphins reduce the volume of the echolocation pulses they emit as they approach the object they are echolocating. The dolphins first use echolocation to check the distance to the object, then adjust their volume and use echolocation to determine the object’s size (the more waves that are reflected back indicates a bigger size object). This is different than the echolocation method used by bats, and human-built mechanical echolocation devices, which maintain the same volume of emission but adjust the receiving sensitivity when getting closer to an object being echolocated. [Photograph: Dolphin pod]
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**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Monk Seals </span>****//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(Monachus schauinslandi)</span>//**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //‘Ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Status: Endangered Species.</span>
What is 400 pounds (180 kg) and likes to lie on the beach all day, occasionally barking? The monk seal of course.
[Illustration: Monk seal]
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Male monk seals are about 7 feet (2.1 m) long and weigh more than 400 pounds (180 kg) at maturity. Females may be up to 1 foot (30 cm) longer and may weigh 600 pounds (272 kg) or more. Monk seals live to about 30 years of age, and will typically remain near the island on which they were born. The Hawaiian name for the monk seal is //‘ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua//, and means //“quadruped running in the rough [seas].”//</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn6|[vi]]]</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian monk seals may dive up to 1,700 feet (213 m) deep in pursuit of invertebrates and sand-dwelling fish. The monk seal is adept at turning over rocks and rooting around with its snout to uncover prey. Monk seals eat octopi, spiny lobsters, and eels (but not moray or conger eels). A monk seal may dive more than 50 times per day in search of food. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scientific research by the National Marine Fisheries Service and the National Geographic Society involved mounting (with epoxy) 4-pound (1.8-kg) cameras on the backs of monk seals. The films revealed to the researchers a great deal of new information about monk seal feeding and behavior.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">One seal-mounted camera revealed a monk seal eating a razor wrasse fish. Another monk seal feasted on a triggerfish. Other species (e.g., Galapagos sharks, schools of jacks) sometimes follow the seals, apparently waiting for sand-dwelling fish or invertebrates to be rustled up from the seafloor by the seals. Sometimes the seals would nap in an underwater cave for about five minutes before swimming up for air and then diving back down to the cave, as deep as 250 feet (76 m), and then resuming their nap.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Gestation and Life Cycle</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Monk seals mate in the water but give birth on land. Breeding occurs mostly during spring and summer. The period of gestation (the time between fertilization and birth) is about one year for monk seals. Birthing begins as early as mid-December, peaks from March to May, and may occur as late as mid-August. For giving birth, the mother seals prefer sandy or coral rubble beaches with nearby vegetation that may provides shelter during the night. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian monk seals are completely black at birth, and weigh about 24 to 33 pounds (11 to 15 kg). Eventually they turn more of a creamy white color on their belly, and silvery gray on their back. The infant monk seal looks like a large football with whiskers and floppy flippers. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The mother seal nurses the infant for about six weeks. During this time the baby may grow from around 30 pounds (14 kg) to more than 180 pounds (82 kg). The mother may lose more than 200 pounds (91 kg) during this time because she doesn’t eat during the nursing period, surviving totally upon her own stored blubber.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">As monk seals become adults they develop a more brownish coat, called a pelage. The seal’s underside may be yellowish in color, and their fur may sometimes become a greenish color (from algae). Some seals may also be identified by distinctive patches of blond.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Monk seals shed their coat once each year, and this is known as epidermal molting. As the seal sheds its whole epidermis along with all its hair, a shiny new coat underneath is revealed. The only other seal that molts like this is the elephant seal. Monk seals often “haul out” onto the beach during daytime hours to rest, and then feed at night.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Population and Habitat</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian monk seals were once hunted for their meat, oil, and skin, causing the species to approach extinction. The population of Hawaiian monk seals has been stable overall since 1993, with estimates ranging from 1,200 to 1,500 animals. The seals are still very endangered. Since 1950, the monk seal population has declined more than 40%. Researchers continue to try to halt the decline in the monk seal population. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Almost all Hawaiian monk seals live near the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, which are hundreds of miles northwest of Kaua‘i. The monk seal population of the main Hawaiian Islands is much smaller than the Northwest Hawaiian Island population. A 2001 aerial survey estimated that there were about 52 monk seals on the main Hawaiian Islands with at least 25 of those residing around Ni‘ihau.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Approximately 20 monk seals live around Kaua‘i, the Hawaiian Island closest to the monk seals’ main breeding areas on the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. In past years, some overly aggressive male monk seals known to harm monk seal infants have been relocated to the main Hawaiian Islands. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The largest single monk seal population is at the Northwestern Hawaiian Island called French Frigate Shoals. At French Frigate Shoals the number of monk seals declined by 50% between 1989 and 2000, to just 405 seals. However, the monk seal population on some other small islands and atolls has grown.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Evolutionary History of Monk Seals</span>**
Considered the most primitive seal in the world, monk seals belong to the Order of marine mammals known as Pinnipeds, which means //“fin-footed”// and includes walruses, seals, and sea lions. Monk seals are classified as //“true seals,”// meaning they are more awkward on land but more graceful in the water than //“eared seals,”// like the fur seal.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scientists believe the ancestors of monk seals originated in the North Atlantic Ocean some 15 million years ago. Then about 200,000 years ago, the Isthmus of Panama formed, permanently dividing the ancestors of what we now classify as Hawaiian monk seals from their cousins in the Mediterranean and the Caribbean. This led to three types of monk seals: Hawaiian, Caribbean, and Mediterranean monk seals, all in the family //Phocidae// and the genus //Monachus//, and the only tropical seal species. The Caribbean monk seal </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Monachus tropicalis//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> is now extinct (since the 1950s), and the Mediterranean monk seal </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Monachus monachus//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> is extremely endangered, with less than a few hundred left. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Newborn Pups in the Islands</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In the last decade, there have been numerous monk seal births on Kaua‘i’s beaches. One such birth occurred in the predawn hours of July 6, 2000, when a 700-pound (318-kg) monk seal gave birth to a 25-pound (11-kg) pup at Po‘ipū beach on Kaua‘i’s south shore. When the jet-black little pup was just 22 hours old, its mother took it for its first swim. </span>
The mother was also observed to bark at the pup if it strayed too far from their resting area on the beach. The beach park where the seal was born is one of the most popular on Kaua‘i, and significant efforts were taken to prevent human contact, which could cause the mother seal to abandon her pup.
Local volunteers with the Kaua‘i Monk Seal Watch Program (www.kauaimonkseal.com), protected a perimeter around the pup, and maintained a 24-hour-a-day protective watch to make sure the mother and daughter were not disturbed. Another monk seal pup was born on Kaua‘i a few weeks later about 4 miles (6.4 km) east of Po‘ipū, at Māhā‘ulepū. The pup at Po‘ipū was eventually weaned by her mother, and then taken by researchers to a remote north shore beach. Later in the year the two young seal pups were seen together.
The monk seal that gave birth at Po‘ipū Beach, Kaua‘i in 2000 returned the next year and gave birth again on July 22, 2001 (researchers identified the mother by scars on her body). The healthy male pup weighed about 25 to 30 pounds (11 to 14 kg), and was the fifth documented birth on the main Hawaiian Islands in 2001. In August of 2001 a monk seal was born near Anahola, Kaua‘i, and another was born on Kaua‘i’s north shore earlier in the year.
The Po‘ipū birthing area again led authorities to close off an area of the beach in order to provide a perimeter around the mother and pup so the seals were not disturbed. The mother monk seal nevertheless had several encounters with humans in the water, including biting one man on the rear, causing minor injuries. The man was a visitor from Texas, and at the time of the incident he was snorkeling just outside of the prescribed protected area.
The incident was the first documented attack on a human by a monk seal protecting its pup, and occurred when the pup was just two weeks old. The attack was probably a defensive behavior since the mother had recently been swimming nearshore with the pup. Authorities doubled the size of the closed-off area. About two weeks after the man was nipped in the rear, the same mother lunged and barked at some other swimmers who were apparently coming too close to her pup.
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">First Documented Big Island Monk Seal Birth</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Monk seal births have also occurred on Kaua‘i’s north shore as well as Kaho‘olawe, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i Island. On the second or third of May, 2001 a Hawaiian monk seal gave birth on a remote Ka‘ū beach on the island of Hawai‘i, and was the first ever documented monk seal birth on the island.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The pup weighed about 25 pounds (11 kg), and was nursed by its mother for about six weeks. The mother’s general history was known because she had been tagged after she was born in 1992 at Midway Atoll. In 1998 the seal went to Laysan Island and then two years later, to Moloka‘i. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">When the seal showed up on a Ka‘ū beach in April, 2000, officials from National Marine Fisheries had to remove a fishhook embedded in her tongue. Then in May the seal gave birth. At the time, the seal’s 1,400-mile (2,253 km) journey from Midway to the Big Island was longest documented migration of a Hawaiian monk seal.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The monk seal born on Hawai‘i Island (the first documented birth on the island) was marked with a flipper identification tag as RM-34. Unfortunately, RM-34 had to be relocated when he was about 2½ years old after a series of incidents of interaction with humans.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">RM-34’s first troubles occurred at Kealakekua Bay when the seal’s potentially dangerous interactions with humans led to its capture. On October 20, 2003, the seal was fitted with a satellite transmitter to track its location, and then taken to the Ka Lae (South Point) area, near its birthplace. The seal promptly returned to Kealakekua Bay, where more interactions with humans took place, so the seal was recaptured and taken to Kaho‘olawe.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">About two weeks after being released in the waters of Kaho‘olawe, the 300-pound (136-kg), 7-foot (2-m) long monk seal showed up on Maui where it began interacting with several dozen people who petted and posed with the seals (in violation of the Endangered Species Act). One woman was held underwater, and a few people were nipped by the monk seal, which was caught yet again, this time at La Pérouse Bay (Hawaiian name: Kalepolepo). RM-34 then taken to the remote Johnston Atoll, a distance of about 800 miles (1,287 km).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In October of 2003, a seal that had been begging for food in Nāwiliwili Harbor led officials to warn people not to feed the 600-pound (272-kg) adult male, nicknamed Lucky due to its body scars from some encounter the seal managed to survive. Scientists call the seal K07. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Protecting the Hawaiian Monk Seal</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Always stay clear of monk seals you see on the beach, because disturbing them could alter their behavior and decrease their natural chances for survival. Monk seals spend about one-third of their time resting on the beach. Sharks are natural predators of monk seals, and if monk seals are scared back into the water when they should be resting (e.g., after eating), then they may be more vulnerable to sharks. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">From 1987 to 1996, there were at least 173 documented cases of monk seals entangled in debris (e.g., fishing lines, nets, and ropes). Anyone seeing an entangled or injured monk seal, or a monk seal being harassed by humans, should call the toll-free 24-hour National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration hotline number: 888-256-9840. The Marine Mammal Hotline is 888-256-9840.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Monk seal]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Sea Turtles</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Honu//</span>**
Indigenous
The sea turtle’s anatomy today is much the same as it was more than 100 million years ago, before the Hawaiian Islands even existed. Ancient Hawaiians referred to the turtle as //“Ka i‘a ‘au mai me he manu”// (//“The fish that swims with the movements of a bird.”//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn7|[vii]]]</span> Today these large and gentle marine reptiles are commonly seen in Hawaiian waters.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Green sea turtles hatching from the eggs]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Sea Turtle Overview</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">There are 270 species of turtles on Earth, but only seven species of sea turtles. Three species of sea turtles are considered native to the Hawaiian Islands, including the Green sea turtle </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Chelonia mydas//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">; the Hawksbill sea turtle</span><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> (//Eretmochelys imbricata//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, and the Leatherback sea turtle </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Dermochelys coriacea//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. The great majority of sea turtles around the main Hawaiian Islands are Green sea turtles. However, there have also been at least two documented cases of Olive ridley sea turtles </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Lepidochelys olivacea//) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">nesting on Hawaiian Island shores.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">On Monday, October 7, 2002, a small, female Olive ridley sea turtle </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Lepidochelys olivacea//) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">came ashore at Bayfront Beach on the island of Hawai‘i’s Hilo Bay </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see below)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. If confirmed, this will be only the second reported sighting of a nesting Olive ridley sea turtle in the Hawaiian Islands.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Green Sea Turtle </span>****<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Chelonia mydas//)</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Green sea turtles weigh only about 1 ounce (28 gm) at birth, but adults may weigh up to 500 pounds (230 kg). A healthy Green sea turtle may reach 60 years of age, and some may live more than 100 years. Male sea turtles have a tail and females do not.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The shell, or carapace, of an adult Green sea turtle is typically brownish-colored and flecked with olive and gold. The turtle’s underside, called the plastron, is yellowish-white in color. The coloring of the sea turtle’s carapace and plastron provide effective camouflage from creatures above and below. The “Green” in their name comes not from their shell color, but from the color of their flesh. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Green sea turtles are omnivores when they are young, surviving on fish eggs and plankton that float near the water’s surface. Once the turtles mature they become vegetarians, feasting on limu pastures, which are beds of algae growing on underwater coral reefs and nearshore rocks. Green sea turtles may stay underwater for more than three hours before coming to the surface for air.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sea Turtle Nesting</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Every two to three years, mature Green sea turtles around the main Hawaiian Islands swim about 700 miles (1,127 km) to the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands’ French Frigate Shoals, where the great majority of Hawaiian Green sea turtles lay their eggs. The male sea turtles accompany the females, sometimes mating with them offshore near the nesting beaches.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Hawaiian Green sea turtles are known to return to the exact beach where they were born to lay their eggs. This is called site fidelity. Female Green sea turtles lay their eggs between May and September, digging a small pit on shore and depositing 100-200 eggs up to 3 feet (.9 m) deep in the sand. The eggs are white, and about the size of ping-pong balls. A deposit of eggs is known as a clutch, and the female turtle may lay and bury up to six clutches along the beach over a several week period.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Sea turtle eggs incubate beneath the sand for about two months before they hatch. Then the eggs hatch all at the same time, and all together the tiny hatchlings, each weighing only about 1 ounce (28 gm), begin to dig their way to the surface. The hatchlings stop digging when only about 1 inch (2.5 cm) of sand is left above them all. Then they wait for darkness. At night the hatchlings break through the final layer of sand, emerge onto the beach, and then scurry for the water.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Birds, ghost crabs, and a variety of other predators may prey on the turtle hatchlings on the beach as they head for the water after hatching. Reef fish or sharks may capture the hatchling once it makes it to the water, but if the baby turtle survives the first few years, its only predators will be sharks and humans.</span>
**Hawksbill Sea Turtles** <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Eretmochelys imbricata</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Hawksbill sea turtles are very endangered, with only about 30 nesting females left in Hawaiian waters. Most of the surviving Hawksbills nest on just a few remote beaches on the island of Hawai‘i. The Hawaiian name of the Hawksbill sea turtle is honu‘ea. </span>
Hawksbill sea turtles have a distinctive pointed beak, which they use to search the coral reefs for sponges, anemones, and other bottom-dwelling invertebrates. In ancient Hawai‘i, the Hawksbill’s shell was used to make fans as well as combs, and for medicine to treat the disease called ‘ea (thrush).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Hawaiian Hawksbill sea turtle]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Leatherback Sea Turtles </span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Dermochelys coriacea//)</span>
Leatherback sea turtles are seen only occasionally near the Hawaiian Islands, and usually far offshore. Leatherbacks feed mostly on jellyfish, and are the largest of all of Earth’s sea turtles, weighing up to 1,500 pounds (680 kg). Leatherbacks are not known to nest on Hawaiian beaches.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Leatherback sea turtle]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Olive Ridley Sea Turtles </span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Lepidochelys olivacea//)</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">On October 7, 2002, a small, female olive ridley sea turtle came ashore at Bayfront Beach on the island of Hawai‘i Island’s Hilo Bay. Under the dark of night (with little moon to illuminate the beach) the sea turtle deposited 124 eggs. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The popular beach has no modern record of sea turtle nesting in the past, and steps were taken to protect the eggs, which were determined to be too close to the water to last through episodes of rough winter surf. The eggs were moved to a spot farther from the water by students in the University of Hawai‘i-Hilo’s Marine Options Program under the guidance of the DLNR. Care was taken to transport the sand lining the original nest to the new nest hole, because mucus in the sand is important to the hatching process. Then the eggs were carefully relocated with as little rotation as possible because the embryos attach to the shell within the first day after nesting, and must maintain the same position. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">After the hole was filled with sand from the original nest, concrete barriers were placed around the area by the Hawai‘i County Department of Parks & Recreation, and signs were erected to warn the public to avoid disturbing the nest. The incubation period for the eggs is about two months.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Olive ridley sea turtles reach a weight of about 100 pounds (45 kg) and a length of about 26 inches (66 cm). They use their powerful jaws to feed upon crabs, shrimp, snails, and jellyfish..</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Olive ridley sea turtles have a distinctive egg-laying behavior in which they rock from side to side while depositing their eggs, usually about 100 or more, in a hole in the sand. Nesting usually occurs from one to three times each year, with about two weeks between each nesting. As the turtle moves back and forth during nesting, its shell makes a thumping noise as it hits the sand.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Though Olive ridleys are rarely seen near Pacific islands, there has been at least one previous confirmed sighting of a nesting Olive ridley sea turtle in the Hawaiian Islands. This occurred at Pā‘ia Beach on Maui almost two decades ago. Olive ridley sea turtles are found offshore of Costa Rica and Mexico, and their range extends to the tropical regions of the South Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Oceans as well as the Pacific Ocean.</span>
**The Evolutionary History of Sea Turtles:**
About 400 million years ago, lobe-finned fish in the oceans began venturing onto shore. Over tens of millions of years they evolved into the first amphibians and reptiles. By 300 million years ago this first family of reptiles had diverged into several groups of land animals, including dinosaurs, mammals, and land turtles.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">By about 200 million years ago some of the land turtles began venturing back into the ocean. Eventually these turtles evolved to become more aquatic, their legs becoming more like flippers and their bodies becoming more streamlined for swimming. By about 100 million years ago, sea turtle anatomy was much as it is today.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">So remember, when you see a sea turtle in Hawaiian waters, you are a seeing a creature that looks very much as it appeared when dinosaurs walked the Earth 100 million years ago.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Green sea turtle]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Sharks</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Manō//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sharks have been swimming in Earth’s oceans for about 350 million years, making them one of the most primitive species alive on Earth today. Worldwide there are currently about 360 known species of sharks, and the biggest of them all is the whale shark. Around 45 feet (14 m) long but quite gentle, whale sharks are sometimes seen in Hawaiian waters.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Shark]</span>
**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Pau pele, pau manō.</span>//**
**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Consumed by volcanic fire, consumed by shark.</span>//**
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">May I die if I don’t keep my pledge.</span>
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(Pukui and Elbert: 239)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Native Shark Species of the Hawaiian Islands</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian word for shark is manō. In all, at least 41</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 10pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn8|[viii]]]</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> species of sharks have been seen in Hawaiian waters, but 20 of these are deep-sea shark species. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Just six shark species are relatively common in Hawaiian waters, and are seen most frequently by divers, fishermen, and snorkelers. These six of species include:</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Gray reef shark</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Carcharhinus amblyrhynchos</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Galapagos shark</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Carcharhinus galapagensis</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Blacktip reef shark</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Carcharhinus melanopterus</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sandbar shark</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Carcharhinus plumbeus</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Whitetip reef shark</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Triaenodon obesus</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scalloped hammerhead shark</span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Sphyrna lewini</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also seen fairly often is the </span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">tiger shark </span>**<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Galeocerdo cuvieri//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, which may be more than 20 feet (6 m) long but on average measures 10 to 16 feet (3 to 5 m) long and weighs up to 1 ton (.9 mton). The **great white shark** </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Carcharodon carcharias//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> is only occasionally seen around the Hawaiian Islands. While some artifacts in the Bishop Museum contain teeth from great white sharks, it is believed the animals were only rarely seen.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Great white sharks may reach a length of 20 feet (6 m), and more than 5,000 pounds (2,268 kg). The largest great white shark ever recorded was 39 feet (12 m) long.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">One suspected great white shark attack in the Hawaiian Islands involved the disappearance of William Goines off Hale‘iwa, O‘ahu on May 18, 1926. Two days later a 12-foot (3.7-m) great white shark was caught off Kahuku, O‘ahu. Goines remains were found inside the fierce predator.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">On March 9, 1969, while surfing at Mākaha, O‘ahu, Licius Lee sustained leg injuries when he was bitten by a great white shark, which was identified based on the analysis of tooth marks in the surfboard. A whale carcass in the area had likely attracted the shark. In addition to these attacks by great white sharks, there have been numerous other reliable sightings of the large predators in Hawaiian waters.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">A great white shark tagged by researchers swam from a California seal rookery to Kaho‘olawe and then back to California, spending a lot of time in very deep waters. Great white sharks are known to feed on spinner dolphins in Hawaiian waters. The tagged shark, nicknamed Tipfin by researchers because of its missing fin tip, was tracked using a satellite tag implanted in the shark. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Tipfin was in California on December 9, 2001, near the Farallon Islands at a sea lion rookery. Tipfin then traveled to the Hawaiian Islands, usually swimming either within 15 feet (4.6 m) of the ocean surface, or much deeper, from 1,000 to 1,500 feet (305 to 457 m) deep.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The migration patterns of great white sharks have not been extensively researched, but satellite tagging in the coming years should answer many questions. Researchers theorize that great white sharks may simply be stopping off in Hawaiian waters on their way to the western Pacific from California. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Since pregnant female great white sharks have only been spotted off Australia and Japan (and not in California waters), the sharks may be giving birth in the western Pacific. Around California’s Farallon Islands (where the seal rookery provides feeding opportunities), male great white sharks return annually while the females only return every other year. For updates on efforts to place satellite tags on great white sharks, see the internet site: http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Shark Anatomy</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sharks have a long upper tail lobe that provides great thrust for sudden bursts of speed. The wedge-shaped head of many shark species, such as the tiger shark, provides very little resistance on the sides and allows for quick turning. Shark skin is composed of hard tooth-like scales called denticles, which are extremely abrasive. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Special plates just behind the retina in the shark’s eye reflect light to super-sensitive cells that enhance vision. The tapetum lucidum reflects the light, which then passes through the retina’s light receptor cells and is reflected back, doubling the effects of the illumination. The lens in a shark’s eye is about seven times as powerful as in humans. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sharks also have a lateral line down their center that helps detect low frequency vibrations from a distance. Tiny electric sensors called electroreceptors help sense extremely small muscle movements of prey, even in total darkness. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sharks have the highest known electrical sensitivity of any animal, and may sense as little as five billionths of a volt per meter. They also have an extremely advanced sense of smell, and some shark species can sense as little as one part in ten billion. Sharks have no vocal cords nor any other apparatus to make sounds.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Birthing</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Most sharks are ovoviviparous, which means that the female has eggs, but doesn’t actually lay them. Instead the eggs hatch inside her body. The gestation period for the eggs is about nine months, and then the shark gives birth to from 10 to 80 baby sharks. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Some shark species are oviparous (laying leathery-cased eggs) or viviparous (the embryos are nourished by a placenta-like organ). While most shark species give birth to just one or two pups, tiger sharks may give birth to up to 135 pups at once. Sharks may live about 30 years, but not much more than 40.</span>
**Shark Finning**
According to the National Marine Fisheries Service, in 1999 there were 87,576 sharks caught by longline fishermen in Hawaiian waters (usually far offshore). More than 50,000 of these sharks were finned, and then the rest of the shark was thrown back into the sea. The fins sell for between $18 and $70 per pound.
Hammerhead and tiger shark fins are considered the most desirable, and are sought after as a delicacy (mostly in other countries). A new federal law that prohibits shark finning in United States waters, and a new state law that prohibits landing shark fins in the Hawaiian Islands, should drastically reduce the practice of finning.
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sharks in Ancient Hawai‘i</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Sharks played an important role among the ancient Hawaiians, and were considered by some as ‘aumākua, personal or family gods, and sacred guardians and protectors that should be respected and even fed. Sharks also played a role in myths and legends, as well as Hawaiian history. Desha</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn9|[ix]]]</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">gives an account of Kekūhaupi‘o battling the niuhi shark (a name given to various shark species) to pass the final test with his lua master. Kekūhaupi‘o (//“the standing [of the] arched hau tree”//</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn10|[x]]]</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">) went on to become the trainer and fellow warrior of the future King Kamehameha I.</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">He niuhi ‘ai holopapa o ka moku.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//The niuhi shark that devours all on the island.//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">A powerful warrior. The niuhi shark was dreaded because of its ferociousness. It was believed that a chief or warrior who captured this vicious denizen of the deep would acquire something of its nature.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Pukui: 841-91)</span></span></span>
Shark teeth were the finest cutters of ancient Hawai‘i, and were used to cut designs for kapa (tapa) barkcloth as well as for decorative bases for drums and ipu <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Lagenaria siceraria//, bottle gourds)</span>. Shark skin was also used for the head covers of hula drums.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Equilateral triangles in a chief’s ‘ahu ‘ula (feathered cloak) and the complex tattoo motifs of Hawaiian warriors embodied the mana (divine power) of shark teeth. Shark teeth were also attached to leiomano (shark-tooth weapons). (See //Chapter 11, Timeline: 1782, Chapter 11//; and //Battle// //#10, Chapter 17//.)</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Shark Attacks in Hawaiian Waters</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">An average of two to three shark attacks occur each year in the Hawaiian Islands. Of all the documented shark attacks in Hawaiian waters, just three are thought to have involved Great White sharks. These attacks occurred in 1926 and 1969 </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see above)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, and 2003 </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see below).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">From 1990 to 1997, the Hawaiian Islands ranked second in the nation in number of shark attacks (26 in the Hawaiian Islands, compared to 133 in Florida). However, the Hawaiian Islands ranked first in the nation in fatalities from shark attacks during this period, with three deaths. Worldwide, the Hawaiian Islands ranked fifth in attacks and seventh in fatalities. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Since 1779 there have been more than 117 documented shark attacks on humans in Hawaiian waters. In the year 2000 there were 79 documented shark attacks worldwide, ten of them fatal (including two in the Hawaiian Islands, neither fatal).</span>
At a popular west Maui snorkeling beach called Olowalu there have been three shark attacks since 1991. On January 1, 2002, a 35-year-old male snorkeler about 100 yards offshore was bitten on the buttocks. On October 18, 2000, a 56-year-old female snorkeler about ½-mile (.8 km) offshore was bitten on the upper and lower back. On November 6, 1991, a 41-year-old woman who owned an oceanfront Olowalu home was killed by a tiger shark, prompting the formation of a Shark Task Force as well as a state-sanctioned shark hunt.
In 1992, shark attacks caused two deaths, both in waters off O‘ahu. On July 3, 1993, a 16¼-foot (5-m) tiger shark was caught in O‘ahu’s Kāne‘ohe Bay.
The recent history of shark attacks in the Hawaiian Islands includes three attacks in 1994 (two on O‘ahu and one on Kaua‘i); three attacks in 1995 (one each on Maui, Kaua‘i and O‘ahu); four attacks in 1996 (three on Maui, one on O‘ahu); two in 1997 (one on Kaua‘i, one on O‘ahu); and six attacks in 1999 (two on Maui, one on Kaua‘i, three on Hawai‘i Island).
In 2000 there were two shark attacks on Maui. One of these resulted in death, and the others resulted in severe cuts, some with critical injuries. In 2001 there were 76 shark attacks worldwide, including four in Hawaiian waters.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn11|[xi]]]</span>
**A Log of Recent Hawaiian Shark Attacks**
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On November 26, 1991, a 41-year-old woman who owned an oceanfront home on Olowalu on Maui was killed by a tiger shark as she swam about 100 yards (91 m) offshore near her home, prompting the formation of a Shark Task Force as well as a state-sanctioned shark hunt.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn12|[xii]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On February 19, 1992, a male was bodyboarding west of O‘ahu’s Waimea Bay at a spot known as Leftovers and did not return to shore. The next morning his bodyboard was found with a large piece missing. The 16-inch crescent taken out of the bodyboard was presumably due to a shark bite.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn13|[xiii]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On November 5, 1992, a male bodyboarder offshore on O‘ahu’s Wai‘anae coast died after being bitten on the right leg by a shark estimated to be about 11 feet (3.4 m) long.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn14|[xiv]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> In 1997, a young man lost his lower right leg to a shark at the surf spot known as Majors along the coastline of the PMRF on Kaua‘i’s west side. The man was about 150 yards (137 m) offshore.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn15|[xv]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On March 5, 1999, a woman suffered a 13-inch shark bite to her leg as she was swimming off Ka‘anapali.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn16|[xvi]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On March 18, 1999, two honeymooners kayaking off the Lahaina coast were apparently blown out to sea. The man was rescued three days later on Kaho‘olawe. He told authorities that their boat capsized and a shark killed his wife.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn17|[xvii]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On August 15, 2000, a windsurfer was severely bitten in the lower left leg by a tiger shark. The attack occurred about ½-mile offshore southeast of Kū‘au after the windsurfer fell off his board and was severely bitten in the lower left leg by a tiger shark identified by teeth recovered after the incident.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn18|[xviii]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On October 18, 2000, a 56-year-old female snorkeler about ½-mile (.8 km) offshore was bitten on the upper and lower back.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On March 23, 2001, a man suffered minor cuts when he was bitten by a shark while bodyboarding at O‘ahu’s Sandy Beach about 35 yards (32 m) offshore.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On April 11, 2001, a man received cuts and puncture wounds to his left hand when he was bitten at O‘ahu’s ‘Ewa Beach by a shark estimated to be about 2¾ feet (84 cm) long.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On November 14, 2001, a surfer at Maui’s Kapalua Beach had his surfboard bitten into by a shark.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On January 1, 2002, a 35-year-old male snorkeler about 100 yards offshore was bitten on the buttocks.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On March 25, 2002 a bodyboarder lost his lower left leg to a shark about 150 feet (46 m) offshore at Brennecke Beach on Kaua‘i’s south shore. The 17-year-old was pulled underwater twice, and then finally freed after he jabbed the eye of the shark (thought to be a tiger shark).
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On August 28, 2002 in O‘ahu’s Kewalo Basin channel, a tiger shark, estimated to be 11 to 12 feet (3.4 to 3.7 m) long, bit into the left foot of a 16-year-old boy, causing a large gash. The shark also bit the tail off the boy’s surfboard.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On September 27, 2002, a man was surfing off O‘ahu’s Kāhala Beach when his surfboard was bitten by a black tip shark estimated to be 4 feet (1.2 m) long.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On October 30, 2002, a 62-year-old woman, swimming about 25 yards (23 m) off of Kama‘ole Beach Park 1 in Kīhei on Maui’s south shore suffered deep wounds on her right foot (cutting ligaments, tendons and an artery) in what is suspected to have been a shark attack.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On November 17, 2002, a 33-year-old woman visitor from San Diego, California was severely bitten by a shark about 100 yards (91 m) off of Maui’s Kā‘anapali Coast. She suffered wounds to her wrist, forearm and right shoulder. She stated that the shark was gray, with a white-tipped tail, and the shark was definitely more than 6 feet (1.8 m) long.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On May 10, 2003, on Hawai‘i Island a man swimming near Kahalu‘u Beach when an estimated 6-foot-long, gray-colored shark bit into his left foot, ankle, and calf.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On June 24, 2003, a man’s foot was bitten by a shark as he swam offshore at Mākua Beach in Wai‘anae on O‘ahu. The man had been swimming with a pod of about 45 spinner dolphins, when the dolphins suddenly (and rapidly) left the area just before the man’s foot was bitten. The shark may have been preying on the dolphins, and mistaken the man for a dolphin. Based on the man’s opinion that the shark was about 5 feet (1.5 m) wide and silver colored, and the account of the fleeing dolphins, experts deduced that it was a likely a great white shark. Fortunately the man’s foot was not severely damaged despite needing more than 25 stitches.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On October 5, 2003, a woman was bitten by a gray-colored shark estimated to be about 4½ feet at Maui’s Kalama Beach while wading by a fishing net. She received injuries to her right index finger, right knee, and left thigh.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On October 31, 2003, a 13-year-old girl on Kaua‘i’s north shore lost her arm to a large tiger shark. A nearly 14-foot- (4.3 m-) long tiger shark caught a few days later is believed to have been responsible for the attack.
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On April 7, 2004, a man surfing in murky waters at a spot called //“S-Turns”// about 250 yards offshore of Pōhaku Park in Kahana was killed by a shark. The man was bit in the upper thigh, suffering a 14-inch wound. Two people paddling out to surf heard the man yelling for help and provided assistance, but the victim died from loss of blood as he was being brought to shore.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn19|[xix]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On October 9, 2004 a 34-year-old O‘ahu man who was spearfishing was bitten on the left shoulder and face by an estimated 12-foot shark in murky waters outside Kūpeke Fishpond in southeast Moloka‘i. He saw the shark as it approached him head on. The victim had caught some fish and they were trailing behind him attached to a cord about thirty feet long. “I remember this big force hitting me,” he recalled, “and this big shadow wrapping me up, and I remember just being shaken.” As the shark returned the man hit it with his uncocked spear gun, and the shark swam away. Quickly losing blood, the victim used his wetsuit to help stop the bleeding. The wound was exacerbated, doctor’s said, by the “...shaking action of the shark’s clamped jaws.”<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn20|[xx]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On February 16, 2005, a man surfing on O‘ahu’s north shore was struck from below by an estimated 8-foot-long tiger shark. The incident occurred about 40 yards from Rocky Point at Sunset Beach. The shark hit the board so hard it knocked the wind out of the surfer, who then tried to swim away while kicking at the shark. The man was able to get back on his surfboard and get to shore safely. After the attack the beaches were closed from Sunset Beach to Pipeline.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn21|[xxi]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On May 2, 2005, a man surfing in Maui’s Kū‘au Bay was knocked off his surfboard by a shark that bumped into his ankle and bit into his board. Surfing the spot commonly known as Noriega’s, the man was about 200 feet offshore when the incident occurred, and he saw “...a shark’s gray head, about 18 inches wide, gnawing on the board.” Hammerhead sharks had been seen birthing in the area two days earlier, but it remains unsure what type of shark bit the man’s board. The 7-foot-10-inch surfboard was left with six tooth marks.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn22|[xxii]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> In October of 2005, an eight-foot (2.4 m) shark jumped from the water and bit the board of a surfer, then proceeded to thrash the board back and forth as the surfer struggled to stay on. The surfer then hit the shark in the nose and attempted to push the shark away. The shark let go and left.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn23|[xxiii]]]</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings;">Ø</span> On December 21, 2005, a swimmer was attacked by a shark losing his pinkie finger and the top of his ring finger and the side of the palm of his hand. The attack occurred about 400 yards off of Keawakapu Beach on south Maui. The victim saw the shark come up from below, and noted its gray surface and white stomach.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn24|[xxiv]]]</span>
(For more information about these shark attacks and other attacks (e.g., barracuda, jellyfish) in Hawaiian waters, see //Chapter 15: Incidents of Disaster and Survival in the Hawaiian Islands//.)
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Avoiding Shark Encounters</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">To avoid shark encounters, surfers and swimmers are well advised to avoid river mouths, especially after rains, and avoid murky waters. Also avoid being in the water at dawn and dusk as well as during the nighttime hours when some shark species may come inshore to feed.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Do not go in the water if you are bleeding or have any open cuts. Sharks are extremely sensitive to very low concentrations of blood and other body fluids. Shiny jewelry and other high contrast items are also considered potentially attractive to sharks. Avoid excessive splashing, and always swim with someone else. If you are unsure, always swim at beaches with lifeguards and feel free to ask for advice. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">What Sharks Eat</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">A shark control program from 1967 to 1969, and a shark catching program in 1976 examined the stomach contents of 281 tiger sharks. The 1976 study found that the smaller sharks, those 6 feet (1.8m) long or less, preferred bony fish (e.g., puffer and porcupine fish), and also eels, with some squid, crab, and birds. Sharks often catch birds that are sitting on the water’s surface. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The study found that medium-sized tiger sharks also ate lots of bony fish, but medium-sized sharks ate more lobsters, turtles, dolphins, goats and sheep as well as other sharks. The stomach contents of sharks more than 10 feet (3 m) long included fish, sharks, rays, lobsters, birds, turtles, octopi, and squid. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In addition, 16% of the 135 sharks that were 10 feet (3 m) long or larger had mammal remains in their stomach. These mammal remains were mostly dolphins, but also dogs, rats, mongoose, and goats. One shark had human remains in its stomach! An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, //“Ho‘ahewa na niuhi ia Ka‘ahupāhau.”// (//“The man-eating sharks blamed Ka‘ahupāhau”//), meaning //“Evil-doers blame the person who safeguards the rights of others. Ka‘ahupāhau was the guardian shark goddess of Pu‘uloa (Pearl Harbor) who drove out or destroyed all the man-eating sharks.”//</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn25|[xxv]]]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">New Technologies to Protect Against Sharks</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The risk of being bitten by a shark in Hawaiian waters is relatively small, and shark bite incidents are relatively few compared to the millions of people who swim and surf in Hawaiian waters each year without any encounters. Nevertheless, some people would be more confident with some protection. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Researchers have now developed an electric transmitter that emits an electromagnetic security field around divers, and has been shown to repel sharks. Soon the cautious water enthusiast may wish to carry this extra protection, just in case.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Shark]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Rays</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Hāhālua// (Manta Ray); //Hīhīmanu// (Stingray and Eagleray). </span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Dark on the top and light on the bottom, the manta ray has a flat, saucer-shaped body that looks like a cross between a stealth bomber airplane and an alien life form. Despite its daunting appearance, the manta ray is actually one of Hawai‘i’s gentlest sea creatures.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Manta Ray]</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Rays are cousins of the sharks, and the only other ocean creatures besides sharks that have completely cartilaginous skeletons (no bones). The evolutionary origin of rays has been traced to 150 million years ago.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">There are five species of rays that inhabit Hawaiian waters, including manta rays </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Mobulidae</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">,</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> eaglerays </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Myliobatidae</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">,</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> and three species of stingrays </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Dasyatidae</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">. </span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Eaglerays and stingrays are bottom feeders, searching for mollusks and worms beneath the mud. Manta rays are much bigger than stingrays. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Manta rays </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Manta alfredi//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> feed on zooplankton, and may weigh more than 2 tons (1.8 mtons) with a wingspan of up to 22 feet (6.7 m). The manta ray is considered the third largest creature in the sea behind the largest whale and shark species.</span>
Manta rays are known for their incredible agility, and are able to maneuver their huge bodies within inches of divers without ever hitting them. Sometimes manta rays jump completely out of the water and then briefly sail through the air using their aerodynamic “wings.” The big rectangular mouth of the manta ray is well-adapted for inhaling plankton.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">When a manta ray swims near the surface, its two wing tips may protrude above the water and are sometimes mistaken for shark fins. Swimmers have run from the water in fright at the sight of “two sharks,” only to realize later that it was just one harmless manta ray swimming with its wing tips above the surface. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photographs: Manta ray, eagle ray, and stingray]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Coral Reefs (//Cnidarians//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Kohola//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous (75%); Endemic (25%).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">It is often as hard as rock, yet it spawns and reproduces, budding and growing into a wonderland of odd-shaped and colorful habitats for fish, eels, invertebrates and other ocean life. This is the Hawaiian coral reef.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Coral reef with eel]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cnidarians</span>**
Coral is an animal, and belongs to a group of animals called Cnidarians (the “c” is silent). The Cnidarian family is a group that also includes sea anemones and jellyfish.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">All Cnidarians have a single body opening, with a mouth at the top surrounded by feeding tentacles. These tentacles have stinging cells called nematocysts that catch drifting animals (microscopic plankton) for food. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Coral starts off as free-floating larvae, called planulae, which are carried by ocean currents. Once a planula finds a hard bottom, it attaches itself and then changes into a polyp. Polyps are usually smaller than a pea and grow by a process called budding, in which a single coral polyp splits in two, making an identical copy of itself. A thin layer of skin connects each polyp to its neighbors and allows the whole colony to benefit from nutrients obtained by individual polyps.</span>
Though coral is an animal, it has in its tissues microscopic algae called zooxanthellae. The coral and the zooxanthellae have a symbiotic relationship, which means they both help each other survive. The zooxanthellae use photosynthesis to convert sunlight to energy, making the oxygen and food the polyps need. In turn, the coral produces the carbon dioxide, nitrates, and phosphates the algae needs to survive.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Corals secrete a hard skeleton of calcium carbonate. The coral reef is the built up layers of all of these old skeletons. New corals are constantly growing on the surface of a coral reef. Coral may grow from ½-inch (13 mm) to 4 inches (10 cm) per year. Some coral colonies are hundreds of thousands of years old. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Coral polyps use tentacles to capture prey, including small planktonic animals. When the prey brushes up against the coral’s nematocysts, a spear-like projection shoots out and gets the animal.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Types of Coral Reefs</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">There are three main types of coral reefs: fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atoll reefs.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Fringing Reefs</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Form close to shore; may be separated from land by a lagoon.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Barrier Reefs</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Form at the edge of continental shelves and partially submerged islands separated from land by lagoons less than 500 feet (152 m) deep. (e.g., Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is more than 1,200 miles (1,931 km) long.</span>
* <span style="font-family: Wingdings; font-size: 12pt;">Ø</span> **<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Atoll Reefs</span>**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">—Usually originate as fringing reefs of volcanic islands, first becoming circular barrier reefs as the island sinks (or the sea level rises). When the island becomes completely submerged, what is left is an atoll reef.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Coral Species of the Hawaiian Islands</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The most common corals in Hawaiian waters are lobe corals (which comprise most of the reef structure around the Hawaiian Islands, along with coralline algae), rice coral, blue coral, and cauliflower coral. These four types of coral are found in active shallow waters (e.g., where there is surf). Delicate, branching corals such as shelf and finger coral are the most common Hawaiian corals growing in calmer, deeper waters.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Lobe coral, rice coral, blue coral, cauliflower coral]</span>
In all, there are at least 150 different coral species in Hawaiian waters, and about 25% of these are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. These native Hawaiian coral species include 47 hard, stony corals, which are the Hawaiian Islands’s most abundant coral (e.g., lobe, finger, and cauliflower coral). There are also 93 species of sea fan coral, a type of soft coral that grows from 500 to 2,000 feet (150 to 600 m) deep, and 13 species of other soft corals (e.g., black coral).
Coral species in Hawaiian waters help support many of the 860 documented native algae species, which include at least 80 endemic algae species. There are also at least 1,143 fish native to the Hawaiian Islands, including 149 endemic (unique) fish species. About 536 of these fish species are inshore fishes found near reefs and other nearshore areas to a depth of about 200 feet (61 m). About 25% of these 536 inshore species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(See //Hawaiian Reef Fish//, //Chapter 6//.)</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Coral reefs around the Hawaiian Islands also help support native invertebrate species, such as crabs, sea urchins, and shrimp. At least 9,270 native Hawaiian invertebrates have been documented, including at least 7,239 endemic species.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Spawning</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Coral species rejuvenate themselves through a process called spawning. Many Hawaiian corals span just once or twice a year, and not all of Hawai‘i’s coral spawn at the same time (as occurs in many other places). Rice coral spawns in June and July two days after a full moon between 8 and 10 p.m.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Mushroom coral, (also called razor coral) spawns one two four days after a full moon, between 5 and 7 a.m., between the months of June and September. Both the female and male of the species emit clouds of sperm and eggs.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Importance of Coral Reefs around the Hawaiian Islands</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Most corals only grow about ½-inch (13 mm) per year, and substantial coral reefs take hundreds of years to grow. Coral reefs are living communities that provide shelter, food, and living space for thousands of native plant and animal species. Coral reefs are considered the aquatic equivalent of a tropical rainforest, since both support an incredible biological diversity of species. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, //“He pūko‘a kani ‘āina”// (//“A coral reef that grows into an island”//), meaning, //“A person beginning in a small way gains steadily until he becomes firmly established.”//</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn26|[xxvi]]]</span>
Hawaiian coral reefs provide important habitat for monk seals, green sea turtles, and more than 6,500 other species of animals and plants. Among the great diversity of organisms on Hawai‘i’s reefs are species that hold potential for natural medicines. For example, a chemical found in Hawaiian sponges has recently shown promise in fighting off tumors and malaria.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Medical researchers have also found that ground-up coral works well for bone grafts in humans. It turns out that coral is the first good artificial substance that human blood vessels can penetrate, and that the body accepts. Corals are also providing researchers with insights into improving sunscreens. Many corals have evolved unique compounds that naturally shield them against UV radiation.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Coral reef]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Angelfishes </span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Pomacanthidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Angelfishes are territorial fish that use their brush-like teeth to eat algae and sponges. The rear-pointing spine on the gill cover of angelfishes is the main trait distinguishing them from butterflyfishes. Angelfishes also have what is known as a haremic social system in which a single male defends two to five female fish. A favorite sight for many snorkelers and divers, angelfish are also commonly sought after for use in aquariums. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Of the 80 known species of angelfish worldwide, five are native to the main Hawaiian Islands. Four of these five native Hawaiian angelfish species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (found around the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else). Two other angelfish species also might be seen in Hawaiian waters: the Japanese pygmy angelfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Centropyge interruptus//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, which is native to the Hawaiian Islands but found only in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands; and the extremely rare emperor angelfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Pomacanthus imperator//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, with just a few sightings ever (and thus not currently considered a native breeding population).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The aquarium trade accounts for the capture of more than 400,000 Hawaiian reef fish each year, and has severely depleted the populations of many species. Recent breakthroughs in raising these desirable reef fish in captivity have used a newly developed zooplankton food source for the small fish larvae allowing researchers to raise several species for the first time, including masked angelfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Genicanthus personatus//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, Fisher’s angelfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Centropyge fisheri//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, and flame angelfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Centropyge loriculus//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">These new scientific techniques for raising Hawaiian reef fish were developed by researchers at the Oceanic Institute, the Waikīkī Aquarium, and the Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology, and have the potential to ease the pressure on precious and dwindling native fish populations. These new technologies also may be used in developing an industry in the Hawaiian Islands raising ornamental reef fish for export. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Angelfish]</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Bandit Angelfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Bandit Angelfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Desmoholacanthus arcuatus//)</span>**
Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).
Endemic
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">A broad black band runs horizontally for the length of the bandit angelfish’s gray and white body (gray above the band and white to pale gray below). The black band also covers the eye region, giving the appearance of a robber’s (bandit’s) mask. The tail and anal fin also are banded with black. The color pattern of the bandit angelfish is unique among the angelfish.</span>
Feeding on sponges, the bandit angelfish sometimes swims out in the open and often alone, and is a relatively curious fish around humans. An endemic Hawaiian species, the bandit angelfish is seen most frequently at depths of about 80 to 100 feet (24 to 30 m) around most of the Hawaiian Islands, and is particularly common on Kaua‘i where it may be seen by snorkelers. The bandit angelfish feeds on sponges.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The bandit angelfish is sometimes scientifically classified in the genus //Apolemichthys//, or //Desmoholacanthus//, rather than //Holacanthus//.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Fisher’s Angelfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Fisher’s Angelfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Centropyge fisheri//) </span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also Called: Dusky Angelfish</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 3 inches (8 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
The fisher’s angelfish is orange-brown in color with a bluish-brown sheen and a yellowish tail. An iridescent blue color rims the anal, dorsal and pelvic fins. The tail and pectoral fins are yellowish.
The fisher’s angelfish is often seen in groups of five to ten fish around finger coral at depths of 30 to 80 feet (9 to 24 m) and deeper, feeding on filamentous algae.
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, the species is named after Walter K. Fisher, a zoologist from California who was involved in research in the Hawaiian Islands in the early 1900s.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Flame Angelfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Flame Angelfish </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Centropyge loriculus//)</span>**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 4 inches (10 cm).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Bright (flame) red in color, the flame angelfish has dark black bars running vertically down its body. The flame angelfish also has blue lining its rear fins, and this blue lining is more prominent in males. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The flame angelfish is the most visually striking of the angelfish (along with the bandit angelfish). A slightly brighter red color between the black bars distinguishes the Hawaiian flame angelfish from other flame angelfish.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Relatively rare in Hawaiian waters, flame angelfish are sometimes seen in shallow waters, but are seen more commonly below 60 feet (18 m) deep among finger coral. Flame angelfish eat filamentous algae, and are often seen repeatedly within a relatively small area. They are highly prized as aquarium fish.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Masked Angelfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Masked Angelfish </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Genicanthus personatus//) </span>**
Length: Up to 10 inches (25 cm).
Endemic
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Female masked angelfish are white, with a black patch on the forehead and over the eye region and above the eyes. There is also a black bar on the tail. Males are white to bluish-gray, rimmed with orange on the tail and around the eyes, with a black bar on the tail.</span>
Masked angelfish are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, but only rarely seen around the main Hawaiian Islands, instead almost exclusively residing in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands where they feed on zooplankton. Around the main Hawaiian Islands the masked angelfish is usually seen at depths from 200 to 300 feet (60 to 90 m) but may be may be seen at depths of around 60 feet (18 m) or deeper near the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
A highly prized aquarium fish, the masked angelfish is sometimes sold for more than $1,000.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Potter’s Angelfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Potter’s Angelfish </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Centropyge potteri//)</span>**
Length: Up to 5 inches (13 cm).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
The potter’s angelfish is the most commonly seen angelfish in Hawaiian waters, and one of the most commonly seen Hawaiian reef fish. The front of the fish (head and upper body) is rusty orange in color, darkening to a blackish-blue color below (bluer in males), with many irregular, dark grayish to blue vertical lines running the length of the body. The bluish colors are more pronounced in males.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The potter’s angelfish is usually seen at depths of 15 feet (4.6 m) or more down to about 100 feet (30 m). Often seen darting about the coral, the potter’s angelfish feeds on filamentous algae. This endemic fish gained its scientific species name </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//potteri//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> after former Waikīkī Aquarium director Frederick A Potter who ran the aquarium from 1903 to 1940.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Butterflyfishes </span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Chaetodontidae//</span>**
Characterized by its tiny, brush-like or comb-like teeth, the butterflyfish’s scientific name <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Chaetodontidae//)</span> derives from //“chaeto,”// meaning hair, and //“dentis,”// meaning tooth. With narrow snouts well suited for probing crevices of coral reefs, different butterflyfish species utilize different food sources, including plankton, invertebrates, coral, and algae.
There are about 115 butterfly species worldwide, and at least 24 of these species are native to the Hawaiian Islands. Butterflyfish are generally less than 8 inches (20 cm) long, and have disk shaped bodies that are often yellow and brightly colored, usually with a dark bar over the eye area. There is sometimes a false eyespot near the tail to confuse predators. The butterflyfish’s bright color pattern during the day may differ from its more subdued appearance at night, when the fish generally rests within the many hiding places of the coral reef.
Butterflyfish multiply by releasing eggs that hatch into larvae. The parents give no care to the young. As adults, the fish often travel in pairs that may be long-term mates.
In ancient Hawai‘i, some varieties of the butterflyfish were considered sacred, and are mentioned in ancient chants. The Hawaiian word kīkākapu (kīkā means strong, kapu means forbidden and/or sacred) refers to fish in the genera //Cheilodactylus// as well as //Chaetodon//, and specific varieties are referred to with the qualifying terms ko‘a and lua.
Lauwiliwili is the term for //Chaetodon milaris//, while lau hau refers to the brightly colored //Chaetodon umimaculatus// and //Chaetodon quadrimaculatus//. To refer to specific varieties, the term lauwiliwili may be qualified with other terms, such as kīkākapu, kapuhili, nuku ‘i‘wi, wiliwili, or maha uli. The term kapuhili refers to //Chaetodon trifasciatus//.
Not included here are the extremely rare double-saddle butterflyfish <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Chaetodon ulietensis//)</span>, and the Chevron butterflyfish <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Chaetodon trifascialis//)</span>, which is seen only in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Bluehead butterflyfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Blacklip Butterflyfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Chaetodon kleinii//) </span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Bluehead Butterflyfish; Klein’s Butterflyfish</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 5 inches (13 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The bluehead butterflyfish is a speckled, golden, yellow-brown in color and feeds on soft corals and zooplankton. The fish has dark (black) colored lips and dark vertical bar running through the eye region, which is brown to black below the eye and blue above the eye. Each scale also has a bluish spot. The bluehead butterflyfish is a relatively common reef fish around the Hawaiian Islands, usually seen at depths below 40 feet (12 m).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Bluestripe butterflyfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Bluestripe Butterflyfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Chaetodon fremblii//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian name: //Kīkākapu//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 6 inches (15 cm).</span>
The bluestripe butterflyfish is common among the shallow nearshore reefs and also seen in deeper waters. Bright blue bands run diagonally to obliquely along the fish’s yellow body, which becomes a darker yellow when the fish is alarmed. The fish also has a black spot above and behind the eye (on the forehead, or nape), and a black spot at the rear (posterior) of the fish, extending onto the base of the tail and the dorsal fin. Found only in Hawaiian waters and often seen alone, the bluestripe butterflyfish feeds on algae, tubeworm tentacles, and other invertebrates.
Known as a relic species, the bluestripe butterflyfish has no obvious close relatives (which means that it has likely been in Hawaiian waters a very long time). The bluestripe butterflyfish may be seen in shallow water reef areas as well as deeper waters up to about 600 feet (183 m).
[Photograph: Forceps butterflyfish]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Forceps Butterflyfish</span> (//Forcipiger flavissimus//)**
**Hawaiian Name: //Lauwiliwili Nukunuku ‘Oi‘oi//**
**Also called: Forcepfish; Common Longnose Butterflyfish**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).
A mostly yellow fish with a long, slender snout, the longnose butterflyfish is commonly seen probing the crevices of coral reefs, and is sometimes seen swimming upside down near the roofs of caves. Also notable for its large, bristling dorsal spines, the longnose butterflyfish has a black upper head region and a black spot on its anal fin. The lower half of the fish’s head is white.
The longnose butterflyfish is probably the most widely found butterflyfish, inhabiting areas from the East Africa to the Red Sea, to Mexico and the Americas. The fish inhabits depths ranging from the shallows down to about 100 feet (30 m), using their long snout to feed on small crustaceans, fish eggs, tubeworms, and the tubefeet of sea urchins.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The common longnose butterflyfish (forcepfish) has a smaller mouth opening than the rare longnose butterflyfish, but is otherwise very similar. The Hawaiian name of the common longnose butterflyfish, lauwiliwili nukunuku ‘oi‘oi, means //“sharp beaked wiliwili leaf,”// referring to the native wiliwili tree </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Erythrina sandwicensis//, Hawaiian coral tree)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(See //Wiliwili// in //Native Plants and Ferns of the Hawaiian Islands//, //Chapter 8//.)</span>
[Photograph: Fourspot butterflyfish]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Fourspot Butterflyfish</span> (//Chaetodon quadrimaculatus//)**
**Hawaiian Name: //Lauhau//**
Indigenous
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 6 inches (15 cm).</span>
The upper portion of the fourspot butterflyfish’s body is dark brown with two large white spots (on each side of the fish). The lower portion of the fish’s body is orange-yellow in color. The scales of this orange-yellow region each have a small brown spot.
The head and tail of the fourspot fish is yellow, and a darker stripe (ocular bar) runs over the eye region. This ocular bar is orangish below the eye but darker above, and narrowly edged with blue and black. The dorsal and anal fins also have a line of blue.
Fourspot butterflyfish often rest beneath ledges and feed mostly on coral polyps. They may be seen in relatively shallow waters, and down to about 50 feet (15 m).
[Photograph: Lined butterflyfish]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Lined Butterflyfish</span> (//Chaetodon lineolatus//)**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Kīkākapu//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 12 inches (30 cm).</span>
Usually seen in pairs on shallow reefs as well as deeper areas, the lined butterflyfish is not a particularly common Hawaiian reef fish, but is Hawai‘i’s largest butterflyfish. They may be seen in shallow reef areas but also have been spotted at depths of more than 500 feet (152 m).
More than a dozen dark lines run vertically on the sides of the lined butterflyfish’s white body. A dark vertical bar runs over eye region, and above the eye within this dark bar is a white spot. The dorsal, anal, and tail fins are yellow.
The general appearance of the lined butterflyfish is somewhat similar to the threadfin butterflyfish, but the lined butterflyfish has a wide, black marking that arcs below the dorsal fin and in front of its yellowish tail region. The lined butterflyfish also has only one set of vertical dark lines, unlike the two diagonal sets of dark lines on the threadfin butterflyfish.
The lined butterflyfish feeds on algae and small invertebrates, such as anemones and coral polyps.
[Photograph: Milletseed butterflyfish]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Milletseed Butterflyfish</span> (//Chaetodon miliaris//)**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Lauwiliwili//</span>**
Endemic
Length: Up to 6½ inches (16.5 cm).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Also known as the lemon butterflyfish, the milletseed butterflyfish is a friendly, bright yellow fish. Vertical rows of dark spots (resembling millet seeds) line the sides of the fish. There is a dark bar over the eye region and a dark spot at the base of the tail (caudal peduncle). The dark spots, said to resemble millet seeds, are arranged in vertical or diagonal rows.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Milletseed butterflyfish are seen in shallow waters as well as at depths of more than 800 feet (244 m). Their diet is primarily zooplankton but also includes the eggs of the Sergeant Major fish. Milletseed butterflyfish also occasionally clean other fish. </span>
[Photograph: Ornate butterflyfish]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Ornate Butterflyfish</span> (C//haetodon ornatissimus//)**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Kīkākapu//</span>**
Indigenous
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm). </span>
An attractive and relatively common reef fish, the ornate butterflyfish has six orange bands that run diagonally on the side of the ornate butterflyfish’s white body, which is rimmed with black. Six vertical black bars, with yellow between, cover the face and head. One of the black bars continues along the length of the dorsal area and onto the fins and tail.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The ornate butterflyfish is found in shallow waters as well as at depths to about 90 feet (27 m). Adults are usually seen in pairs, though they may be seen singly among coral branches feeding on live coral polyps.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Ornate Butterflyfish]</span>
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[Photograph: Oval butterflyfish] Oval Butterflyfish (Chaetodon lunulatus) Hawaiian Name: Kapuhili Also called: Redfin Butterflyfish Indigenous Length: Up to 5.5 inches (14 cm).
A black eye bar is prominent on the oval butterflyfish’s orange-yellow head. Also known as the redfin butterflyfish, the oval butterflyfish’s body is orangish-yellow with nearly horizontal purple-gray lines, and a reddish anal fin.
The oval butterflyfish feeds on live coral polyps, and inhabits reef areas, particularly in calm bay and lagoon areas. Not particularly common, they are usually seen in pairs in shallow waters or at depths to about 60 feet (18 m).
[Photograph: Pebbled butterflyfish] Pebbled Butterflyfish (Chaetodon multicinctus) Hawaiian Name: Kīkākapu Also called: Multiband Butterflyfish Endemic Length: Up to 4½ inches (11 cm). Fairly common in Hawaiian waters but found nowhere else, the pebbled butterflyfish has a cream to tan-colored body with many small brownish-olive spots, and four or five vertical beige-brown bars that sometimes are barely visible. A black bar covers the eye region, and there is black at the outer edge and the base of the tail. Usually seen pairs or larger groupings, the pebbled butterflyfish feeds on coral polyps. The fish may be seen in shallow reef areas as well as at depths to about 90 feet (27 m).
[Photograph: Pennant butterflyfish] Pennant Butterflyfish (Heniochus diphreutes) Also called: Bannerfish; Pennantfish
Indigenous Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm). Two prominent, diagonal black bars on a white body, along with a white pennant (rarely a double pennant), make the pennant butterflyfish easily recognizable. The white banner is actually the fourth dorsal spine and membrane, and this filament grows longer as the fish matures. The pennant butterflyfish’s tail, dorsal fin, and pectoral fin are yellow. Pennant butterflyfish are sometimes seen in shallow waters but usually at depths below 40 feet (12 m), often near steep dropoffs, feeding on zooplankton. They are often seen in schools. Pennant butterflyfish are also known to clean other fish. Aquarium lovers appreciate the adaptability of the pennant butterflyfish, and sometimes refer to it as the “poor man’s Moorish idol,” another fish with similar ‘cleaning’ behavior (See Moorish idol section.) The Moorish idol is somewhat similar in appearance, but has a much longer snout than the pennant butterflyfish.
[Photograph: Pyramid butterflyfish] Pyramid Butterflyfish (Hemitaurichthys polylepis) Also called: Brownface Butterflyfish
Indigenous Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm). A large white triangle (pyramid) in the center of the body of the pyramid butterflyfish is surrounded by yellow. The head is dark brown while the dorsal and anal fins are yellow. The pyramid butterflyfish feeds on zooplankton and is often seen in large schools. The fish may be seen in shallow waters (e.g., Hōnaunau on Hawai‘i Island’s Kona coast), but is more commonly seen in deeper waters from about 20 to 100 feet (6 to 30 m), preferring steep dropoff zones.
[Photograph: Raccoon butterflyfish] Raccoon Butterflyfish (Chaetodon lunula) Hawaiian Name: Kīkākapu
Indigenous Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).
The raccoon butterflyfish has an orange-yellow body (dusky on the top half), with three reddish, diagonal stripes. The black bar over the eye region of this fish bears a resemblance to the raccoon, a small mammal native to North America. Behind the black eye bar is a white crescent (lunula means “crescent”), and then a black bar extending onto the body and upward. At the base of the tail there is a black spot, extending upward into a narrowing black band. Juveniles have a relatively large false eyespot and are brighter than adults. Large resident schools of the fish may inhabit particular locations year after year, resting relatively motionless during the day. The raccoon butterflyfish may be seen in the shallows or down to about 50 feet (15 m), feeding on various small invertebrates as well as coral polyps, fish eggs, and algae. The fish’s body turns brownish at night. The raccoon butterflyfish is not shy, and is commonly seen by snorkelers and divers.
[Photograph: Longnose butterflyfish] Longnose Butterflyfish (Forcipiger longirostris) Hawaiian Name: Lau-wiliwili-nukunuku-‘oi‘oi Also called Big Longnose Butterflyfish; Rare Longnose Butterflyfish Indigenous Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm). With a long snout but a small mouth opening, this fish is well adapted to feeding among the coral reefs. Its body is yellow with rows of blackish spots on the chest area. The longnose butterflyfish has a longer snout than the forceps butterflyfish (Forcipiger flavissimus), but otherwise is almost identical in appearance. A black color phase sometimes occurs, particularly in longnose butterflyfish populations along the island of Hawai‘i’s Kona Coast. Longnose butterflyfish may be seen in relatively shallow waters or to depths of about 100 feet (30 m). They feed primarily on crustaceans but also eat fish eggs, tube feet of urchins, and tube worms.
[Photograph: Reticulated butterflyfish] Reticulated Butterflyfish (Chaetodon reticulatus)
Indigenous Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm). This beautiful fish is quite uncommon throughout the Hawaiian Islands, though is often seen (usually in pairs) along the island of Hawai‘i’s Kona Coast, and sometimes in O‘ahu’s Hanauma Bay. The head and eye of the fish are covered by a black bar that is lined at the front with yellow. Behind the black eye bar, the fish is gray and black, with a pattern of creamy white to yellow markings (a spot on each scale). There is also a red area on the anal fin. The outer edge of the tail and anal fin are lined with yellow.
Feeding on coral polyps as well as algae, the reticulated butterflyfish may be seen in relatively shallow waters and to depths of about 90 feet (27 m).
[Photograph: Teardrop butterflyfish] Teardrop Butterflyfish (Chaetodon unimaculatus) Hawaiian Name: Lauhau; Kīkākapu. Indigenous Length: Up to 7½ inches (19 cm). The teardrop butterflyfish’s most distinctive feature is the large, black, upside-down teardrop-shaped mark on the upper center portion of its body (unimaculatus means “one spot”). The white body is yellow toward the top, and a wide, black bar covers the eye region. Not a particularly common fish, the teardrop butterflyfish is usually seen in pairs at depths between 20 and 100 feet (6 to 30 m), feeding on coral polyps, worms, crustaceans, and algae. The fish’s blunt mouth is well adapted for chewing hard pieces of coral off the reef.
[Photograph: Thompson’s Butterflyfish] Thompson’s Butterflyfish (Hemitaurichthys thompsoni) Also called: Businessman Butterflyfish Indigenous Length: Up to 6 inches (15 cm). The Thompson’s butterflyfish is recognized by its short, upturned snout and gray to black-brown color, which is quite unlike the showy, bright colors of all other butterflyfish species. Thompson’s butterflyfish are quite friendly but relatively rare, often congregating in schools with pyramid butterflyfish. The species’ scientific name, thompsoni, honors John W. Thompson who worked for the Bishop Museum from 1901 to 1928, and was known for his colorful casts of Hawaiian fish. Thompson’s butterflyfish are usually seen at depths of 33 feet (10 m) or more, feeding on zooplankton.
[Photograph: Threadfin butterflyfish] Threadfin Butterflyfish (Chaetodon auriga) Hawaiian name: Kīkākapu
Indigenous
Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).
A relatively common reef fish, the threadfin butterflyfish is yellow-orange or goldish toward the back, and white at the front with a broad, black bar over the eye region. On the body of the fish are two groupings of dark, diagonal lines that are at right angles to each other.
Above the black spot at the top rear of the fish (on the dorsal fin) is a thread-like filament that is actually an extension of one of the dorsal spines. Threadfin butterflyfish are territorial in pairs, driving away other threadfin butterflyfish but tolerating different species (including other species of butterflyfish).
Threadfin butterflyfish are often seen in pairs in shallow waters at depths to about 50 feet (15 m). They feed primarily on worms, algae, and coral polyps.
[Photograph: Tinker’s butterflyfish] Tinker’s Butterflyfish (Chaetodon tinkeri)
Indigenous
Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).
The body of the tinker’s butterflyfish is black on the top toward the back but white with black spots toward the front. A bar over the eye region is golden yellow, as is the tail. There is also a gold marking on the snout and at the base of the pectoral fins.
Not a shy fish, the tinker’s butterflyfish is easily caught by collectors who export the fish for sale in the aquarium trade. This had made the tinker’s butterflyfish quite rare at depths above 100 feet (30 m), where it feeds on planktonic invertebrates.
The tinker’s butterflyfish is named after marine biologist Spencer Wilkie Tinker, who directed the O‘ahu’s Waikīkī Aquarium for more than three decades.
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**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Parrotfishes</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Scaridae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Parrotfishes </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Scaridae//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> are among the largest and most beautifully colored fish inhabiting Hawaiian coral reefs. Of the seven known species of parrotfish native to Hawaiian waters, three are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands (found nowhere else).</span>
Parrotfishes use their pectoral fins for propulsion. The tail is also used for propulsion, especially when a burst of speed is required. Parrotfishes may secrete a mucous cocoon around themselves at night as protection from predators, such as eels. The mucous cocoon may also protect the parrotfish from crustacean parasites.
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">‘A‘ohe e loa‘a, he uhu pakelo.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">He will not be caught, for he is a parrotfish, slippery with slime.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Said of a person too wily and wise to be caught.</span></span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Pukui: 131-17)</span></span></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Parrotfishes are herbivorous, and feed by scraping algae off the surface of coral reefs. They bite into the live coral using their fused teeth (which resemble a parrot’s beak), and ingest the coral along with the algae. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The digestive system of the parrotfish includes bony, grinding plates in the back of the throat that help the fish break down the bits of coral into fine sand. With no true stomach, but with an exceptionally long intestine, they grind the coral into sand, and then expel the sand. A single adult parrotfish may produce up to 1 ton (.9 mton) of sand per year, making it a major contributor to the sand supply around the Hawaiian Islands.</span>
The parrotfish’s bright colors (in most species) and beak-like teeth are responsible for the fish’s common name, parrotfish. The most colorful parrotfish are the terminal phase males (also called dominant males, or supermales), which are females that have changed sex to become males. Juvenile parrotfish appear very different than adults. These color and sex changes are similar to what occurs in wrasse species, the group from which parrotfish are believed to have evolved.
Initial phase adult parrotfish may be male or female, and are generally modestly colored (drab gray or reddish-brown) and often gather in schools. Terminal phase parrotfish are females that have become males, and these are the largest and most colorful of the parrotfish. They are often bright green or blue-green. Terminal phase fish stake out specific territories and mate with particular females, which may be part of a harem.
The colors of the parrotfish are so beautiful that the fish is sometimes compared to a beautiful person, as in the Hawaiian saying: //“Momomi wale ku‘u ‘ono i ka uhu mā‘alo i ku‘u maka//, which means,” //“My craving makes my mouth water for the parrotfish passing before my eyes.”// (Pukui and Elbert, 1986.)
Hawaiian names for the growth stages of the uhu (parrotfish) include ‘ōhua for very young fish, and pānuhu for medium sized fish, while uhu refers to mature parrotfish.
Some parrotfish species have specific Hawaiian names for different phases. For example, an initial phase spectacled parrotfish is known as uhu ‘ahu ‘ula, which is a reference to the colorful royal feather cloaks known as ‘ahu ‘ula. A terminal phase spectacled parrotfish is referred to as uhu uliuli, referring to the fish’s dark, blue-green colors.
[Photographs: Bullethead parrotfish (initial phase; terminal phase)]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Bullethead Parrotfish</span> (//Chlorurus sordidus//)**
**Hawaiian Name: //Uhu//**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 15 inches (38 cm).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The body of the male bullethead parrotfish is pastel blue-green with an orange-yellow blush on the side (toward the back), and small, vertical, pink lines on the fish’s scales. The female is reddish-black/brown with a double row of white spots toward the back, and with a white tail that has a black spot on it.</span>
The bullethead parrotfish get its common name from the symmetrical shape of its head. A relatively common reef fish, it may be seen in shallow as well as deeper waters, feeding on coral and algae. At night the fish may be seen sleeping in a cocoon of mucous <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see //Parrotfishes// above)</span>.
[Photograph: Spectacled parrotfish]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Spectacled Parrotfish</span> (//Chlorurus perspicillatus//)**
**Hawaiian Name: //Uhu ‘Ahu‘ula//** (initial phase)**; //Uhu Uliuli//** (terminal phase).
Endemic
Length: Up to 24 inches (61 cm).
Spectacled parrotfish are grayish-brown to reddish-brown in the initial phase, with red fins and a broad white area at the base of the tail. Terminal phase males are blue-green with a lavender colored head. The upper snout has a purple bar lined with blue. The terminal male also has orange-pink spots at the front, orange-pink edged scales at the rear, and yellow at the base of the pectoral fins. Spectacled parrotfish feed on coral and algae.
The Hawaiian name for the initial phase, uhu ‘ahu‘ula, is a reference to the royal feather capes (‘ahu ‘ula), which perhaps were compared to the reddish colors on the fish. The term for the terminal phase fish, uhu uliuli, means //“dark-colored uhu,”// referring to the striking blue-green colors of the fish.
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Surgeonfishes </span>****<span style="font-size: 14pt;">(Tangs)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Acanthuridae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Surgeonfishes are among the most abundant Hawaiian reef fish. Also called tangs, surgeonfishes are mostly herbivorous, feeding on algae. The surgeonfish is named for the sharp scalpel-like spines at the base of its tail fin, with one or two of the spines on each side of the fish. These spines are sometimes brightly colored. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The scientific family name of surgeonfish, //Acanthuridae//, derives from the Greek “akanthos,” which means //“thorn.”// Sometimes brightly colored, the sharp spines normally lie flat against the body, but in an instant may point outward to ward off predators. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Some surgeonfish species have venom in their scalpels as well as in their fin spines. With a rapid swipe of its tail the surgeonfish is able to slice into predators (and careless humans).</span>
Most surgeonfish prefer relatively shallow water, where they use their specially adapted mouths to scrape algae off coral or rock. Some surgeonfish also eat seaweed. Large schools of surgeonfish are often seen grazing over shallow reef areas and will readily swarm in large schools near groups of humans intent on feeding them. Hanauma Bay is a common location to observe this fish-human behavior.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">At least 24 species of surgeonfish may be seen in Hawaiian waters, though one </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Acanthurus lineatus//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> is extremely rare, with only two of the fish having been spotted. The //Acanthuridae// family also includes unicornfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Naso// species)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, referred to by ancient Hawaiians as kala, which also means //“rough,”// a reference to the skin of the fish. The abrasive skin of kala was sometimes used for sanding by ancient Hawaiians. </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(See //Kukui// in //Seed Lei//, //Chapter 3//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, and was used for the drum head of the pūniu, or coconut knee drum. The pūniu, which is unique to the Hawaiian Islands, was made by stretching the skin of the kala (favored for its tiny scales) over the shell of the coconut </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Cocos nucifera//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(See //Niu// in //Polynesian-Introduced Plants//, //Chapter 9//.)</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Fish in the //Naso// genus have two spines on each side, and they are fixed in place, while fish in the genera //Zebrasoma//, //Ctenochaetus//, and //Acanthurus// have only one spine per side, and they may fold down almost flush into a groove on the side of the fish. </span>
Surgeonfishes are similar to parrotfishes and wrasses in that they primarily use their pectoral fins for propulsion. The closely related Moorish Idol, the lone member of the //Zanclidae// family, also uses its pectoral fins for propulsion though it lacks the spines of the surgeonfish.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Achilles tang]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Achilles Tang</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Acanthurus achilles//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian name: //Pāku‘iku‘i//</span>**
Indigenous
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 10 inches (25 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The Achilles tang is mostly black with some white around the margins, and a distinguishing bright orange-red, elliptical (teardrop-shaped) mark near the base of the tail around the scalpel region (in adult fish). The tail fin is mostly orange-red, with a thin black line and then a wider white area at the back of the tail.</span>
Named after the legendary Greek warrior Achilles who was known for his strength and bravery, the Achilles tang is a very territorial fish. A common Achilles tang behavior is an aggressive burst of speed and a quick turn to display the sharp scalpel-like spine. This is done to intimidate other fish. An agitated Achilles tang may also flare its fins and show a reddish tint to its black body.
The Achilles tang feeds on algae, and prefers relatively shallow reef areas and turbulent waters found near wave action.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Convict tang]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Convict Tang</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Acanthurus triostegus sandvicensis//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Convict Surgeonfish </span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Manini// </span>**
Endemic subspecies
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 10 inches (25 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The convict tang is greenish-white to yellowish-white with six narrow, vertical black bars from the head to the tail, resembling the stripes of a convict’s jail uniform. Large schools of convict tangs may be seen grazing on algae in the surge zone near the reef. The post larval stage occurs in tidepools, where juveniles emerge. The adult fish are seen at depths to about 100 feet (30 m).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Orangeband surgeonfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Orangeband Surgeonfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Acanthurus olivaceus)//</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Na‘ena‘e//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 12 inches (30 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The juvenile orangeband surgeonfish is bright yellow and similar in appearance to the yellow tang </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see below).</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The color of the adult orangeband surgeonfish, however, is grayish-brown to light olive (thus the species name, “//olivaceus//”), usually with the front of the fish being lighter in color, and then abruptly becoming darker on the rear portion of the fish.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Prominently displayed on each side of the fish is a horizontal orange band broadly ringed with blue. The orange band extends back from the gill opening. The base of the dorsal fin is also lined with orange. Near the rear of the tail fin is a crescent-shaped white mark.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The orangeband surgeonfish may be seen near coral reefs, sometimes in schools, feeding on filamentous algae and detritus.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Yellowfin surgeonfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Yellowfin Surgeonfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Acanthurus xanthopterus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Pualu//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 22 inches (56 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Yellowfin surgeonfish are commonly seen on Hawaiian reefs, particularly in areas where humans feeding fish are common. Purplish-gray in color, the yellowfin surgeonfish has irregular blue lines on the body, a yellow band over the eye region, blue bands on the dorsal and anal fins, and a black spine at the base of the tail. The outer pelvic fins are yellow, and the blue tail fin is lyre-shaped, sometimes with a white band at the base of the tail fin.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Yellowfin surgeonfish sometimes gather in small schools, feeding on algae near the coral reef as well as over sandy areas far from the reef.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Yellow tang]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Yellow Tang </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Zebrasoma flavescens//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Lau‘īpala//</span>**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The yellow tang is a thin, delicate fish with a pointed snout. The fish is completely golden yellow except for the white sheath of its small tail spine. The bright color of the yellow tangs allows them to be identified from shore as they swim in the shallows, particularly along the Kona Coast. The fish also inhabit deeper waters to about 100 feet (30 m).</span>
Yellow tangs are often seen feeding and hiding among branches of finger coral or swimming in calm waters near shore and feeding on filamentous algae. Adult yellow tangs congregate in schools, unlike the juveniles of the species. Juveniles are also are notable for their elevated anal and dorsal fins. Large schools of yellow tangs are seen only in Hawaiian waters, though the fish is seen in smaller numbers as far away as Guam and southern Japan.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The yellow tang is the most popular Hawaiian reef fish captured for export in the aquarium fish trade. This has heavily impacted the populations of the fish around the Hawaiian Islands.</span>
The yellow tang’s Hawaiian name, lau‘īpala or lā‘īpala, meaning //“yellow ti leaf”// (lā‘ī is a contraction of lau kī, or //“leaf of kī.”// Kī <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Cordyline fruticosa//, ti)</span> is a Polynesian-introduced plant. <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(See //Kī// in //Polynesian-Introduced Plants//, //Chapter 9//.)</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Bluespine Unicornfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Bluespine Unicornfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Naso unicornus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Kala//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 27 inches (69 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The bluespine unicornfish is probably the most likely unicornfish to be seen by snorkelers. It is light olive to yellowish gray in color, but darker when feeding on algae in shallow waters (but retaining a light shoulder patch). The tail spines are bright (even fluorescent) blue, with tail streamers on males. </span>
The dorsal and anal fins of the bluespine unicornfish have dark bands and are blue on the margin. A bony horn extends from in front of the eye (though may not be present in small specimens). Ancient Hawaiians used the skin of the bluespine unicornfish (kala) to make drum heads. A small drum known as a pūniu, or coconut knee drum (unique to the Hawaiian Islands) was made by stretching the skin of the kala (favored for its tiny scales) over the shell of the coconut <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Cocos nucifera//)</span>. <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(See //Niu// in //Polynesian-Introduced Plants//, //Chapter 9//.)</span>
In ancient Hawai‘i, sanding was done using the skin of the kala fish as well as the skin of manō <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Carcharhinus// species, sharks)</span>, and pumice, or ‘ana <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Leiodermatium//, siliceous sponge)</span>. Sea urchin spines were used for filing.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Orangespine unicornfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Orangespine Unicornfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Naso lituratus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Naso Tang</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Umaumalei//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 18 inches (46 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The orangespine unicornfish has a grayish-brown body with bright orange lips. The fish’s Hawaiian name, umaumalei (//“chest garland”//), comes from the curved line of yellow extending from the eye to the corner of the mouth, resembling a lei. The snout is black in front of the yellow. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The orangespine unicornfish’s forehead has a dull yellow mark that brightens when the fish is excited (e.g., chasing another fish), and has been likened to a flashlight shining from the fish’s forehead. As its common name suggests, the orangespine unicornfish has exceptionally bright orange caudal spines (which curve forward), though the fish does not have a rostral horn like some other unicornfish.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Filaments (tail streamers) extends from the top and bottom of the caudal fin in adult males. Subadult and juvenile orangespine unicornfish are popular as aquarium fish, though adults are usually more colorful (but require a larger tank). The orangespine unicornfish is relatively common in Hawaiian waters, and is often seen feeding on seaweed in shallow water.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Wrasses</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Labridae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> There are 43 native Hawaiian wrasse species, and 13 of these wrasse species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Most wrasses are less than 20 inches (51 cm) in length.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Most wrasses are slender, brightly colored fish, usually thick-lipped with sharp, protruding, front canine teeth, smooth-edged scales, and usually a single continuous (unnotched) dorsal fin. Wrasses primarily use their pectoral fins for locomotion, also using their tail fin when rapid movement is needed.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The body colorations of wrasses often change markedly from the juvenile to the adult stage. Females and males also differ significantly, as do ordinary male fish compared to terminal (dominant) males. These age and sex color variations have historically caused much confusion in determining wrasse species classifications. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In most (if not all) wrasse species, some adult females may change sexes, becoming terminal males. These terminal males (also called dominant males, or supermales) are usually brightly colored. Terminal males establish territories and then spawn with females in their harem. Relatively few wrasses become terminal males, but the ones that do are always initially born female.</span>
Wrasses are carnivorous fish. Some wrasse species feed on small invertebrates (e.g., hermit crabs, sea urchins, mollusks) while others prefer feeding on small fish or plankton. Cleaner wrasses eat skin parasites off other fish species, and often have specific “cleaning stations” where fish come to be serviced <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see //Cleaner Wrasse// section below). </span>
Wrasses are diurnal (actively feeding during the day), and most smaller wrasse species bury themselves in the sand at night. Others hide in cracks and crevices in the coral reef. Some cleaner wrasses may enclose themselves in a cocoon of mucous, something that is also done by the parrotfish.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Most wrasses are referred to by the Hawaiian term hīnālea, though many smaller wrasse species have no known Hawaiian name. Ancient Hawaiians prepared a relish with raw, slightly decomposed hīnālea, which was salted and mixed with nuts of kukui </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Aleurites moluccana//, candlenut)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> and other ingredients. This method of preparation was known as i‘a ho‘omelu (i‘a means //“fish”// and ho‘omelu refers to the partial decomposition of the wrasse—melu means //“soft”//). The hīnālea relish was used as an //“aftertaste”// of ‘awa </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Piper methysticum//, kava)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, meaning that it was consumed directly following the consumption ‘awa. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">A person with bad breath was sometimes referred to as ipu kai hīnālea (//“dish of hīnālea sauce”//), which was a reference to the pungent and somewhat offensive aroma of the relish.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photographs: Hawaiian cleaner wrasse adult; juvenile.]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Cleaner Wrasse</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Labroides phthirophagus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Hīnālea//</span>**
Endemic
Length: Up to 4 inches (10 cm).
The Hawaiian cleaner wrasse is known for its propensity to eat ectoparasites and mucous off other fish, which come to the wrasse’s “cleaning station” and literally wait their turn to be cleaned. The cleaner wrasse contentedly nibbles away at the body surface of its clients, which include sharks and eels
The adult Hawaiian cleaner wrasse is bright yellow in front, tapering to blue in the back with magenta/purplish markings. A dark stripe runs the length of the fish and through the eye region. The anal and dorsal fins are primarily blue.
The juvenile Hawaiian cleaner wrasse is black with a blue stripe and lacks the yellow color of the adult. The cleaner wrasse sometimes encases itself in mucus at night <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see //Wrasses// above)</span>, as do some parrotfish species.
[Photograph: Saddle wrasse]
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Saddle Wrasse </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Thalassoma duperrey//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Hīnālea lauwili//</span>**
Endemic
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 10 inches (25 cm).</span>
Probably the most common reef fish in Hawaiian waters (and definitely the most abundant wrasse), the saddle wrasse’s body is mostly green with vertical magenta-blue lines. The fish has an orange band behind the head and, in terminal males, a light area behind the orange band. The head of the saddle wrasse is blue to purplish-gray shading to greenish on the lower portion.
The juvenile saddle wrasse does not have the orange band but instead has a dark horizontal stripe (on each side) running for the length of the fish, through the eye area, and to the crescent-shaped tail fin. Beneath this dark stripe is a white stripe, and beneath the white is an orange-yellow stripe.
The saddle wrasse is very curious, and not afraid to investigate snorkelers. The terminal male may clamp shut his crescent-shaped tail fin and hold his dorsal fin erect as he patrols his territory. The female saddle wrasse may change sex to male <span style="font-size: 11pt;">(see //Wrasses// above)</span>, and when this occurs it is revealed by a white stripe on the side of the fish behind the orange “saddle.”
Often seen in schools, saddle wrasses feed on crustaceans, such as crabs, as well as mollusks, worms, brittle stars, heart urchins, and sea urchins. The saddle wrasse may also clean other fish as well as honu (sea turtles). An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, //“Naueue ka hi‘u o ka i‘a lewa i ke kai”// (//“The tails of the fish that move in the sea tremble,”// which is //“...said of fish, such as the hīnālea, in the cold month of Welehu. The tails of the hīnālea bend as they seek hollows in the corals for hiding.”//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn27|[xxvii]]]</span>
The scientific name of the fish, //Thalassoma duperrey//, honors a midshipman on the //Uranie//, which arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1819 under the command of French Navy captain Louis de Freycinet. Various species of Hawaiian fish were collected by two of the ship’s officers, Quoy and Gaimard. (See //Chapter 11, Timeline: 1819, Aug. 8//.)
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Filefishes</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Monacanthidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Filefish do not have pelvic fins, and they use their dorsal and anal fins to move backwards or forwards through the water. Most filefish species are omnivorous, and some are more than 2 feet (61 cm) long.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The family name of the fishes, //Monacanthidae//, translates to //“One spine,”// and is a reference to the first dorsal spine of the fish, which is longer than the rest and may lock in its erect position. ‘O‘ili, the Hawaiian name used to refer to many of the native species of filefish, means //“to come up,”// and is a reference to the fish’s locking spine. Filefishes are close relatives of the triggerfishes. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The skin of the filefish is finely abrasive. Some filefishes are able to rapidly change color to become camouflaged with their surroundings. Filefishes are closely related to pufferfishes </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Tetraodontidae//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> and boxfishes </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Ostraciidae//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. Eight filefish species may be seen in Hawaiian waters, though one species </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Thamnaconus garretti//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> is only seen in deep waters, and the unicorn filefish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Aluterus monoceros//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> is only rarely seen.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Fantail filefish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Fantail Filefish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Pervagor spilosoma//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //‘Ō‘ili ‘Uwī‘uwī//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The body of the fantail filefish is golden yellow to yellowish-brown, with black or brown spots. The fish is blue around the mouth and throat and has diagonal brown stripes on its head. The fish’s colorful fan-shaped tail is yellow at the front, orange in the middle and black at the back.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">When removed from the water, the fantail filefish makes a slight sound. This led to the fish’s Hawaiian name, which means //“squealing ‘ō‘ili”// (‘ō‘ili refers to filefish).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Fantail filefish populations rise and fall in cycles that are not fully understood. The fish are sometimes among the most common reef fish in Hawaiian waters, but population peaks may be followed by large die-offs that result in fish washing up on island beaches (as occurred in 1985-1986). Some say the cycle repeats about every 40 years.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Fantail filefish are seen in shallow waters as well as at depths of more than 100 feet (30 m). They sometimes align themselves head-to-tail, raise and lower their spines, and spread their bright orange tails. These behaviors may be related to courtship or territorial claims. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">In ancient Hawai‘i, the fantail filefish was said to signal the coming death of ali‘i, or royalty. The dried fish were also used as fuel.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Hawaiian filefish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Filefish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Cantherhines sandwichiensis//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Squaretail Filefish</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //‘Ō‘ili Lepa//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian filefish is dark gray to brownish or whitish-gray in color, and is quickly recognized by the white spot at the rear of its dorsal fin (atop the base of its tail fin). The fish may also show pale white spots, and the rays of the fins are usually yellowish. While the back of the tail is rounded in other filefish, in the Hawaiian filefish the back of the tail is straight. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian filefish feeds on algae as well as sponges, corals, and tunicates. The fish’s Hawaiian name, ‘ō‘ili lepa, means //“flag appearing,”// referring to the appearance of its dorsal fin.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Scribbled filefish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Scribbled Filefish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Aluterus scriptus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Broomtail Filefish; Scrolled Filefish; Scrawled Filefish</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Loulu//</span>**
Length: Up to 36 inches (91 cm).
The scribbled filefish is bluish-gray to brownish in color, with blue to blue-green or black spots, and short pastel blue lines that appear like scribbles on the fish’s body. The scribbled filefish can quickly take on a darker, mottled look that aids in camouflage. The first dorsal spine is hair-like (long and slender). About one third of the length of the fish consists of its fan-like tail fin.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scribbled filefish feed on algae and a variety of coelenterates (e.g., coral) as well as sponges and tunicates. They are sometimes seen in large schools, and are quite noticeable as being one of the largest Hawaiian reef fish species.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian name for the scribbled filefish, //scriptus//, means //“written upon,”// referring to the markings on the fish. The Hawaiian name for the scribbled filefish is loulu, which is also the name of the endemic Hawaiian fan palms </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Pritchardia// species)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, possibly referring to the similar color of the fish, or perhaps to the resemblance of the fish’s tail to the loulu’s fan-like fronds.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Scorpionfishes</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Nohu//</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Family: //Scorpaenidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Scorpionfish are carnivorous ambush predators, yet generally they are quite slow moving, and often sedentary. There are 25 species of scorpionfish native to the Hawaiian Islands.</span>
Many scorpionfish are somewhat mottled in color, with an amazing ability to blend in with their surroundings. In contrast, some scorpionfish are brightly colored and are particularly noticeable.
The name of the scorpionfish comes from the venomous dorsal spines found in many scorpionfish species. These venomous dorsal spines may inflict very painful stings to humans. In severe cases, the stings may cause allergic reactions leading to anaphylactic shock.
Fortunately, the scorpionfish does not attack swimmers and divers. However, it does often lay camouflaged on the ocean bottom, where it may be accidentally stepped upon. The recommended remedy for stings from the venomous spines of scorpionfish is to immerse the wound in hot (but not scalding) water, denaturing the venom’s protein and nullifying its toxicity. Hunting mostly in the evening or during the night, the scorpionfish usually lies in wait and then ambushes its prey.
Scorpionfish (family //Scorpaenidae//) in the //Pterois// and //Dendrochirus// genera are often referred to as lionfishes, and in Hawaiian waters there is one species in each of the two genera. //Dendrochirus barberi// is known as the Hawaiian lionfish, and //Pterois sphex// is known as the Hawaiian turkeyfish (also referred to as lionfish). The fan-like fins of the lionfish are not only majestically beautiful when the fish is swimming, the fins are also used by the fish to corner and capture prey, such as crustaceans and small fish.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The general Hawaiian name for all scorpionfishes is nohu, while the turkeyfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Pterois sphex//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> is known as nohu pinao (pinao is also the Hawaiian word for dragonfly).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Turkeyfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Turkeyfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Pterois sphex//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Nohu Pinao//</span>**
**Also called: Hawaiian Lionfish**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: 8 inches (20 cm).</span>
The body of the Hawaiian turkeyfish is vertically striped with narrow pinkish-white and broader reddish-brown bars. The pectoral fins are graced with long white spine extensions, as are the venomous dorsal spines.
During the day, the turkeyfish likes to hide in caves and under ledges (sometimes upside down), emerging at night to feed on shrimp, small crabs, and fish that inhabit the coral reefs.
Relatively shy, the Hawaiian turkeyfish often won’t move when approached. The turkeyfish is not a particularly common fish, though it is seen more often than the Hawaiian lionfish. One place the turkeyfish is seen quite readily is along the island of Hawai‘i’s Kona Coast. Unfortunately, fish collectors have decimated this species in some areas to supply the aquarium trade.
While all Hawaiian scorpionfish are known by the Hawaiian name “nohu,” the Hawaiian turkeyfish is also known as “nohu pinao,” a reference to the appearance of the fish’s colors, and perhaps also the pectoral fins, which resemble the wings of the pinao (dragonfly).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Hawaiian lionfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Lionfish </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Dendrochirus barberi//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Green Lionfish</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Nohu//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 6.5 inches (16.5 cm).</span>
The Hawaiian lionfish is greenish-brown to orangish-brown in color, mottled with white, and lined with two fairly wide and dark horizontal bars. The fish also has a large, red ring around each eye, and rows of spots adorn its large, fan-like pectoral fins and membrane-covered spines.
The Hawaiian lionfish is duller and better camouflaged than the turkeyfish, and also lacks the showy spines (though caution is still advised when near this fish, as wounds from the spines may be extremely painful). The lionfish often rests on the ocean bottom during day, beneath reef ledges, under rocks, or in caves. At night the lionfish is more likely to venture out in the open where it may be seen.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Moorish idol]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Moorish Idol</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Zanclus cornutus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Kihikihi//</span>**
**Family: //Zanclidae//**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Moorish idol’s body has two wide, vertical, black bars with white and golden yellow between, and at the base of the black tail. The fish’s long third dorsal spine extends into a graceful filament that trails behind the fish.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The snout of the Moorish idol is white, with a black-edged orange spot. The fish’s long, pointed snout is well adapted to feeding in the cracks and crevices of the coral reef environment. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Often seen in small schools or in pairs, moorish idols prefer shallow waters as well as depths to about 100 feet (30 m). They feed primarily on sponges, but also eat algae. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Moorish idol is the only existing member of its scientific family, //Zanclidae//, named after the Greek word “zanclon,” likely referring to the shape of the fish and its trailing filament. The Moorish Idol is closely related to the surgeonfishes </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Acanthuridae//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, and they both predominantly use their pectoral fins for propulsion.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Triggerfishes</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Balistidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> There are eleven species of triggerfish in Hawaiian waters. These tough-skinned fish are known by the Hawaiian term, humuhumu, which means //“to sew pieces together,”// and is likely a reference to the geometric shapes and patterns that adorn some triggerfishes. </span>
The thick, strong, first dorsal spine of the triggerfish may become erect and lock in place with the shorter, second dorsal spine. To dislodge the fish from a crevice where it is hiding (wedged in with its erect dorsal spine and extended pelvic bone), the second spine may be depressed to release (//“trigger”//) the locking mechanism. However, this practice is not recommended as the fish has a strong mouth and jaws, and may bite.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Triggerfishes feed mostly during the day, and have chisel-like teeth that they use to break apart their prey, which are mostly invertebrates, including sea urchins, crabs, and mollusks. Some triggerfishes feed on zooplankton.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Triggerfish locomotion is achieved primarily using the dorsal and anal fins, and the tail fin is used when rapid movement is needed. Triggerfishes can maneuver backwards as easily as forwards, which is a helpful trait among the many small holes and crevices in the coral reefs. The eyes of triggerfish are located noticeably far back on the head, which further assists maneuverability.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Mostly solitary, triggerfishes are aggressively territorial. They are known to make a grunting noise when intercostal muscles are used to move two bones in the pectoral girdle, producing a sound that resonates in the fish’s swim bladder.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The triggerfish lays its eggs in a nest on the seafloor or reef. Relatives of triggerfishes, also in the order //Tetraodontiformes//, include pufferfishes </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Tetraodontidae//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, boxfishes </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Ostraciidae//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">, and filefishes </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Monacanthidae//)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Reef triggerfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Reef Triggerfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Rhinecanthus rectangulus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Picasso Triggerfish</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Humuhumu-nukunuku-ā-pua‘a//</span>**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 10 inches (25 cm).
The reef triggerfish is Hawai‘i’s state fish, and is commonly seen in nearshore, wave-swept, reef areas at depths to about 25 feet (7.6 m). White on the bottom and light brown to greenish above, the reef triggerfish is recognized by the colorful, geometrically arranged lines on its body.
A wide black band runs vertically through the eye and then extends diagonally toward the back of the fish. There is a spot of blue above the mouth, red at the base of the pectoral fin and golden, triangle-shaped lines across the side of the fish toward the back, bordering a black triangle.
Gradually, a solitary fish, the reef triggerfish feeds primarily on algae, but also eats small invertebrates including crustaceans, worms and mollusks. The eyes of the reef triggerfish are positioned high and relatively far back on the body, allowing the fish to prey on long-spined sea urchins. The Hawaiian name of the fish means, //“humhumu with a snout like a pig.”//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn28|[xxviii]]]</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Lagoon triggerfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Lagoon Triggerfish </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Rhinecanthus aculeatus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Humuhumu-nukunuku-ā-pua‘a//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 12 inches (30 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The lagoon triggerfish is white on the bottom shading to a greenish-gray color above with blue lines over the eye region and a large black area in the upper center region of the body. Yellow lips, a yellow-orange line extending back from the mouth, and diagonal white lines on the lower rear portion of the body distinguish the lagoon triggerfish from the reef triggerfish. The lagoon triggerfish also has less black on its body, and there are three rows of spines at the base of the fish’s tail.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The lagoon triggerfish is seen in shallow reef areas to depths of about 25 feet (8 m), feeding on algae and invertebrates. The lagoon triggerfish may be very territorial, particularly when protecting its eggs.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photographs: Trumpetfish: Yellow phase; gray-brown stage.]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Trumpetfish</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Aulostomus chinensis//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Nūnū//</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Family: //Aulostomidae//</span>**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 30 inches (76 cm).
Of the three trumpetfish known, only //Aulostomus chinensis// is found in Hawaiian waters, and it is fairly common along coastal reef areas. The trumpetfish has an elongated, inflexible, stick-like body that is narrower than deep (unlike the cornetfish, which is more flattened in shape). The trumpetfish propels itself with its dorsal and anal fins, which are set far back on the body.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The trumpetfish has two color phases: one is bright yellow; the other is gray-brown or orange-brown with longitudinal white stripes that become black toward the back. Also distinguishing the trumpetfish from the cornetfish are the black marks on the trumpetfish’s upper jaw, at the base of the pelvic fins, and on its fan-shaped tail fin </span>
Feeding primarily on shrimps and fish, the trumpetfish likes to ambush its prey in a puka (hole) in the reef by using the barbel on its chin as a lure to deceive its prey. Orienting its body in a vertical position, the trumpetfish slowly stalks its prey, maneuvering closer until, with a quick burst of speed, it jumps forward and uses its expanding mouth and vacuum-like suction power to swallow the victim. Prey is sometimes approached by jumping out from behind the cover of other species (e.g., parrotfish, pufferfish, and surgeonfish).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Cornetfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Cornetfishes</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Nūnū Peke//</span>**
**Family: //Fistulariidae//**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 5 feet (1.5 m) with caudal (tail) filament.</span>
Of the four known species of cornetfishes, two are seen in Hawaiian waters, but only //Fistularia commersonii// is commonly seen in nearshore waters. The cornetfish is much larger than the trumpetfish but not quite as common.
The cornetfish has a long, thin (horizontally flattened) body, with a long, tubular snout but relatively small mouth and tiny teeth. The dorsal and anal fins are located far back on the body, and the cornetfish’s whip-like tail is actually a thin filament extending from the tail.
The body color of the cornetfish is greenish above to silver beneath. The back of the fish may flash (rapidly show) light blue bars or spots (two rows) when camouflage is necessary. A dark-barred pattern is also sometimes seen as the fish sits on the ocean bottom, or at night.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Cornetfishes sometimes gather in small groups (4 to 6 fish) that are seen in shallow reef and rocky areas and at depths to about 80 feet (24 m). Like the trumpetfish, the cornetfish is an ambush predator, sucking small prey into its expanding mouth, and feeding mostly on small fish and crustaceans. Unlike the trumpetfish, the cornetfish is flexible and uses side-to-side movements of the back of its body to help propulsion. Also distinguishing these two quite similar appearing species is the fact that the cornetfish has no fin spines. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Trumpetfishes, cornetfishes, seahorses, and pipefishes are all known as tube-mouth fishes, and belong to the scientific order //Syngnathiformes//. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Milkfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Milkfish </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Chanos chanos//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Awa//</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Family: //Chanidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Length: Up to 5 feet (1.5 m), rarely longer.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The milkfish </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Chanos chanos//) </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">is the only species in the family //Chanidae//. Silver in color with a single prominent dorsal fin, the milkfish has small scales and a large, deeply-forked tail (caudal fin). The milkfish has a relatively small, pointed mouth, and the pectoral fins are low on each side of the body. Further back on the body are the pelvic fins. The dorsal fin is somewhat shark-like, and the fish is sometimes mistaken for a shark by inexperienced snorkelers and divers.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The milkfish frequents shallow waters around coral reefs, particularly near currents, where it feeds on seaweed, phytoplankton, and algae. The milkfish also ventures into deeper waters around the reefs. In ancient Hawai‘i, milkfishes were an important source of food, and were raised in loko ‘ai (fishponds) along with ‘ama‘ama </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Mugil cephalus//, mullet)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. Milkfishes are still raised in ponds in Asia, providing an important food source.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The milkfish’s Hawaiian name differs depending on the fish’s size. Young milkfish are known as pua awa (or puawa), while medium size milkfish are called awa ‘aua. When they are big enough to eat they are known as awa, and large size milkfish are known as awa kalamoho.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Mullets</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Mugilidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Mullets have flattened heads and blunt snouts, and are silvery to gray in color. They inhabit shallow coastal areas, including brackish waters. They are related to barracudas, which also have two widely separated dorsal fins, though mullets lack the prominent teeth of the barracuda. Mullets also have relatively large scales, and the tail fin may be edged with black.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Mullets filter mud and sand thorugh their gills, sifting out the organic material. In ancient Hawai‘i, ‘ama‘ama </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Mugil cephalus//, striped mullet)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> were raised in loko ‘ai (fishponds) along with </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">awa (//Chanos chanos//, milkfish)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">. Both fish species were an important source of food. Another native mullet species is uouoa </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Neomyxus leuciscus//; acute-jawed mullet)</span><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> also called the sharpnosed mullet. There is also a non-native (introduced) mullet species, </span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Moolgarda engeli, </span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">now inhabiting Hawaiian waters.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Striped mullet]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Striped Mullet</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Mugil cephalus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Gray Mullet</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //‘Ama‘ama//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 20 inches (51 cm), rarely larger.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> An herbivore, the striped mullet has a flattened head and blunt snout, and is silver-gray on the dorsal (upper) surface but more silvery in color on the sides. Also on the sides are light gray-brown stripes along the center lines of the scale rows. The back edge of the caudal (tail) fin is often edged in black. Viewed from the front, the striped mullet’s mouth has somewhat of an inverted v-shape. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> An important food source in ancient Hawai‘i, the striped mullet’s Hawaiian name differs depending on the size of the fish. Small juveniles (finger length), are known as pua ‘ama, while hand length striped mullet are known as kahaha. When the fish reach 8 to 12 inches (20 to 30 cm) they are known as ‘ama‘ama. Larger (full-sized) striped mullets are known as ‘anae.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The striped mullet feeds primarily on algae and detrital material by filtering organic material from the seafloor’s sand and mud through its gills, and then expelling the inorganic sediments.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Acute-jawed mullet]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Acute-Jawed Mullet </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Neomyxus leuciscus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also Called: Sharpnose Mullet; False Mullet; False ‘Ama‘ama.</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Uouoa//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 18 inches (46 cm); rarely longer than 12 inches (30 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The acute-jawed mullet has a silver body with a yellow spot at the base of the pectoral fin. The acute-jawed mullet feeds on algae in shallow, nearshore waters, usually preferring rocky reef areas rather than areas with a sandy bottom. The acute-jawed mullet’s snout is sharper than the snout of the striped mullet </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Mugil cephalus//), </span><span style="font-size: 12pt;">and the jaw is more steeply angled (acute).</span>
**<span style="font-size: 16pt;">Pufferfishes</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Tetraodontidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Pufferfishes have no scales or pelvic fins, and are distinguished by their bristly skin and the ability to distend (//“puff”//) themselves up with water. Hawaiian names for pufferfish included makimaki, kēkē (//“enlarged”//), and ‘o‘opu hue (//“gourd ‘o‘Pu”//).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The bristly skin of an alarmed (puffed up) pufferfish is a defensive mechanism that wards off attackers, and may also be used within a hole in the reef to prohibit the fish from being pulled out. If taken out of the ocean, the pufferfish fill up with air and make “little croaking noises.” Though species in the //Canthigaster jactator// genus (e.g., the whitespotted toby) are not particularly adept at inflating, they are able to secrete a poison that deters predators. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Most pufferfishes contain the extremely poisonous neurotoxin called tetrodotoxin, which can cause paralysis and death if ingested. Specially trained “fugu” chefs in Japan prepare the fish, a delicacy, so it is safe for consumption. Trace amounts of the poison give the diner a desired warm or “glowing” feeling.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Hawaiian whitespotted toby]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Whitespotted Toby</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Canthigaster jactator//)</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 3½ inches (9 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Usually seen in pairs, the Hawaiian whitespotted toby is yellow-brown to dark brown and covered with white to whitish-blue spots, except on the fins. The eyes are green, and the body may show a green fluorescence.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Inhabiting shallow reef areas, the whitespotted toby is the most commonly seen toby in Hawaiian waters. Not a shy fish, the whitespotted toby is often curious, allowing humans to approach. The whitespotted toby feeds on sponges, algae, tunicates, and other invertebrates.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Damselfishes </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Pomacentridae//)</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">There are about 320 species in the damselfish family (//Pomacentridae//), and 17 of these species are found in Hawaiian waters. Damselfishes are one of the most common reef fish in Hawaiian waters, usually inhabiting shallow reef areas. Damselfishes may be brightly colored (particularly juveniles) or dull. Damselfish that feed on plankton tend to congregate in groups above the coral reef while damselfish that feed on algae tend to be more solitary (and territorial), inhabiting shallow, rocky areas where algae grows.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Hawaiian Sergeant]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Sergeant</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Abudefduf abdominalis//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Sergeant Major</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Mamo//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 10 inches (25 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The Hawaiian sergeant is light blue-green on top, light yellow on the sides, and white on the lower (ventral) surface. Five black stripes or bars are prominent on the Hawaiian sergeant’s dorsal area but become narrower and disappear toward the ventral surface. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Juveniles Hawaiian sergeants, which are common in tidepools, are bright yellow in color, becoming more greenish as they mature and then enter the ocean. The sergeant’s Hawaiian name, mamo, comes from ma‘oma‘o, which means //“green.”// Hawaiian sergeants are sometimes aggressive towards people who threaten their territory, darting toward the diver or snorkeler, as if to scare them away.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian sergeant is omnivorous, feeding primarily on zooplankton but also algae. The fish spawns year round, and the purplish groups of eggs the female Hawaiian sergeant deposits on the reef (e.g., on plate coral) or on rocks are fertilized and guarded by the male. The eggs are nevertheless fed on by aggressive groups of butterflyfishes, wrasses, and other reef fish, including Hawaiian sergeants.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Hawaiian dascyllus]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Dascyllus </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Dascyllus albisella//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also called: Hawaiian Domino Damselfish; Onespot Damselfish</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: ‘Alo‘ilo‘i</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 5 inches (13 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian dascyllus is gray to black in color with bluish-white in the center of the body scales. The juvenile Hawaiian dascyllus is generally darker (more black than gray), with a bright blue spot on the forehead and an elongated porcelain-white area on each side of the body. This white region becomes less prominent as the fish matures.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian dascyllus inhabits shallow reef areas, usually around coral branches (e.g., adults often around antler coral; juveniles around cauliflower coral, where it feeds on zooplankton. Adult Hawaiian dascyllus often venture into deeper waters, down to about 100 feet (30 m). Juvenile Hawaiian dascyllus sometimes seek shelter in sand anemones, like some non-Hawaiian damselfishes (e.g., clownfishes) that have an immunity to the sea-anemone’s stinging cells.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The Hawaiian dascyllus can change (lighten or darken) its color in different circumstances (e.g., whiter in day, darker at night), and becomes almost completely white while spawning. When the Hawaiian dascyllus is surprised or agitated, it makes a chirping sound.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Eels</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Puhi//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Eel showing teeth]</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Pūhi niho wakawaka.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">An eel with pointed teeth.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A fierce and fearless warrior.</span></span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Pukui: 2720-298)</span></span></span>
Eels belong to the scientific order //Anguilliformes//, which includes about 16 families totaling hundreds of eel species. The Hawaiian Islands are home to eels from three families: //Congridae//, //Ophichthidae//, and //Muraenidae//, including three native species of //Congridae// (conger and garden eels), and at least 16 native species of //Ophichthidae// (snake eels). The moray eels (//Muraenidae//) include at least 38 species, a number exceeded in Hawaiian waters only by the wrasses (among shore fish).
Cusk eels (//Ophidiidae//) are also known as brotulas, and are recognized by the barbels on their snout. Two species are native to the Hawaiian Islands. Belonging to the order //Ophidiiformes//, cusk eels are not true eels.
All of the eels in Hawaiian waters are known by the Hawaiian term puhi, which is often qualified with another descriptive term. Conger eels have cylindrical bodies, are nocturnal, and commonly known in the Hawaiian Islands as white eels. Two species of conger eels are native to Hawaiian waters. Garden eels live in burrows in sandy areas near strong water currents, with just one species native to the Hawaiian Islands. Snake eels are distinguished by a long, low dorsal fin and a stiff, pointed tail that is sometimes used to burrow into the sand.
The moray eel breathes by rhythmically opening and closing its mouth to move water over its gills. Some moray eels have blunt teeth that are used to crush invertebrates, but many moray species have needle-sharp teeth. Eels are generally not aggressive toward swimmers or divers, who usually only get bit if they reach into a cave or hole in the reef, surprising or threatening an eel. This may result in a severe cut, especially if the hand is jerked back rapidly when it is bitten as this may increase the damage done by the eel’s backward-pointing teeth. In ancient Hawai‘i some eels were considered ‘aumakua (spiritual guardians).
**<span style="font-size: 15pt;">Moray Eels</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Family: //Muraenidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Dragon moray eel]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Dragon Moray Eel </span>****<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Enchelycore pardalis//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Puhi Kauila//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 3 feet (91 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The dragon moray eel is brownish-orange/red in color with numerous white and black markings. The long, tubular posterior nostrils (nasal tubes) of the dragon moray have a horn-like appearance, and extend upward from its head. The eel’s teeth-lined jaws are so curved they don’t close completely. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Though not often seen around the main Hawaiian Islands, the dragon moray eel is more common around the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands at depths from 30 to 100 feet (9 to 30 m). The dragon moray eel feeds on small fish and crustaceans.</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">He pūhi ke aloha, he i‘a noho i ke ale.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Love is like an eel, the creature that dwells in the sea cavern.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Love makes one restless in the mind, like the writhing of an eel.</span></span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Pukui: 927-99)</span></span></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Dwarf moray eel]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Dwarf Moray Eel</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Gymnothorax melatremus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Puhi//</span>**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 10 inches (25 cm).
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also known as the Pencil moray eel, the dwarf moray eel is quite common in Hawaiian waters, yet is quite secretive and rarely seen, preferring to hide in crevices in the reef. Bright yellow to brownish-yellow (mustard-colored), the dwarf moray eel feeds on small crustaceans. The iris in the eye of the dwarf moray eel is iridescent blue with a vertical black bar.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Dwarf moray eel]</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Snowflake moray eel]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Snowflake Moray Eel</span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (//Echidna nebulosa//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Puhi Kāpā//</span>**
Indigenous
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 30 inches (76 cm).</span>
The snowflake moray eel has a white mouth area (snout), with yellow nostrils, and a light brown body with large black marks containing yellow. Feeding primarily on crabs, the snowflake moray eel uses its siphon-like mouth to suck its prey out of the reef. Then the eel uses its teeth, which are not particularly sharp, to crush the hard-shelled prey (mostly crabs).
Snowflake moray eels are seen to depths of about 90 feet (27 m). Divers encounter these eels fairly often, perhaps because snowflake moray eels like to swim in the open more often than other eels.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Stout moray eel]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Stout Moray Eel </span>****<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Gymnothorax eurostus//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Puhi//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 22 inches (56 cm).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The stout moray eel is one of the most common inshore eels around the Hawaiian Islands, though it is fairly secretive, hiding in crevices in the reef (and not seen very often). The stout moray eel has two color forms. In the dark form, the eel is mostly brown (darker toward the back) and covered with many light colored (pale) markings. In the light form, the stout moray eel is mostly white with many brown markings. The stout moray feeds on fish and crustaceans.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Viper moray eel]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Viper Moray Eel</span>****<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> (//Enchelynassa canina//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Puhi Kauila//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Length: Up to 5 feet (1.5 m).</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The dark reddish-brown to dark gray viper moray eel is among the largest eels in Hawaiian waters. With long, teeth-lined jaws that are so curved they close only at the tips, the eel is known to have among the longest teeth (particularly the canine teeth) of all Hawaiian eels. This is also reflected in the eel’s species name, //canina//, which refers to the dog-like teeth. The viper moray feeds on crustaceans, fish, and octopi.</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">He pūhi kumu one, he i‘a ‘ino.</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">An eel of the sand bank is a dangerous creature.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Said of eels that can travel on the sand and rocks. Tales are told of eels climbing pandanus trees and dropping on persons resting or sleeping under them. </span></span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">Also said of a dangerous person.</span></span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"> (Pukui: 928-99)</span></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Whitemouth moray eel]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 13pt;">Whitemouth Moray Eel </span>****<span style="font-size: 11pt;">(//Gymnothorax meleagris//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Puhi ‘Ōni‘o//</span>**
Indigenous
Length: Up to 3.5 feet (1 m).
The whitemouth moray eel is generally brown to orangish-brown in color, and covered with small white spots. It is probably the most commonly seen moray eel on Hawaiian reefs. The inside of the eel’s mouth is white as is the tip of the eel’s tail. The whitemouth moray eel feeds on crustaceans and small fish as well as octopi. The eel’s Hawaiian name, puhi ‘ōni‘o means //“spotted eel.”//<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 11pt;">[[file:///I:/encyclopedia/encyclopedia.doc#_edn29|[xxix]]]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Jellyfish and Portuguese Man-of-War</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Names: //Pololia and Pa‘imalau// </span>**
Jellyfish are found in all of the world’s oceans, from the polar seas to the tropics. In a reaction that is the fastest explosive event known among living things, the nematocysts on the tentacles of the box jellyfish fire their venom within microseconds of contact. Even when the jellyfish is dead on the beach, the nematocyst fires on contact, so don’t touch!
[Illustration: Jellyfish]
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Box jellyfish have a stingier sting than Portuguese man-of-war. Man-of-war are blown in by trade winds, and the air bladder of the man-of-war keeps it afloat on the surface of the water. In Hawaiian waters, most stings from man-of-war occur on the windward sides of the Hawaiian Islands.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The box jellyfish is self-propelling, unlike the Portuguese man-of-war, which is at the whim of the winds and currents. Most box jellyfish stings occur along south-facing shores, including O‘ahu’s Waikīkī, Ala Moana and along the Wai‘anae Coast. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">On June 23, 2003, jellyfish stung hundreds of swimmers and beachgoers along O‘ahu’s southern shores, where an estimated 2,700 box jellyfish washed up on the beaches. Lifeguards treated at least 330 individuals for stings. Two people suffered severe allergic reactions to the stings, and had to go to a hospital for additional treatment. The following day, June 24, about 100 people were treated for stings and about 500 jellyfish washed ashore.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Following are brief descriptions of the box jellyfish and Portuguese man-of-war.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Winged Box Jellyfish</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Pololia//</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Family: //Carybdeidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous: Warm oceans worldwide.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Thebox jellyfish (//Carybdea alata//) has a nearly invisible cube-like body (bell) about 2 inches (5 cm) wide by 3 inches (7.5 cm) long on each side with four pink tentacles trailing up to 2 feet (61 cm) behind. Box jellyfish spend most of their time feeding on plankton from 10 to 60 feet (3 to 18 m) below the surface, off leeward shores of the Hawaiian Islands. This is also the ocean area commonly explored by divers, which is why they sometimes get stung by the jellyfish.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Box jellyfish usually arrive near shore on south facing beaches, particularly on O‘ahu, about seven to ten days after a full moon. The jellyfish swim about 2 miles per hour (3.2 km./hr) along the shoreline mostly between midnight and 4 a.m. Thousands may wash up on the beach in a single night.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Though relatively little is known about box jellyfish arrival patterns, researchers theorize that the arrival of the jellyfish may be timed just perfect for them to feed on another organism that spawns during the full moon. One location jellyfish go to spawn is the sheltered waters at the eastern (Diamond Head) end of Ala Moana Beach on O‘ahu. Other areas where box jellyfish sometimes are a problem include Waikīkī Beach, Hanauma Bay, Makaha Surfing Beach and Pōka‘i Bay. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Jellyfish may be attracted by the lights of populated areas. If jellyfish become beached and die, they are often eaten by sand crabs. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Jellyfish Reproduction</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Jellyfish reproduction differs in different species, but in some species the females release young in the form of planulae that attach to the ocean bottom and develop into the polyp stage. The polyp goes through a process called strobilation, and little jellyfish bud off the main polyp. These tiny jellyfish then develop into the adult medusae, which are often bell-shaped with trailing tentacles.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Nematocysts</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The nematocyst of the box jellyfish has fishhook-like spines that grab on so venom may be injected. The stings can cause skin rashes and a burning sensation that usually lessens within in less than an hour, but sometimes may persist longer. Severe cases may cause breathing difficulties and/or cramps, and may require emergency medical treatment. Some cases have lasted up to 10 months.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Researchers are still investigating the biochemical components of the jellyfish venom in an attempt to design clinical treatments to inactivate the venom. If a sting produces a severe reaction, always seek emergency medical treatment. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Portuguese Man-of-War </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(//Physalia physalis//)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: //Pa‘imalau//</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Family: //Physaliidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Indigenous: Warm oceans worldwide.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Unlike the box jellyfish, the Portuguese man-of-war is a colonial hydroid. The Portuguese man-of-war has a helmet-shaped body sac about 1½ inches (3.8 cm) long, with long trailing blue tentacles, which are poisonous. A strange half-invisible creature, the man-of-war’s translucent, bluish-purple body sac makes it difficult to see in the water. </span>
Like the box jellyfish, the tentacles of the Portuguese man-of-war may also sting even when the animal is dead on the beach (so be careful). However, the tentacles of the man-of-war likely won’t penetrate human skin, unlike the box jellyfish tentacles, which embed a hook into the skin as the nematocyst fires its venom.
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">“What if I'm Stung?!”</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Be cautious if there are jellyfish or man-of-war in the area where you are swimming. Talk to local lifeguards to find out about lunar and tidal patterns that bring jellyfish near to the beach. If a jellyfish stings you, you should get to shore and remain calm. Remember, no one has died from jellyfish or man-of-war stings in the Hawaiian Islands. Stings may hurt, but you will almost certainly be totally fine, so just stay calm (and try to endure the stinging pain).</span>
Man-of-war stings usually just cause a redness and a stinging sensation that goes away in less than an hour. Box jellyfish stings, however, may cause red welts and more severe pain lasting up to eight hours. While small stings may simply be annoying, the tentacles of jellyfish may (for some people more than others) produce excruciating pain and rashes that last for days, or in some cases weeks or even months.
If you get stung, the first thing to remember is to stay calm. Remove the tentacles from your skin, perhaps by using a credit card or some similar thin, rigid object to scrape them off. The nematocysts are on all sides of the tentacles, so do not use your hands and do not rub the area. Pouring vinegar on any remaining tentacles may provide temporary relief, but it is recommended that you do not apply meat tenderizer, urine, or other remedies that in the past have sometimes been advocated, but may be potentially harmful.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Multiple stings may cause some people to become light-headed and/or disoriented, as well as to have difficulty breathing. Other symptoms of more extreme reactions include chills, fever, abdominal pain, and vomiting. If you get stung severely (this is relatively rare), or have a particularly bad reaction, you could go into anaphylactic shock, in which case you should immediately seek emergency medical care. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Remember, if the reaction is extreme, medical attention should be sought immediately, especially if the victim has any trouble breathing or has heart palpitations or muscle cramps. If you see this happening to someone, you should first call 9-1-1. Then cover the person with a blanket to conserve body heat, and keep their head tilted back and airways clear. Again, such extreme reactions to jellyfish stings are quite rare around the Hawaiian Islands.</span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Other Jellyfish Species</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The jellyfish in Hawaiian waters are relatively tame compared to some jellyfish species living in places other than the Hawaiian Islands. Perhaps the most irksome of all invertebrates is the Australian box jellyfish, considered the most venomous animal on Earth. With a body the size of a basketball, the Australian box jellyfish has 60 tentacles, each up to 15 feet (4.6 m) long, and together these tentacles contain enough venom to kill 65 adults. The Australian box jellyfish is the only animal whose poison can kill a person in less than four minutes!</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Jellyfish]</span>
**<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Hawaiian Bobtail Squid </span>****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">(</span>****//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Euprymna scolopes</span>//****<span style="font-size: 12pt;">)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Hawaiian Name: </span>****//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Mūhe‘e</span>//****<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Squid)</span>**
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Family: //Sepiolidae//</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Endemic</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">If you were swimming in the deep, dark ocean, wouldn’t it be nice to have a flashlight? The Hawaiian bobtail squid has one! The flashlight is built right into the squid’s body, and is known as the light organ.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Illustration: Squid shining light at ocean floor]</span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Ka hana a ke aloha, he kohu mūhe‘e i ke alo pali.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;">**//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The action of a lover is like that of a squid at the face of a precipice.</span>//**</span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">A squid is said to be a creature that goes every which way. A squid-like </span></span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;">lover is not to be trusted.</span></span></span>
<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="display: block; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 12pt;"> (Pukui: 1296-141)</span></span></span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> The Hawaiian squid, usually about 2 inches (5 cm) long, is a cephalopod that lives in the shallow waters around the Hawaiian Islands. The squid is mostly brown, with some iridescent green and blue spots, and has eight arms as well as two longer tentacles. Bioluminescent bacteria </span><span style="font-size: 11pt;">(</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Vibrio fischeri</span>//<span style="font-size: 11pt;">)</span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">, </span>//<span style="font-size: 12pt;">which produce light, live in a specialized body cavity in some Hawaiian squids of the genus //Euprymna//, including the Hawaiian bobtail squid. </span>
**<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Bioluminescence</span>**
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Bioluminescence occurs in and around the ocean in a variety of ways. In the Hawaiian bobtail squid, bioluminescent bacteria function like a flashlight built into the squid’s body. The specialized cavity in the squid’s body where the bioluminescent bacteria live is known as the light organ, and it is located on the squid’s underside. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">The squid and the bacteria both benefit from their partnership, and so it is a symbiotic relationship. The bioluminescent bacteria get a good place to live from the squid as well as essential amino acids and other nutrients, while the squid uses the bacteria’s light to provide camouflage that helps it move and hunt at night without being detected by predators. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">During the day the squid buries itself in the sand in shallow coastal waters. Then at night the squid comes out to hunt for food. The squid points its light organ downward as it hunts, emitting light toward the seafloor to conceal any shadow that might be caused by the starlight or moonlight coming down from the surface. </span>
The squid senses how much light is needed, and then dims or brightens the light produced by the bioluminescent bacteria by controlling the amount of oxygen that goes into its light organ. The glow-in-the-dark bacteria manufacture luciferase, an enzyme that facilitates a biochemical reaction that produces light. The bacteria only glow when a critical concentration of luciferase is reached, and this is dependent upon the amount of oxygen available.
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">Every morning the squid expels more than 90% of all the bacteria in its light organ back into the ocean, and then new bacteria move in. The bacteria multiply during the day and then begin glowing again by nightfall, when the next hunt begins. </span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;"> Researchers are studying this enzyme process as a rare model of the cell-to-cell communication that allows some bacteria species to coordinate their activities. These bacteria also provide scientists with a useful model of the animal-bacteria symbiotic relationships that also occur in humans.</span>
<span style="font-size: 12pt;">[Photograph: Squid]</span>
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published. See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
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Hawaiian Monk Seal: Threatened and Endangered Species; Endangered Animals in the Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Internet site: http://www.r1.fws.gov/pacific/wesa/monkhi.html, 6/17/2000. Hawai‘i Data Book: A Statistical Reference to Hawai‘i’s Social, Economic and Political Trends. Edited by Robert C. Schmitt. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2002. Hayworth, Philip. Hawai‘i’s Marine Zoos: The Waikīkī Aquarium, Sea Life Park and Maui Ocean Center showcase the incredible diversity of marine life flourishing in Hawaiian waters. Spirit of Aloha Magazine, May/June, 2002. Hobson, Edmund, and Chave, E.H. Hawaiian Reef Animals. University of Hawaii Press, 1972. Hoover, John P. A Pocket Guide to Hawai‘i’s Underwater Paradise. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1997. Hoover, John P. Hawaii’s Fishes: A Guide for Snorkelers, Divers and Aquarists. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1993. Hoover, John P. Hawai‘i’s Sea Creatures: A Guide to Hawai‘i’s Marine Invertebrates. 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New York: Simon & Schuster Inc., 1979. Sahlins, Marshall. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawai‘i. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1992. Schmid, Randolph E. Pacific states vulnerable to giant sea waves. The Garden Island, 7/29/1998. TenBruggencate, Jan. Seal has another pup at Po‘ipū. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/23/2001. Scorpionfish: Now you see ‘em—Ouch you don’t! Kaua‘i Magazine, Volume 22, No.4, Fall, 2002. Seal pup proves popular in Po‘ipu. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/11/2000. Shark attacks reach all time high in 2000. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/09/2001. Silverstein, Duane. Our tribe must make all islands survivors. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/24/2002. Song, Jaymes. NOAA seeks to designate Northwestern Hawaiian Islands as National Marine Sanctuary. The Garden Island, 3/16/2002. Stevens, Jane E. Living with sharks. Pacific Discovery Magazine, Fall, 1994. Tagging the whales! Tailing the Whales! Internet site: http://hmsc.oregonstate.edu/education/whales/hawaii95.htm, 3/09/2003. Talking about taro. Hanalei River Hui Newsletter: It’s About the River, Vol. 1, Issue 2, June, 2000. Teen-age shark attack victim tells story to national audience. The Garden Island, 4/02/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Beaches slip-sliding away. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/19/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Biologists score breakthrough in raising reef fish. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/23/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Botanical secrets of sea await discovery. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/3/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Debris continues to threaten marine life. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/01/01. TenBruggencate, Jan. Dolphins change sonar volume: Signals reveal target, size, distance, UH researchers find. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/24/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Get out of water if dolphins are jumpy, shark experts say. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/26/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Maui’s mischievous seal captured again. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/22/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Northwest islands’ fish differ noticeably. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/15/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Officials discover third monk pup born on Kaua‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/06/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Presence of seals worries officials: Biologists say sightings are up. The Garden Island, 4/15/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Sanctuary status sought for Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/07/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Science mission finds new species: Discoveries rife on outlying isles. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/19/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Seal pup plops down in Po‘ipu. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/07/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark attacks teenager off Kaua‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/26/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark chomps into board at popular surf spot. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. What do big sharks eat? Anything! The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date). Tern Island project proposed. The Garden Island, 8/09/2001. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Fishes, Whales, and Dolphins.Knopf, Alfred A., 1983. The Humpback Whale: The humpback whale is the fifth largest of the great whales. Fact Sheet: Pacific Whale Foundation, Internet site: http://www.pacificwhale.org/childrens/fshumpback.html, 1999. The Kumulipo: A Hawaiian Creation Chant. Translated and edited with commentary by Martha Warren Beckwith. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Facsimile reproduction of first edition, University of Chicago Press, 1951. Including Foreword by Katharine Luomala, The University Press of Hawaii, 1972. Travis, J. An illuminating partnership for squid. Science News, Vol. 150, September 14, 1996. United States Fish & Wildlife Service: Pacific Islands—Endangered Species. Internet site: http://pacificislands.fws.gov/wesa/endspindex.html, 7/15/2002. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS): Listings by State and Territory, as of 7/28/2002. Internet site: http://ecosfws.gov/webpage/webpage_usa_lists.html?state=all&module=undefined, 7/28/2002. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS): U.S. Listed Vertebrate Animal Species Report by Taxonomic Group as of 7/28/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/webpage/webpage_vip_listed.html?module=undefined&code=V&listings=0, 7/28/2002. Wichman, Fredrick B. Kaua‘i: Ancient Place-Names and Their Stories. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998. Wilson, Christie. Permanent shark warning up in Olowalu: Risk is ‘unique’ in Maui area, state explains. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/02/2002. Witte, Astrid and Mahaney, Casey. Hawaiian Reef Fish. Waipahu, Hawai‘i: Island Heritage Publishing, 1998. Yamamoto, Mike N., and Tagawa, Annette W. Hawai‘i’s Native & Exotic Freshwater Animals. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2000.
[1] The Four Suborders of Marine Mammals: Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises); Pinnipeds (sea lions, seals, and walruses); Carnivores (sea otter); Sirenians (Stellar’s sea cow-extinct, dugongs, manatees).
[iv] p. 90, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 833. [v] See http://is.dal.ca/~whitelab/rwb/robin.htm. [vi] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. [vii] p. 144, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1325. [viii] Includes viper shark (Trigonognathus kabeyai) reported in: Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.
[x] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [xi] According to the International Shark Attack File compiled by University of Florida researchers. [xii] Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui: A Napili man dies from loss of blood after being attacked at about 7:05 a.m. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004. [xiii] Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui: A Napili man dies from loss of blood after being attacked at about 7:05 a.m. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004. [xiv] Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui: A Napili man dies from loss of blood after being attacked at about 7:05 a.m. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004. Wilson, Christie. Shark kills surfer off Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/8/2004. [xv]Bodyboarder loses foot in shark attack: Brennecke Beach site of latest incident. The Garden Island, 3/26/2004. [xvi] Wilson, Christie. Shark kills surfer off Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/08/2004. [xvii]Death certificate issued in honeymooner’s disappearance. Kaua‘i: The Garden Island, 6/24/01. [xviii] Kubota, Gary. Surfer escapes shark’s jaws on Maui. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/03/2005. [xix] Wilson, Christie. Shark kills surfer off Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/08/2004. Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004. [xx] Aguiar, Eloise. Doctors operate on shark victim. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/16/2004. Aguiar, Eloise. Shark victim facing surgeries: Friend who came to aid feared blood loss would prove fatal. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/12/2004. Boylan, Peter. Moloka‘i shark victim saw shoulder ‘gone’: Pearl Harbor worker will be moved to O‘ahu hospital today. Hoover, Will. Shark attack victim facing long recovery. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/20/2004. Shark attacks diver off Moloka‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/10/2004. Vorsino, Mary. Shark attacks diver off Molokai: The Kaneohe man is airlifted too Maui with deep lacerations. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/10/2004. [xxi] Fujimori, Leila. Shark bumps surfer on North Shore: An estimated 8-foot tiger shark surprises the professional surfer off Rocky Point. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/17/2005. [xxii] Hurley, Timothy. Surfer ‘shaken up’ after shark rams him on Maui: Kū‘au Bay beaches closed until at least this morning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/03/2005. Kubota, Gary. Surfer escapes shark’s jaws on Maui. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/03/2005. [xxiii]Mauisurfer tangles with 8-foot shark. The Garden Island, 10/17/05. [xxiv] Kubota, Gary T. Shark sighting forces more beach closures: Maui spots could reopen today after officials meet. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/23/2005. [xxv] p. 108, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1014. [xxvi] p. 100, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 932. [xxvii] p. 250, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2293. [xxviii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. [xxix] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
Native Marine Life of the Hawaiian Islands
[Illustration: Colorful underwater scene, fish, seal, etc.]
Humpback Whales Koholā
Part I. Information about Humpback Whales
Part II. Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Preface
Introduction
A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Chapter 1—Glacier Bay
Chapter 2—Ocean Voyage
Chapter 3—Tlingit Arrives At The Islands
Chapter 4—Koholā is Born
Chapter 5—A Meeting with Spinner Dolphins
Chapter 6—Songs of the Humpback Whale
Chapter 7—More Dolphin Encounters
Chapter 8—Leaving Hawaiian Waters
Chapter 9—Back in Northern Waters
Chapter 10—One Year Later—Continuing On
Gentle Giants
Appendices
Appendix 1: The Evolution of Whales and a Brief History of the Life on Earth
Appendix 2: Guide to the Taxonomy of the Humpback Whale
Appendix 3: Adaptive Radiation and the Evolution of Cetaceans
Appendix 4: A Brief History of Whaling
Appendix 5: Timeline of Hawai‘i’s Whaling Era
List of Sources for Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Spinner and Bottlenose Dolphins Nai‘a
Hawaiian Monk Seals ‘Ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua
Sea Turtles Honu
Sharks Manō
Rays Hāhālua; Hīhīmanu
Coral Reefs Kohola
Hawaiian Reef Fish I‘a
Eels PuhiJellyfish and Portuguese Man-of-War Pololia; Pa‘imalau
Hawaiian Bobtail Squid Mūhe‘e
Expanded Table of Contents—Chapter 6
Chapter 6. In the Water
Native Marine Life of the Hawaiian Islands
Humpback Whales Koholā
Part I. Information about Humpback Whales
Anatomy
Baleen
Feeding
Breaching
Other Humpback Behaviors
Humpback Songs
Population
Migration
Other Cetaceans Around the Hawaiian Islands
Facts About Humpback Whales
Part II. Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Preface
Introduction
A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Chapter 1—Glacier Bay
Chapter 2—Ocean Voyage
Chapter 3—Tlingit Arrives At The Islands
Chapter 4—Koholā is Born
Chapter 5—A Meeting with Spinner Dolphins
Chapter 6—Songs of the Humpback Whale
Chapter 7—More Dolphin Encounters
Chapter 8—Leaving Hawaiian Waters
Chapter 9—Back in Northern Waters
Chapter 10—One Year Later—Continuing On
Gentle Giants
Appendices
Appendix 1: The Evolution of Whales and a Brief History of the Life on Earth
Appendix 2: Guide to the Taxonomy of the Humpback Whale
Appendix 3: Adaptive Radiation and the Evolution of Cetaceans
Appendix 4: A Brief History of Whaling
Appendix 5: Timeline of Hawai‘i’s Whaling Era
List of Sources for Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Spinner and Bottlenose Dolphins Nai‘a
Spinner Dolphins
Bottlenose Dolphins
Echolocation
Dolphin Research
Hawaiian Monk Seals ‘Ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua
Gestation and Life Cycle
Population and Habitat
Evolutionary History of Monk Seals
Newborn Pups in the Islands
First Documented Big Island Monk Seal Birth
Protecting the Hawaiian Monk Seal
Green Sea Turtles Honu
(and other Hawaiian Sea Turtles)
Hawaiian Sea Turtle Overview
Green Sea Turtles
Sea Turtle Nesting
Hawksbill Sea Turtles
Leatherback Sea Turtles
Olive Ridley Sea Turtles
The Evolutionary History of Sea Turtles
Sharks Manō
Native Shark Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Anatomy
Birthing
Shark Finning
Sharks in Ancient Hawai‘i
Shark Attacks in Hawaiian Waters
Avoiding Shark Encounters
What Sharks Eat
New Technologies To Protect Against Sharks
Rays Hāhālua, Hīhīmanu
Coral Reefs Kohola
Cnidarians
Types of Coral Reefs
Coral Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Spawning
Importance of Coral Reefs in Hawaiian Waters
Hawaiian Reef Fish I‘a [NOTE: Some Fish Species Still To Be Added.]
Angelfishes
Bandit Angelfish
Fisher’s Angelfish
Flame Angelfish
Masked Angelfish
Potter’s Angelfish
Butterflyfishes
Blacklip Butterflyfish
Bluestripe Butterflyfish
Forceps Butterflyfish
Fourspot Butterflyfish
Lined Butterflyfish
Milletseed Butterflyfish
Ornate Butterflyfish
Oval Butterflyfish
Pebbled Butterflyfish
Pennant Butterflyfish
Pyramid Butterflyfish
Raccoon Butterfly
Longnose Butterflyfish
Reticulated Butterflyfish
Teardrop Butterflyfish
Thompson’s Butterflyfish
Threadfin Butterflyfish
Tinker’s Butterflyfish
Parrotfish
Bullethead Parrotfish
Spectacled Parrotfish
Surgeonfishes (Tangs)
Achilles Tang
Convict Tang
Orangeband Surgeonfish
Yellowfin Surgeonfish
Yellow Tang
Bluespine Unicornfish
Orangespine Unicornfish
Wrasses
Hawaiian Cleaner Wrasse
Saddle Wrasse
Filefishes
Fantail Filefish
Hawaiian Filefish
Scribbled Filefish
Scorpionfishes Nohu
Hawaiian Turkeyfish
Hawaiian Lionfish
Moorish Idol
Triggerfishes
Reef Triggerfish
Lagoon Triggerfish
Trumpetfish
Cornetfishes
Milkfish
Mullet
Striped Mullet
Acute-Jawed Mullet
Pufferfishes
White-Spotted Toby
Damselfishes
Hawaiian Dascyllus
Eels Puhi
Moray Eels
Dragon Moray Eel
Dwarf Moray Eel
Snowflake Moray Eel
Stout Moray Eel
Viper Moray Eel
Whitemouth Moray Eel
Jellyfish; Portuguese Man-of-War Pololia; Pa‘imalau
Winged Box Jellyfish
Jellyfish Reproduction
Nematocysts
Portuguese Man-of-War
What if I’m Stung?
Other Jellyfish Species
Hawaiian Bobtail Squid Mūhe‘e
Bioluminescence
Luciferase and Cell-to-Cell Communication
Humpback Life Cycle
Physiology
Humpback Feeding / Baleen
Humpback Gestation and Birthing
Humpback Population Estimates
Odontocetes—Toothed Whales
Mysticetes—Baleen Whales
Cetacean Sound Transmission
Humpback Songs
The Ocean
Water and Air
Appendix 3: Adaptive Radiation and the Evolution of Cetaceans
Appendix 5: Timeline of Hawai‘i’s Whaling Era
List of Sources for Humpback Whale Journey: A Year in the Lives of Humpback Whales
Introduction
All whales, dolphins, and porpoises are members of the scientific order Cetacea. Cetaceans are carnivorous, aquatic, air-breathing mammals found in all of the world’s oceans. The word “cetacea” comes from the Latin “cetus,” which means whale.
Humpback Whale—Megaptera Novaeangliae
Order: Cetacea
Chapter 1
Glacier Bay
A rumbling sound sweeps across the landscape like distant thunder, echoing off the steep mountains and over the Glacier Bay waters. The loud sound emanates from the end of the bay where the face of a glacier calves a giant iceberg into the water.
From deep in the sea, a 50-foot-long humpback whale rises up from the depths, arcing her dorsal fin above the surface and exhaling a column of mist into the chilled northern air. The whale scans the water for food as another chunk of the massive glacier breaks off and tumbles into the sea, creating more sounds that resonate through the water and over the surrounding hills. These are the ancestral lands of the Tlingit Indians, who called these sounds “white thunder.”
The whale releases a powerful blast of air, breathes in, and then dives below. The vapor of her breath hovers above the mirrored surface of the water in a fine mist that slowly dissipates, eventually leaving the northern air again perfectly still.
The entire Glacier Bay region is ringed by the sea and the steep peaks of the St. Elias and Alsek Mountain Ranges.//**[ii]**//
Glacier Bay
Two hundred years ago, Glacier Bay was beneath 4,000 feet of ice. The glaciers were retreating, however, and by 1794 they had receded retreated five miles up the bay, 48 miles up the bay by 1879, and 65 miles today.
The mountain ranges surrounding Glacier Bay include the 18,000-foot peaks of the Alsek Range and St. Elias Mountains to the north, and the Beartrack Mountains to the south.
To the east are the Takhinsha Mountains and the Chilkat range, and to the west the Fairweather Mountains, including 15,300 foot tall Mount Fairweather. The Glacier Bay region is accessible to humans by plane or boat.
[Map: Glacier Bay region mountains]
During each long winter, new layers of snow settle over the mountains. This snow never fully melts during the region’s short, cool summers, and year upon year the layers of precipitation accumulate. This has gone on for millennia in these northern ranges, and the layers of snow are now packed and frozen into dense and seemingly permanent glaciers that are actually rivers of ice slowly but surely moving down the deep valley slopes.
Where the exposed faces of ice meet the sea, huge icebergs periodically break off and fall into the ocean, producing an accompanying roar of sound, the white thunder of Tlingit myth.//**[iii]**// The sounds of these calving icebergs are also recognized by the region’s humpback whales, including the whale we will call Tlingit, who breaches again and lets out a raucous blow as her body slams down onto the surface.
As if in response to these loud demonstrations, another whale breaches nearby. Tlingit continues to signal her own presence by slapping her tail fluke on the water’s surface. The vast icefields of this northern region formed long before the first humans arrived. Today these ancient glaciers glisten in the sun, reflecting shades of intense blue. This is a place of elemental beauty. Large bergs drift through the crystal bay waters like castles of ice, frozen pieces of ancient time.
Searching for food, Tlingit swims to a depth of about 500 feet and then slowly rises toward the surface light. She has patrolled these waters off the coast of Alaska for the last six months, feasting on the summer bounty of marine life including the herring, krill, copepods, and plankton that fill the northern waters during summer and provide plenteous food for the whales.
Tidewater Glaciers
Thirteen of Glacier Bay’s 16 tidewater glaciers are actively calving bergs into the ocean. Such tidewater glaciers are found only in Alaska, Scandinavia and Chile.
The Glacier Bay region also contains over 100 alpine and valley glaciers. These are just some of Alaska’s 10,000 glaciers still holding on from the most recent ice age, which began 2.5 million years ago.
Tlingit spent most of the summer months north of Glacier Bay before she swam across the Gulf of Alaska and then down along the southeastern coast to Glacier Bay.
Glaciers
Glacier Bay is rare in that one may see there both advancing and retreating glaciers. Six are advancing and three are retreating, while the rest are mostly stable.
Advancing tidewater glaciers move over the land, erasing all life in their path before eventually calving into the ocean. A retreating glacier moves back up the mountains revealing the land underneath.
Glaciers often advance slowly over many years, but then sometimes they move suddenly and rapidly, scraping away the land and leveling whole forests. Advancing glaciers may surge downward up to 300 feet in a single day. This may be caused by earthquakes, melting patterns, or simply by the dynamics of the glacier’s formation on the mountainside.
When a large piece of a glacier falls into the ocean, a local tsunami may be generated. One of these localized tsunamis in Alaska sent water 1,700 feet up an adjacent hillside.
As glaciers retreat along Glacier Bay’s shores, the temperate rainforest slowly returns through a natural process of succession. First come the lichens, then moss and algae, then dryas and fireweed, until eventually the trees take over - predominantly willows, alder and spruce — until finally the glacier-torn lands are again reclaimed by the forest.
Navigating by instinct, Tlingit swam up the length of Glacier Bay until she reached the landlocked end of the bay, about 65 miles up from the mouth. Here at the terminus of the bay near the calving glaciers Tlingit makes one last search for feeding opportunities.
The isolated inlet is surrounded by mountain ranges rising up steeply from the azure waters of Glacier Bay. Temperate rainforest cover the lower slopes surrounding the bay, and encircling these sprawling woodlands are higher peaks all capped with snow.
Swimming unhurriedly through the bay waters, Tlingit rises to the surface and then turns on her side, lifting one of her pectoral fins into the air. The elongated fins possess a well-developed tactile (touch) sense, and are almost one-third of the length of her 50-foot-long body.
Tlingit pauses now at the surface and takes several breaths, each explosive exhalation producing a tall, white spout of mist. After sending up one last spray of air and water, Tlingit fills her lungs as full as possible and dives again into the dim ocean light. Nearly twenty minutes later she reemerges, her back barely rising above the water as the air of her massive lungs is again propelled out through her blowholes, emitting a low, sonorous tone. Tlingit then draws in another giant breath and slips beneath the water.
...
[Diagram: Humpback blowholes]
Humpbacks have two blowholes, or nares, as do all baleen whales. Baleen whales are classified as mysticetes. Toothed whale species are classified as odontocetes, and have only one blowhole. All dolphins and porpoises are odontocetes.
The humpbacks’ blowholes are well-positioned so the whale barely needs to arch its back above the surface to breathe, and can easily breathe while continuing to swim forward. Humpbacks open and close their nares voluntarily, and they are able to control their blowholes as dexterously as humans are able to move their lips.
...
Far in the distance, a triangular dorsal fin ten feet tall slices the surface of the bay and then disappears with barely a riffle. To Tlingit, it is just a distant speck on the horizon, but she is instantly aware of what she sees—only one animal has such a tall dorsal fin: the orca, or killer whale, a predator of the humpback. Tlingit also has a dorsal fin, but the humpback’s dorsal fin is only about one foot tall, much smaller than the orca’s.
Tlingit is attuned to the high-pitched acoustic signals that confirm the orca’s presence. Conscious of the prospect of danger, Tlingit steers clear of the potential predator. She could probably out-swim or out-dive the orca if necessary, although Tlingit’s great size makes her generally less mobile than the orca.
In a direct confrontation, Tlingit could ram the orca with her huge head, or rostrum, but more likely, she would use her muscular tail region, called the caudal peduncle, to ward off the killer whale with powerful slapping blows.
The humpback’s caudal peduncle is the most powerful muscle in all the animal kingdom, and it is Tlingit’s best protection and ultimate defense, particularly since humpback whales have no teeth.
Today there will be no violent encounter between the two whales because the orca knows better than to challenge a healthy, adult humpback. Tlingit also avoids a direct confrontation by staying her course, and increasing the distance between herself and this
These are the misty days of fall when fog creeps up the hillsides and the land is barely visible. Clouds of sea mist drape the inlets, forming and dissolving above the Glacier Bay water. Suddenly a rumbling noise sounds throughout the bay, and it is unlike the deep thunderous booming of a calving glacier.
When Tlingit surfaces she sees a large ship approaching, and the people on the ship see the humpback whales. Tlingit’s huge spout of misty air causes shouts to come from the people on the boat’s upper deck.
Tlingit sends her whole body up into the air with two strong strokes of her tail, and she spins half way around in midair before crashing loudly back onto the water. This creates a huge splash to the delight of the onlookers dazzled by the magical moment, a close encounter with a breaching humpback whale.
Some of the whale-watchers are briefly frightened as the 45-ton humpback then swims directly toward them on a collision course with the boat. Not a moment too soon the giant creature slides beneath the surface and disappears.
In the medium of water, Tlingit’s enormous body moves with a lightness and apparent ease that makes her seem almost weightless.
...
Humpback Behaviors—Why Whales Breach
Humpback whales engage in many different behaviors that are categorized and analyzed by researchers. They roll, lunge, breach, mill around, and often slap the surface with their pectoral fins or tail flukes. Humpbacks also “spy hop,” poking their heads straight up out of the water, and male humpbacks sing long, complex songs, often with their head down and their tail near the surface.
Perhaps the most notable humpback behavior is breaching—no other whale species breaches more often than humpbacks. Breaching may be done by whales to gain a view of their surroundings above the surface, to loosen attached barnacles or parasites, or to send acoustic signals through the water to other whales in the area.
Breaching may also be used by the whales to intimidate or deter a predator, or to demonstrate fitness to other humpbacks during the mating season, and thus attract mates.
Young whales are often seen breaching over and over again as they practice their skills in imitation of adults. Also, we cannot discount the possibility that humpbacks breach simply because they enjoy doing it—in other words, because it is fun!
Numerous hypotheses are put forward about why particular humpback behaviors occur. Voluminous amounts of data are gathered and studied, yet in the end the conclusions are often partial and uncertain, leaving much to be determined.
Humpback Whale Behaviors
...
Tlingit’s speed averages about five miles per hour as she maintains a leisurely pace through the bay waters, zigzagging along and coming up for air about every eight minutes. She comes across some schools of herring in Glacier Bay, but they are only sparsely concentrated and hardly worth the effort required to capture them. These are Tlingit’s last days in northern seas.
Loons call out in the coves as crows and ravens let loose with their own distinctive sounds. Eagles soar high overhead, and onshore are remnants of the vast northern forests, the ancient home of the native people who plied these waters in dugout canoes fashioned from the region’s giant trees. The woodlands stretch on uninterrupted for miles, supporting a cornucopia of wildlife.
Many trees in these undisturbed, old growth forests have reached the end of their lives and now lay across the forest floor like fallen giants, slowly decomposing back into the soil to nourish new life. Dense conifer forests filter the rainwater that fills myriad streams that all eventually find their way to the ocean. Salmonberry lines the shoreline along with the golden fall cottonwoods.
During the northern summer the waters of the Inside Passage are teeming with salmon, shrimp, herring, crab, steelhead, grayling, sea urchins, rainbow and cutthroat trout, and many other species. Summer is over now, and the abundance of life has diminished. Tlingit uses more energy than she gains as she searches the water for edible life.
On this late November day Tlingit senses a change—perhaps it is the shift in the water or wind currents, or the end of the great plankton blooms. Tlingit interprets these changes as a directive to leave these waters.
It may be the migrating movements of other species, the air and sea growing cooler, or more subtle clues that cause Tlingit to begin her annual journey south. This is the end of summer, and time for the beginning of Tlingit’s long migration to tropical seas.
Tlingit has spent every summer of her 28 years of life feeding in the northern waters of the Pacific Ocean. Tlingit will now once again journey southward to the shallow contour of warm water surrounding an archipelago (island group) in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. The archipelago is called the Hawaiian Islands, and is thousands of miles from the nearest continent.
Instincts encoded into Tlingit’s genes over the millions of years of her ancestors’ evolution now once again urge her to begin her migratory path from Alaskan to Hawaiian waters. Every winter of her life she has basked in Hawai‘i’s tropical seas, often mating there and giving birth.
In the last seven years Tlingit has given birth to four calves. Now pregnant once again, Tlingit will be among the last of the whales to leave the northern Pacific and swim to Hawaiian waters where once again she will give birth and then nurse her offspring. Tlingit can feel the young one inside of her now, and its subtle and sometimes sudden movements are quite familiar.
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Humpback Population and Migration
The North Pacific humpback whale population totals more than 8,000 whales, and is increasing by up to 7% each year. About two-thirds of these humpback whales migrate to the Hawaiian Islands each winter. The warm and relatively shallow bays around Hawai‘i are an ideal place for humpback whales to give birth to their young.
Humpback Birthing Areas
Other birthing areas of North Pacific humpbacks include waters off Taiwan, southeast of Japan, off the coast of Baja, California, near the Socorro and Revillagigedo Islands off Mexico, in Central American waters, and near Ryukyu, Bonin, and the Mariana Islands.
The pathways followed by humpbacks on their annual migrations are only generally known. For decades the whales defied attempts to track them with tags and satellites, and information about the species was gained primarily from photographs of humpback tail flukes collected in various locations and catalogued by researchers.
Scientists continue to compare and cross-check fluke photographs taken throughout Hawaiian and Alaskan waters and other areas where mating and feeding occur. Improved satellite tracking methods provide valuable data about humpback migrations, as do new techniques of genetic analysis and acoustic monitoring.
By May the size of Antarctica is doubled, with some 20 million square miles covered thick with ice. Thousands of humpbacks spend the summer in Antarctic waters, but during winter they are far away, having migrated north to the tropical waters of the Great Barrier Reef.
In both hemispheres, humpbacks prefer relatively calm, shallow breeding and birthing waters, such as Hawai‘i’s protected bays that are less than 600 feet deep and are around 75 degrees Fahrenheit.
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Humpback whales have migrated between polar and tropical seas for millions of years, and Tlingit knows instinctively how to repeat this journey she has made every year of her life. She feels now the urgency of these last days of feeding and pursues every available food source, yet she finds little to eat so late in the season.
Raising her tail fluke above the water, Tlingit slams it down repeatedly, each time sending up a raucous splash. Finally, as if to say goodbye, she dips her giant head below and with one powerful thrust of her tail fluke propels her great mass down into the sea.
Tlingit suddenly feels something biting into her outer flesh. It is just a cookie-cutter shark (Isitius brasiliensis), and so small it is hardly an irritation to the giant whale. With its suction-cup lips, the shark grabs hold of Tlingit’s side and then sinks its teeth into her skin and blubber and waits.
As Tlingit swims she creates a water current that flows over the cookie-cutter shark, turning the fish’s body and driving its teeth deeper into Tlingit’s skin. Eventually the tiny shark extracts a two-inch circle of flesh from the whale, creating a small, scoop-like incision that the massive humpback barely feels. Tlingit bears many tiny scars from these little sharks as well as from her encounters with other marine creatures.
Now surfacing, Tlingit shoots up a spray of mist at full power. The air is powered by her huge lungs, and comes out of her blowholes at more than 200 miles per hour.
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Humpback Whale Breathing
With each exhalation a humpback whale expels 90% of the air in its lungs. In comparison, a human only expels about 25% of his/her lung capacity. A complete humpback exhalation takes about ½-second, and an inhalation takes about one second.
Breathing requires significantly more energy in cetaceans than in land mammals, in part because water is about 900 times denser than air. Density is a measure of the mass of a substance in a given volume (e.g., pounds per square inch).
Whales are conscious breathers, choosing when to breathe and doing it with intention, unlike humans, who breathe reflexively in response to the level of carbon dioxide in the blood.
As Tlingit sets off across the vast sea to Hawai‘i, she is fortunate enough to come across one last school of herring. The fish are alerted by the movements of Tlingit’s giant form approaching, and within seconds they assemble into a single synchronous group moving as if they were one organism. The fish dodge and dart through the water in an attempt to escape the massive predator.
Tlingit swims below the school of herring and then circles around in a wide arc as she releases a thick stream of tiny air bubbles. Then she spirals inward and upward, carefully controlling her release of air as the miniscule bubbles rise to the surface. The spiral of air released by Tlingit forms a giant bubble net about 40 feet in diameter, encircling the fish and reining them in.
As the large school of herring is pushed closer together by the narrowing curtain of air bubbles, the fish quickly become confused. They are disoriented by the seemingly impenetrable barrier, and the ocean’s surface boils with all the trapped herring that are now crowded into a dense knot.
The summer sun is hot and bright, and shines brilliantly off the flanks of the leaping fish. Above this whole scene, opportunistic seabirds are drawn to the chaos of sound and movement, and they swoop down to catch the fish in midair.
Tlingit didn’t herd these fish together to provide a feast for the seabirds, however. The fish are her prey also, and she is causing them to congregate for a very specific reason—she is hungry.
Tlingit dives straight down beneath the roiling mass of herring and then quickly turns upward and gives her flukes two strong strokes that send her body racing up toward the surface. Then she opens her jaws as wide as they will go and plows directly up through the school of frenzied fish.
Tons of water are instantly taken into Tlingit’s enormous cetacean mouth along with thousands of herring. The mesh-like trap of Tlingit’s baleen keeps the fish in as rivers of water stream out the sides of her mouth and flood back into the sea. Tlingit’s head rises up and her jaws clap shut as her 45-ton body lunges forward and slaps down onto the water.
Tlingit has no teeth, only baleen hanging from her upper jaw. The brush-like plates of baleen are comprised of a rigid, fingernail-like material woven together into a strainer that filters the tiny fish and crustaceans from the sea. Tlingit’s tongue weighs nearly two tons, and she uses it to push the water through the fine-fringed baleen and out of her mouth.
As the contents of Tlingit’s mouth are strained through the bristly baleen, her tongue is already pulling the food back toward her throat, which only opens to about ten inches in diameter. In great gulps Tlingit consumes thousands of the tiny prey as well as one unlucky bird that had swooped down to grab a leaping fish just as Tlingit came up through the school. The bird was caught up in the maelstrom and now resides in Tlingit’s stomach.
This latest meal brings Tlingit’s consumption for the day to nearly three thousand pounds of food. She’ll need this nourishment for her journey south since there will be little or no food in Hawaiian waters. These last additions to Tlingit’s fat layer are very important as she begins her journey because only her thick layer of blubber will provide sustenance during her migration to and from Hawaiian waters.
The seas around the Hawaiian Islands are relatively safe and protected, but lack any significant food supplies for humpbacks. The whales return to Alaskan waters in late spring after the northern ice retreats, when the immense schools of herring and blooms of tiny krill again flourish in the nutrient-rich northern waters. This explosion of life forms during the summer will provide plenteous food for the whales and ensure the survival of the North Pacific humpback population.
Tlingit continues to move further away from land. Her ocean crossing has begun in earnest now, and she will not stop anywhere or diverge from her migratory path until she reaches tropical southern seas. Tlingit will swim virtually non-stop across the open waters of the Pacific Ocean until she reaches Hawaiian seas where she will once again give birth.
Tlingit will encounter many other marine species during her open ocean journey. With each degree of latitude nearer to the equator, the water surface temperature will become warmer and the species she encounters will be different.
Koholā gets stronger each day, and more proficient at using her tail fluke, which is already extremely powerful. Soon Koholā discovers her ability to breach. With just a few strokes, her whole body comes flying out of the water. She is exhilarated by this breaching activity and repeatedly thrusts her tail fluke to send her body surging up from the sea, then turning over in midair before crashing down on her back with a splash. Koholā makes one particularly high breach and then swims excitedly toward Tlingit, circling her mother twice as if celebrating the new skill she has learned.
Tlingit has several ways of sensing her environment. Adorning the front of her lips and upper and lower jaw are numerous golf-ball-sized sensory nodules called tubercles. Each of these fleshy bumps contains a single hair follicle called a vibrissa, which is a coarse bristle about one-inch long connected to sensory nerves. Tlingit’s vibrissae determine temperature, currents, and other information about her surroundings.
Tlingit mills about as she watches Koholā frolic in the water. The work of birthing is done now and Tlingit enjoys the company of her new child and the relative safety of warm Hawaiian seas. Tlingit swims toward Koholā and allows the young one to nurse and gain the sustenance she needs to grow.
A Meeting with Spinner Dolphins
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Dolphins are considered vocal learners, which means that they modify their vocalizations as a result of the vocalizations of other individuals (e.g., other dolphins). Many birds are capable of vocal learning, but it is thought to be rare among mammals. Humans, harbor seals, and cetaceans are the most versatile vocal learners, readily able to imitate and use new sounds for communication. Pods or extended families of dolphins and whales may develop their own distinct dialects of echolocation.
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Tlingit has overcome great odds in her lifetime, and her body bears many marks inflicted upon her by other ocean creatures. Tlingit’s 15-foot-wide tail fluke is scarred from an attack by a killer whale (Ornicas orca) and her left pectoral fin is missing a small piece due to a tiger shark (Galeocerdo cuvieri). Her body also has numerous smaller scars and markings from various encounters with other ocean life.
A large area of Tlingit’s back is colored by the presence of countless diatoms, the one-celled algae that live in northern waters. Algae growth had tinted the lighter patches of Tlingit’s skin yellowish-green, but these colors have mostly faded since she returned to Hawaiian waters.
Tlingit’s body also bears many small, circular, white marks created by several types of barnacles that were attached to her skin in northern waters. Since Tlingit arrived in Hawaiian waters most of the barnacles have fallen off, leaving only the white rings of scar tissue.
Tlingit is among the last of the North Pacific humpbacks to arrive in the tropics. In Alaskan waters she ate up to two tons of food per day, and she stored the energy she needed for her long journey and for the rigors of birthing and nursing. Now she basks in warm but nutrition-poor tropical seas.
More than 1,000 pounds of barnacles may be attached to a humpback whale’s skin in Alaskan waters. The most common barnacles attached to humpbacks are acorn barnacles (Cornula diaderma, and Coronula reginae), and long-necked goose barnacles (Conchorderma auritum).
Some barnacle species are endemic (unique) to particular species of whales, meaning they grow only on that species and are found on no other whales. These endemic barnacle species favor certain whales due the particular chemical make-up of the secretions on the whales’ skin.
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Chapter 6
Days roll by one into the next as Koholā learns from each new experience in tropical seas. Tradewinds blow strong off the sea and rise up the hillsides where the moist air condenses into billowing clouds creating small passing rainstorms over the hills and nearshore waters.
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Humpback whales must be at least partially conscious to breathe, and so they let just half of their brain sleep at a time. This is known as unihemispherical sleeping.
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Tlingit finally ceases her aerial displays and lingers for a few minutes near the surface. Then she begins to swim rapidly, and suddenly turns and dives straight down. Minutes later Tlingit again flies up from the water in a full breach, and now her behavior distinctly changes. She moves along the surface purposefully, swimming rapidly, and with three other humpback whales now swimming in formation behind her. Such a grouping of males in close formation behind a receptive female is known as a competition pod.
Chapter 7
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One of the bottlenose dolphins swims below and playfully exhales air that floats upward and dissipates as it hits Koholā, who is exhilarated by the feeling of the air bubbles on her skin.
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Humpback Evolution
Environment dictates form and function, and because environmental conditions change over time, so do species — this is according to the theory of evolution and the principles of natural selection. This is also why, in modern whales, we still see reflections of their ancient past, as natural selection is the driving force of the species’ physical changes.
The form of the humpback whale today is a reflection of all of the specific habitats where it struggled to find food and survive. Some adaptations, or traits, that have persisted in the anatomy of humpback whales are traits that were beneficial to their survival and reproduction in ancient oceans.
In the teeth that recede into the fetal whale’s gums before birth, we see a remnant of the humpbacks’ toothed ancestors that survived in ancient oceans before humpbacks evolved baleen that helped them feed on large quantities of small prey. The humpbacks’ vestigial bones are remnants of their now-disappeared hind limbs.
Traits that are still present in today’s humpback whales reveal the species’ storied past. Looking at a modern humpback whale, we may discern its behaviors by the shape and structure of its intestines, which reveal its current diet. The humpback’s dual-lensed eyes reveal the duality of the whale’s habitat above and below the surface.
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Chapter 8
A week of constant rain has muddied the nearshore waters and turned the river estuaries murky brown. With each downpour and powerful storm, the hills lose another layer of earth to the process of erosion. Year after year and layer by layer, the island returns to the sea.
Tlingit and Koholā have now begun their journey north toward polar waters. There food will be plentiful and they will feed among all of the other North Pacific humpback whales.
As she swims north, Koholā notices the ocean temperature slowly decreasing and the water currents changing. Subtle variations in color and water composition occur with each degree of higher latitude, and Koholā is a bit confused about the different character of the sea around her. Even the sky looks different.
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Dense-beaked whales are also known as Blainville’s beaked whales. Until 1922, no dense-beaked whale had been found alive, and 26 species were found in museums. There have been encounters since then, but sightings remain rare, including strandings on Hawai‘i’s Leeward Islands.
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Back in Northern Waters
To Tlingit, the movements of these strange creatures she may see on the shoreline are only a mild curiosity. Tlingit swims along at a moderate pace, about five miles per hour, surfacing every few hundred feet for another breath of air while occasionally diving beneath the sea in search of food.
Occasionally Tlingit ventures into coves and bays to explore some feeding opportunities. In one of these bays she comes upon a northern sea lion, a large marine mammal quite common in these waters. Tlingit veers to the right, inspecting the sea lion closely with her left eye.
The young male sea lion is about seven feet long and 700 pounds, and swims around Tlingit in a smooth circle. The seal then surfaces as Tlingit surfaces, and together the two different species take a breath and re-submerge, casually inspecting each other before going their separate ways. Within two years this young sea lion will weigh more than one ton and measure more than twelve feet long.
Chapter 10
In southeast Alaska, off the northern shore of Mitkof Island where the Fredrick Sound meets the fast-flowing Wrangell Narrows, tall masts of boats sway gently in the Petersburg harbor. North of the tiny, seaside town a half-dozen bald eagles look over the inlet waters. These white-crowned birds benefit from plenteous salmon they pluck from the water with their razor-sharp talons.
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Gentle Giants
15 billion years ago: The universe is born in an explosion called the Big Bang. Out of a chrysalis of gas and dust there coalesces a substance called matter, which eventually forms into stars, galaxies, planets, and a variety of other stellar objects. Over 100 billion galaxies form, including the Milky Way Galaxy, which contains about 200 billion stars. One of these stars is our sun.
4 billion years ago: Life takes hold on Earth, most likely in Earth’s oceans.
468 million years ago: Life takes hold on land in the form of simple plants.
225 million years ago: Dinosaurs appear for the first time, along with the ancestors of modern mammals. Dinosaur species soon dominate the land.
150 million years ago: Sea turtles inhabit Earth’s oceans.
60 million years ago: Mesonychids, the ancestors of whales, begin to venture back into the oceans to search for food. As each generation of the species spends more time in the water, evolution brings about gradual changes allowing the species to become better adapted to the aquatic environment.
53.5 million years ago: Appearance of Himalayaecetus subathuensis, considered the oldest whale.
49 million years ago: An archaeocete called Ambulocetus natans (“The walking whale that swam”) appears. This otter-like whale ancestor is about 10 feet long, 650 pounds, and has shark-like teeth, but does not yet have the horizontal tail fluke of modern whales.
40 million years ago: Basilosaurus isis appears. This whale ancestor has a body up to 65 feet long, and a well-developed tail. The evolving mesonychid has now made the transition from a land-dwelling mammal into a fully aquatic mammal.
10 million years ago: Humpback whales inhabit the world’s oceans.
4 million years ago: The first hominids (the ancestors of humans) appear. Called Australopithecus afarensis, they stand upright and walk on two feet.
c.1,700 years ago: Approximate time of first humans arriving in Hawaiian Islands. Estimates of the time of first human arrival range from A.D. 100 to A.D. 800.
Kingdom: Animalia:
Phylum: Chordata:
Subphylum: Vertebrata:
Class: Mammalia:
Order: Cetacea:
Suborder: Mysticeti:
The Suborder Mysticeti includes three Families:
A Brief History of Whaling
Hawaiian Name: Nai‘a
[Illustration: Spinner dolphin flipping in air]
Spinner Dolphins (Stenella longisrostris)
Endemic Hawaiian subspecies
They leap up from the sea in synchronous motion, their shimmering bodies arcing gracefully through the air and then disappearing again beneath the water’s surface. These are Hawai‘i’s dolphins—playful, intelligent, perceptive, curious, and often quite friendly to humans. An ancient Hawaiian proverb states, “He nai‘a, he i‘a lele.” (“It is the nai‘a, a leaping fish”), and is “...said of one who jumps to conclusions.”[iv]
[Illustration: Spinner dolphin]
Spinner dolphin adults average from 5 to 7 feet (1.5 to 2.2 m) long and weigh from 110 to 160 pounds (50 to 73 kg). The dolphin’s back is dark, the sides are pearl gray, and the belly is pure white. The slim beak of the spinner dolphin is blackish-colored and lined with 180 or more delicate interlocking conical teeth.
Spinner dolphins earned their name because of their fondness for jumping out of the water and doing acrobatic flips and spins in the air, a sight that is common in Hawaiian waters. Spinner dolphins travel in pods, which sometimes number in the hundreds. It’s not uncommon to see several dolphins leap from the water perfectly together. The dolphins often leap high up out of the water, doing two or even three flips in the air while at the same time spinning their bodies around.
Researchers believe that the energetic flips and spins done by spinner dolphins may serve the purpose of acting as geographical markers for the pod, as well as to let other dolphins know their location. Dolphins often let out a loud sound below the surface right before they leap out and spin. It is possible the leaps and spins may also be a form of play.
Pods of spinner dolphins often swim in large, slow circles nearshore in the early morning. This is likely their resting phase. Dolphins may alternate brain halves while “sleeping,” allowing one side of the brain to rest while the other side stays active (an important survival trait in an ocean environment).
Spinners dolphins live to about 20 years of age, on average. Pregnancy in spinner dolphins lasts about 10½ months. Baby dolphins are seen around the Hawaiian Islands mostly in the late spring and summer. About 1 time in 100, a spinner dolphin will have twins, and when that does occur, the other adult females in the pod may take care of one of the babies.
[Photograph: Spinner Dolphin]
Bottlenose Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)
Indigenous
Bottlenose dolphins are also seen around the Hawaiian Islands quite regularly, though not in such great numbers as spinner dolphins. An adult bottlenose dolphin may be 8 to 11 feet (2.4 to 3.4 m) long and weigh just less than 500 pounds (227 kg).
[Illustration: Bottlenose dolphin]
Bottlenose dolphins may eat more than 20 pounds (9 kg) of food per day, including fish, squid, shrimp and crabs. Dolphins usually dive less than 200 feet (61 m) for food, but one bottlenose dolphin trained by humans demonstrated its deep-diving ability by diving to almost 1,800 feet (549 m).
The bottlenose dolphin is considered the smartest of all of dolphin species, and perhaps the smartest of all animals. Bottlenose dolphins actually have a cerebral cortex more convoluted (folded) than the human cerebral cortex, though it is thinner than the human cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain that corresponds with social communication, abstract information processing, problem solving and higher level thinking. The structural complexity of the dolphin’s cerebral cortex may explain the learning capabilities that are highly evolved in bottlenose dolphins.
Bottlenose dolphins are also known to sometimes create elaborate bubble rings, and then to play with these bubble rings in a variety of ways. Some dolphins have shown the ability to produce stable, lasting bubble rings, including fabricating long helices (spirals) of air by swimming in a curved path. The dolphin releases air into the vortex it creates, and then uses its dorsal fin to bring the bubbles together and curl them into a helix up to 15 feet (4.6 m) long.
[Photograph: Bottlenose dolphin]
Echolocation
Dolphins purposefully bounce sounds off objects and then interpret the returning echo. The dolphin uses this echolocation to get an acoustic picture of its surroundings by emitting sound waves from its forehead region, known as the melon. All toothed cetaceans (Odontocetes) are believed to be capable of echolocation.
[Illustration: Echolocating bottlenose dolphin with sound waves reflecting out and reflecting back
and/or dolphin creating bubble rings]
The time lapse between the dolphin emitting the signal and receiving the echo indicates the distance to the object being echolocated, and also the target’s density. By determining the target’s density, dolphins are able to recognize particular species, even in the total darkness of the deep ocean.
Dolphins may also analyze their prey using this echolocation “sonar,” and may even stun their prey using echolocation pulses. The advanced capabilities of dolphins using echolocation may also allow dolphins to be able to tell if a human is in distress. There have been numerous reports of dolphins saving drowning people.
Dolphin Research
A National Marine Fisheries Service sponsored study took place from May 3 to June 13, 2003, and found that bottlenose and roughtooth dolphins are more abundant around Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau that around the other Hawaiian Islands. The precise reason for this remains unclear, but contributing causes may include the better availability of the dolphins’ food sources, which include fish and squid, and this in turn may be related to ocean currents around the islands.
Species surveyed in the study included not just roughtooth and bottlenose dolphins, but also pilot whales, dwarf sperm whales, false killer whales, and spotted dolphins. Also seen were beaked whales, which are considered a deeper-water species along with rough-toothed dolphins. Another deeper-water species encountered was the striped dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba), rarely seen in Hawaiian waters.
During the study the scientists encountered at least 12 different whale and dolphin species. Many photographs were taken, and skin samples of various species were collected for DNA analysis and comparison with other Hawaiian cetacean populations to determine if there are island-specific differences.[v]
A 2003 study by researchers at the University of Hawai‘i’s Institute of Marine Biology Marine Mammal Research Program discovered that dolphins reduce the volume of the echolocation pulses they emit as they approach the object they are echolocating.
The dolphins first use echolocation to check the distance to the object, then adjust their volume and use echolocation to determine the object’s size (the more waves that are reflected back indicates a bigger size object). This is different than the echolocation method used by bats, and human-built mechanical echolocation devices, which maintain the same volume of emission but adjust the receiving sensitivity when getting closer to an object being echolocated.
[Photograph: Dolphin pod]
[Photograph: Oval butterflyfish]
Oval Butterflyfish (Chaetodon lunulatus)
Hawaiian Name: Kapuhili
Also called: Redfin Butterflyfish
Indigenous
Length: Up to 5.5 inches (14 cm).
A black eye bar is prominent on the oval butterflyfish’s orange-yellow head. Also known as the redfin butterflyfish, the oval butterflyfish’s body is orangish-yellow with nearly horizontal purple-gray lines, and a reddish anal fin.
The oval butterflyfish feeds on live coral polyps, and inhabits reef areas, particularly in calm bay and lagoon areas. Not particularly common, they are usually seen in pairs in shallow waters or at depths to about 60 feet (18 m).
[Photograph: Pebbled butterflyfish]
Pebbled Butterflyfish (Chaetodon multicinctus)
Hawaiian Name: Kīkākapu
Also called: Multiband Butterflyfish
Endemic
Length: Up to 4½ inches (11 cm).
Fairly common in Hawaiian waters but found nowhere else, the pebbled butterflyfish has a cream to tan-colored body with many small brownish-olive spots, and four or five vertical beige-brown bars that sometimes are barely visible. A black bar covers the eye region, and there is black at the outer edge and the base of the tail.
Usually seen pairs or larger groupings, the pebbled butterflyfish feeds on coral polyps. The fish may be seen in shallow reef areas as well as at depths to about 90 feet (27 m).
[Photograph: Pennant butterflyfish]
Pennant Butterflyfish (Heniochus diphreutes)
Also called: Bannerfish; Pennantfish
Indigenous
Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).
Two prominent, diagonal black bars on a white body, along with a white pennant (rarely a double pennant), make the pennant butterflyfish easily recognizable. The white banner is actually the fourth dorsal spine and membrane, and this filament grows longer as the fish matures. The pennant butterflyfish’s tail, dorsal fin, and pectoral fin are yellow.
Pennant butterflyfish are sometimes seen in shallow waters but usually at depths below 40 feet (12 m), often near steep dropoffs, feeding on zooplankton. They are often seen in schools.
Pennant butterflyfish are also known to clean other fish. Aquarium lovers appreciate the adaptability of the pennant butterflyfish, and sometimes refer to it as the “poor man’s Moorish idol,” another fish with similar ‘cleaning’ behavior (See Moorish idol section.) The Moorish idol is somewhat similar in appearance, but has a much longer snout than the pennant butterflyfish.
[Photograph: Pyramid butterflyfish]
Pyramid Butterflyfish (Hemitaurichthys polylepis)
Also called: Brownface Butterflyfish
Indigenous
Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).
A large white triangle (pyramid) in the center of the body of the pyramid butterflyfish is surrounded by yellow. The head is dark brown while the dorsal and anal fins are yellow.
The pyramid butterflyfish feeds on zooplankton and is often seen in large schools. The fish may be seen in shallow waters (e.g., Hōnaunau on Hawai‘i Island’s Kona coast), but is more commonly seen in deeper waters from about 20 to 100 feet (6 to 30 m), preferring steep dropoff zones.
[Photograph: Raccoon butterflyfish]
Raccoon Butterflyfish (Chaetodon lunula)
Hawaiian Name: Kīkākapu
Indigenous
Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).
The raccoon butterflyfish has an orange-yellow body (dusky on the top half), with three reddish, diagonal stripes. The black bar over the eye region of this fish bears a resemblance to the raccoon, a small mammal native to North America. Behind the black eye bar is a white crescent (lunula means “crescent”), and then a black bar extending onto the body and upward. At the base of the tail there is a black spot, extending upward into a narrowing black band. Juveniles have a relatively large false eyespot and are brighter than adults.
Large resident schools of the fish may inhabit particular locations year after year, resting relatively motionless during the day. The raccoon butterflyfish may be seen in the shallows or down to about 50 feet (15 m), feeding on various small invertebrates as well as coral polyps, fish eggs, and algae. The fish’s body turns brownish at night. The raccoon butterflyfish is not shy, and is commonly seen by snorkelers and divers.
[Photograph: Longnose butterflyfish]
Longnose Butterflyfish (Forcipiger longirostris)
Hawaiian Name: Lau-wiliwili-nukunuku-‘oi‘oi
Also called Big Longnose Butterflyfish; Rare Longnose Butterflyfish
Indigenous
Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).
With a long snout but a small mouth opening, this fish is well adapted to feeding among the coral reefs. Its body is yellow with rows of blackish spots on the chest area. The longnose butterflyfish has a longer snout than the forceps butterflyfish (Forcipiger flavissimus), but otherwise is almost identical in appearance. A black color phase sometimes occurs, particularly in longnose butterflyfish populations along the island of Hawai‘i’s Kona Coast.
Longnose butterflyfish may be seen in relatively shallow waters or to depths of about 100 feet (30 m). They feed primarily on crustaceans but also eat fish eggs, tube feet of urchins, and tube worms.
[Photograph: Reticulated butterflyfish]
Reticulated Butterflyfish (Chaetodon reticulatus)
Indigenous
Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).
This beautiful fish is quite uncommon throughout the Hawaiian Islands, though is often seen (usually in pairs) along the island of Hawai‘i’s Kona Coast, and sometimes in O‘ahu’s Hanauma Bay. The head and eye of the fish are covered by a black bar that is lined at the front with yellow. Behind the black eye bar, the fish is gray and black, with a pattern of creamy white to yellow markings (a spot on each scale). There is also a red area on the anal fin. The outer edge of the tail and anal fin are lined with yellow.
Feeding on coral polyps as well as algae, the reticulated butterflyfish may be seen in relatively shallow waters and to depths of about 90 feet (27 m).
[Photograph: Teardrop butterflyfish]
Teardrop Butterflyfish (Chaetodon unimaculatus)
Hawaiian Name: Lauhau; Kīkākapu.
Indigenous
Length: Up to 7½ inches (19 cm).
The teardrop butterflyfish’s most distinctive feature is the large, black, upside-down teardrop-shaped mark on the upper center portion of its body (unimaculatus means “one spot”). The white body is yellow toward the top, and a wide, black bar covers the eye region.
Not a particularly common fish, the teardrop butterflyfish is usually seen in pairs at depths between 20 and 100 feet (6 to 30 m), feeding on coral polyps, worms, crustaceans, and algae. The fish’s blunt mouth is well adapted for chewing hard pieces of coral off the reef.
[Photograph: Thompson’s Butterflyfish]
Thompson’s Butterflyfish (Hemitaurichthys thompsoni)
Also called: Businessman Butterflyfish
Indigenous
Length: Up to 6 inches (15 cm).
The Thompson’s butterflyfish is recognized by its short, upturned snout and gray to black-brown color, which is quite unlike the showy, bright colors of all other butterflyfish species. Thompson’s butterflyfish are quite friendly but relatively rare, often congregating in schools with pyramid butterflyfish.
The species’ scientific name, thompsoni, honors John W. Thompson who worked for the Bishop Museum from 1901 to 1928, and was known for his colorful casts of Hawaiian fish. Thompson’s butterflyfish are usually seen at depths of 33 feet (10 m) or more, feeding on zooplankton.
[Photograph: Threadfin butterflyfish]
Threadfin Butterflyfish (Chaetodon auriga)
Hawaiian name: Kīkākapu
Indigenous
Length: Up to 8 inches (20 cm).
A relatively common reef fish, the threadfin butterflyfish is yellow-orange or goldish toward the back, and white at the front with a broad, black bar over the eye region. On the body of the fish are two groupings of dark, diagonal lines that are at right angles to each other.
Above the black spot at the top rear of the fish (on the dorsal fin) is a thread-like filament that is actually an extension of one of the dorsal spines. Threadfin butterflyfish are territorial in pairs, driving away other threadfin butterflyfish but tolerating different species (including other species of butterflyfish).
Threadfin butterflyfish are often seen in pairs in shallow waters at depths to about 50 feet (15 m). They feed primarily on worms, algae, and coral polyps.
[Photograph: Tinker’s butterflyfish]
Tinker’s Butterflyfish (Chaetodon tinkeri)
Indigenous
Length: Up to 7 inches (18 cm).
The body of the tinker’s butterflyfish is black on the top toward the back but white with black spots toward the front. A bar over the eye region is golden yellow, as is the tail. There is also a gold marking on the snout and at the base of the pectoral fins.
Not a shy fish, the tinker’s butterflyfish is easily caught by collectors who export the fish for sale in the aquarium trade. This had made the tinker’s butterflyfish quite rare at depths above 100 feet (30 m), where it feeds on planktonic invertebrates.
The tinker’s butterflyfish is named after marine biologist Spencer Wilkie Tinker, who directed the O‘ahu’s Waikīkī Aquarium for more than three decades.
code
Chapter 6 Source Notes
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published.
See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
[Note: This list is still in progress and being updated.]
All About Hawaii (1948-1949): Thrum’s Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Publications Division: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1949.
A new Hawaiian. The Garden Island, 7/23/2001.
A nice gift for the new Hawaiian monk seal. The Garden Island, 7/27/2001.
Antone, Rod. Swimmer luckily not to shark’s liking: John Marrack is safe after a close call off the Waianae coast. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 6/25/2003.
Apgar, Sally. Persistent monk seal relocated to Johnston Atoll. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/03/2003.
Ariyoshi, Rita. The National Geographic Traveler: Hawaii. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2000.
Atlas of Hawai‘i: Second Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983.
Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.
A web site for monk seal watchers. The Garden Island, 7/28/2001.
Balcomb, Kenneth C. III. The Whales of Hawaii: Including All Species of Marine Mammals in Hawaiian and Adjacent Waters. San Francisco, California: Marine Mammal Fund, 1987.
Bassler, Bonnie L. Tiny Conspiracies: Cell-to-cell communication allows bacteria to coordinate their activity. Natural History Magazine, 5/2001.
Beletsky, Les. Hawaii: The Ecotravellers’ Wildlife Guide. London: Academic Press, 2000.
Bishop Museum: Hawaii’s Extinct Species. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/extinct.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Snails. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-snails.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum: The How Many Species Are there in Hawaii Web Page. Includes: How many species are there in Hawaii?, from the “Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994” as published in the Bishop Museum Occasional Paper volume 41: 3-18; and Number of Hawaiian Species: Supplement 1, originally published in Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 45: 8-17 (1996). Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hispp.html, 10/17/2002.
Bishop Museum—The role of the Hawaii Biological Survey. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hbs3.html.
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Blakeman, Karen. 1,300 sightings reported by whale watchers. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/26/2003.
Boynton, David. Kaua‘i monk seal population up by one. The Garden Island, 7/19/1999.
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California researchers aim to tag great white sharks. The Garden Island, 7/10/2003.
Chang, Lester. Dolphins are happy in Kaua‘i’s waters. The Garden Island, 6/23/2003.
Chang, Lester. Monk seal pair are hassle-free: Proper respect gives pup good start. The Garden Island, 8/01/2001.
Chang, Lester. Monk seal pup is weaned and relocated: Po‘ipu beach to reopen soon. The Garden Island, 9/09/2001.
Chang, Lester. More and more whales spotted in Kaua‘i waters. The Garden Island, 1/26/2003.
Chang, Lester. Young seal moves in to Po‘ipu: Officials say long beach closures unlikely. The Garden Island, 10/12/2001.
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Culliney, John L. Islands in a Far Sea. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988.
Curtis, Paul C. Expect monk seals alongside beachgoers: Odds are monk seals will claim sections of Po‘ipu Beach. The Garden Island, 6/04/2002.
Curtis, Paul C. Mother seal attacks snorkeler: Too close for comfort at Po‘ipū Beach. The Garden Island, 8/06/2001.
Curtis, Paul C. North Shore beaches reopen. The Garden Island, 12/28/2001.
Curtis, Paul C. Seals are weaning it: Almost time for mother and pup to part ways. 8/29/2001.
Curtis, Paul C. Whale of a time around Kaua‘i: Visitors, boat operators ready for another season of whale watching. The Garden Island, 12/01/2000.
Daws, Gavan. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968.
Espanol, Zenaida Serrano. Fewer stung as jellyfish leave shores. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/25/2003.
Eyre, David L. By Wind, By Wave. Honolulu: The Bess Press, 2000.
Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002.
Fish breakthrough good news for Hawai‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/24/2002.
Friary, Ned, and Bendure, Glenda. Hawaii: 5th Edition. Victoria, Australia: Lonely Planet Publications Pty Ltd., 3/2000.
Fujimori, Leila. Isles lure tourists with teeth: Scientists say a small group of great whites qualify as regular visitors. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 7/07/2003.
Gillingham, Paula. Waning moon plus quiet lagoon means box jellyfish soon: Pair predicts first wave today. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/22/1995.
Gon III, Dr. Sam. Hawaiian culture and conservation: I ka mole o ka ‘aina (at the root of the land). Honolulu: Nature Conservancy of Hawaii Newsletter, 1995.
Gonser, James. State seeking permanent shark warnings. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/09/2002.
Gulko, David. Hawaiian Coral Reef Ecology. Honolulu, Hawaii: Mutual Publishing, 1998.
Hammer, William. Australia’s box jellyfish: A killer down under. National Geographic Magazine, August, 1994.
Handy, Emory, Bryan, Buck, Wise and Others. Ancient Hawaiian Civilization: A Series of Lectures Delivered at the Kamehameha Schools. Mutual Publishing: Honolulu, Hawaii, 1999.
Hawaiian and Pacific Islands National Wildlife Refuges. United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service, September, 1985.
Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary: Whalewatching Behaviors. Internet site: http://hawaiihumpbackwhale.noaa.gov/whalewatching/behaviors.html, 3/09/2003.
Hawaiian Monk Seal: Threatened and Endangered Species; Endangered Animals in the Hawaiian Islands. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Internet site: http://www.r1.fws.gov/pacific/wesa/monkhi.html, 6/17/2000.
Hawai‘i Data Book: A Statistical Reference to Hawai‘i’s Social, Economic and Political Trends. Edited by Robert C. Schmitt. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2002.
Hayworth, Philip. Hawai‘i’s Marine Zoos: The Waikīkī Aquarium, Sea Life Park and Maui Ocean Center showcase the incredible diversity of marine life flourishing in Hawaiian waters. Spirit of Aloha Magazine, May/June, 2002.
Hobson, Edmund, and Chave, E.H. Hawaiian Reef Animals. University of Hawaii Press, 1972.
Hoover, John P. A Pocket Guide to Hawai‘i’s Underwater Paradise. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1997.
Hoover, John P. Hawaii’s Fishes: A Guide for Snorkelers, Divers and Aquarists. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1993.
Hoover, John P. Hawai‘i’s Sea Creatures: A Guide to Hawai‘i’s Marine Invertebrates. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1998.
Hoover, Will. Shark attacks man off Mākua: Boater aids victim, other swimmers. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/25/2003.
Hurley, Timothy. Olowalu won’t post shark warning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/17/2002.
Hurley, Timothy. Shark attack survivor happy to be alive. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/19/2002.
Hurley, Timothy. Shark attack suspected: Maui swimmer injured off Kīhei beach. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/31/2002.
Hurley, Timothy. Woman survives Maui shark attack. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/20/2000.
Ii, John Papa. Fragments of Hawaiian History. Translated by Mary Kawena Pukui; Edited by Dorothy B. Barrère. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1959.
Jacobs, Francine, and Beath, Mary; Revised for Hawaii by Tom, Allen; Hawaiian translation by Okimoto, Analu. Sea Turtles: No Na Honou Kai. Produced by the Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale National Marine Sanctuary and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service with permission from the Center for Marine Conservation. Honolulu: Hagadone Printing Company, 1995.
Jenkins, Pat. Baby seal and mom are crowd pleasers. The Garden Island, 7/10/2000.
Joesting, Edward. Kauai: The Separate Kingdom. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1984.
Kamakau, Samuel Manaiakalani. Ka Po‘e Kahiko: The People of Old. Translated from the Newspaper Ke Au ‘Oko‘a by Mary Kawena Pukui. Arranged and edited by Dorothy B. Barrère. Bishop Museum Special Publication 51. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1991.
Kāne, Herb Kawainui. Ancient Hawai‘i. Captain Cook, Hawai‘i: The Kawainui Press, 1997.
Kaufman, Gregory Dean, and Forestell, Paul Henry. Hawaii’s Humpback Whales. Honolulu: Island Heritage Publishing, 1986.
Kawaharada, Dennis. The Settlement of Polynesia, Part 1. Polynesian Voyaging Society. Internet Site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/mirgrationspart1.html.
Kent, Harold Winfield. Treasury of Hawaiian Words in One Hundred and One Categories. Masonic Public Library of Hawai‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
Kilauea Point Natural History Association. Hawaiian Monk Seal. Kauai: Hawai‘i Nature Focus: Nature Studies for Children, # 13.
Kilauea Point Natural History Association. Hawaii’s Wetlands. Kauai: Hawai‘i Nature Focus: Nature Studies for Children, # 11.
Kirch, Patrick Vinton. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1985.
Kirch, Patrick V., and Sahlins, Marshall. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Volume One: Historical Ethnography (Marshall Sahlins, with the Assistance of Dorothy B. Barrère). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Kirch, Patrick V., and Sahlins, Marshall. Anahulu: The Anthropology of History in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Volume Two: The Archaeology of History (Patrick V. Kirch). Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1992.
Kitchen, John. The Lure of Kona’s Big Blue Marlin. Spirit of Aloha Magazine, August, 1998.
Krauss, Beatrice H. Plants in Hawaiian Medicine. Honolulu: The Bess Press, 2001.
Krauss, Bob, and Gleasner, Bill. Kauai. Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1978.
Kubota, Gary T. Shark attacks Maui tourist: A California woman receives serious injuries off Kaanapali Resort. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/18/2002.
Kubota, Gary T. S. Maui beaches reopen after attack: Officials do not recall any shark attacks in the last 11 years. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/01/2002.
Kubota, Gary T. Woman is bitten in Maui sea attack. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/31/2002.
Life in Early Hawai‘i: The Ahupua‘a—Third Edition. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1994.
Lum, Curtis. Coral scheme gets man year in prison. Honolulu Advertiser, 6/22/2002.
Malo, David. Hawaiian Antiquities: Mo‘olelo Hawai‘i. Translated from the Hawaiian by Dr. Nathaniel B. Emerson, 1898. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 2: Second Edition. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 1951.
Manguchei, Kendyce. Shark attack victim transferred to O‘ahu. The Garden Island, 3/27/2002.
Marten, Ken, and Shariff, Karim, and Psarakos, Suchi, and White, Don J. Ring Bubbles of Dolphins: A number of bottlenose dolphins in Hawaii can create shimmering, stable rings and helices of air as part of play. Scientific American, August, 1996.
Maui humpback sightings drop 21%: But observers spot more whale calves this year than in 2002. The Honolulu Star Bulletin, 3/03/2003.
Mediterranean Monk Seal. Internet site: http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/Phil_Gibbs/seal.htm, 2/27/1997.
Mee, Jonathan. Living lava lamps. Oregon Coast, July/August, 1995.
Meinkoth, Norman A. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Seashore Creatures. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1981.
Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary: Tenth Edition. Springfield, Massachusetts: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, 1996.
Mitchell, Donald D. Kilolani. Resource Units in Hawaiian Culture: Revised Edition. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1992.
Monk seal family unites state, U.S. agencies. The Garden Island, 9/06/2001.
Monk seal gives birth on Big Island beach. The Garden Island, 7/11/2001.
More seal testiness closes beach. The Garden Island, 8/16/2001.
Mueller, Michelle. Shark attack believed to be from great white: An expert stresses that such sharks are rare in Hawaii waters. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 6/26/2003.
Mullins, Joseph G. Hawaiian Journey. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1978.
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Nichols, Katherine. Sharks as ‘aumakua. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/14/2001.
Nichols, Katherine. Sharks benefit from efforts to protect the environment. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/14/2001.
Nichols, Katherine. The science of the sting: New research disproves tried, old treatments. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/01/2001.
Oliver, Anthony Michael. Hawaii Fact and Reference Book. Mutual Publishing, 1995.
Oliver, Chris. Migration schedule is not well understood. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/26/2003.
Oliver, Chris. Where the whales are: Gigantic visitors always good for fascinating show. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/26/2003.
Oliver, Douglas. Polynesia in Early Historic Times. Honolulu, Hawai‘i: The Bess Press, 2002.
Orr, Katherine. Discover Hawaii’s Sandy Beaches and Tidepools. Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1994.
Orr, Katherine. The Hawaiian Coral Reef Coloring Book. Maryland: Stemmer House Publishers, 1992.
Payne, Roger. Among Whales. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons: Simon and Schuster Inc., 1995.
Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H, with Mookini, Esther T. and Nishizawa, Yu Mapuana. New Pocket Hawaiian Dictionary. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1992.
Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983.
Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. & Mookini, Esther T. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
Ragone, Diane. ‘Ohi‘a lehua: Folklore has it that plucking a lehua blossom will cause it to rain. Kauai Magazine, 1993.
Randall, John E. Shore Fishes of Hawai‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1996.
Randall, John E. Underwater Guide to Hawaiian Reef Fishes. Pennsylvania: Harrowood Books, 1981.
Rare turtle lays eggs on Hilo beach. The Garden Island, 10/12/2002.
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TenBruggencate, Jan. Seal has another pup at Po‘ipū. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/23/2001.
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Seal pup proves popular in Po‘ipu. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/11/2000.
Shark attacks reach all time high in 2000. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/09/2001.
Silverstein, Duane. Our tribe must make all islands survivors. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/24/2002.
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TenBruggencate, Jan. Beaches slip-sliding away. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/19/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Biologists score breakthrough in raising reef fish. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/23/2002.
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TenBruggencate, Jan. Maui’s mischievous seal captured again. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/22/2003.
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TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark attacks teenager off Kaua‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/26/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark chomps into board at popular surf spot. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. What do big sharks eat? Anything! The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date).
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U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS): U.S. Listed Vertebrate Animal Species Report by Taxonomic Group as of 7/28/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/webpage/webpage_vip_listed.html?module=undefined&code=V&listings=0, 7/28/2002.
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Wilson, Christie. Permanent shark warning up in Olowalu: Risk is ‘unique’ in Maui area, state explains. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/02/2002.
Witte, Astrid and Mahaney, Casey. Hawaiian Reef Fish. Waipahu, Hawai‘i: Island Heritage Publishing, 1998.
Yamamoto, Mike N., and Tagawa, Annette W. Hawai‘i’s Native & Exotic Freshwater Animals. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2000.
[1]
The Four Suborders of Marine Mammals:
Cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises);
Pinnipeds (sea lions, seals, and walruses);
Carnivores (sea otter);
Sirenians (Stellar’s sea cow-extinct, dugongs, manatees).
[iv] p. 90, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 833.
[v] See http://is.dal.ca/~whitelab/rwb/robin.htm.
[vi] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
[vii] p. 144, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1325.
[viii] Includes viper shark (Trigonognathus kabeyai) reported in: Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.
[x] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[xi] According to the International Shark Attack File compiled by University of Florida researchers.
[xii] Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui: A Napili man dies from loss of blood after being attacked at about 7:05 a.m. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004.
[xiii] Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui: A Napili man dies from loss of blood after being attacked at about 7:05 a.m. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004.
[xiv] Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui: A Napili man dies from loss of blood after being attacked at about 7:05 a.m. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004.
Wilson, Christie. Shark kills surfer off Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/8/2004.
[xv] Bodyboarder loses foot in shark attack: Brennecke Beach site of latest incident. The Garden Island, 3/26/2004.
[xvi] Wilson, Christie. Shark kills surfer off Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/08/2004.
[xvii] Death certificate issued in honeymooner’s disappearance. Kaua‘i: The Garden Island, 6/24/01.
[xviii] Kubota, Gary. Surfer escapes shark’s jaws on Maui. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/03/2005.
[xix] Wilson, Christie. Shark kills surfer off Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/08/2004.
Kubota, Gary T., and Bernardo, Rosemarie. Shark kills surfer, 57, off Maui. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/08/2004.
[xx] Aguiar, Eloise. Doctors operate on shark victim. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/16/2004.
Aguiar, Eloise. Shark victim facing surgeries: Friend who came to aid feared blood loss would prove fatal. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/12/2004.
Boylan, Peter. Moloka‘i shark victim saw shoulder ‘gone’: Pearl Harbor worker will be moved to O‘ahu hospital today.
Hoover, Will. Shark attack victim facing long recovery. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/20/2004.
Shark attacks diver off Moloka‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/10/2004.
Vorsino, Mary. Shark attacks diver off Molokai: The Kaneohe man is airlifted too Maui with deep lacerations. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/10/2004.
[xxi] Fujimori, Leila. Shark bumps surfer on North Shore: An estimated 8-foot tiger shark surprises the professional surfer off Rocky Point. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/17/2005.
[xxii] Hurley, Timothy. Surfer ‘shaken up’ after shark rams him on Maui: Kū‘au Bay beaches closed until at least this morning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/03/2005.
Kubota, Gary. Surfer escapes shark’s jaws on Maui. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/03/2005.
[xxiii] Maui surfer tangles with 8-foot shark. The Garden Island, 10/17/05.
[xxiv] Kubota, Gary T. Shark sighting forces more beach closures: Maui spots could reopen today after officials meet. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/23/2005.
[xxv] p. 108, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1014.
[xxvi] p. 100, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 932.
[xxvii] p. 250, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2293.
[xxviii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
[xxix] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.