Table of Contents The State of Hawai‘i—The Aloha State Island Nicknames Facts About the State of Hawai‘i State of Hawai‘i Holidays The State Seal Ocean Channels Between Islands Distances O‘ahu—The Gathering Place Kaua‘i—The Garden Isle Ni‘ihau—The Forbidden Isle Moloka‘i—The Friendly Isle Lāna‘i—The Private Isle Maui—The Valley Isle Hawai‘i Island—The Orchid Isle Kaho‘olawe Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
Origins
Origins of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
The Hawaiian Archipelago
Ages of the Islands
Settlement—1800
Ancient Polynesians
‘Aumākua—Sacred Guardians
Heiau and Kapu
Celestial Navigation
The First Hawaiians
Polynesian-Introduced Plants
Traditional Uses of Polynesian Introduced Species
Traditional Uses of Native Hawaiian Species
‘Ōahi—The Fire-Throwing Ceremony
Medicinal Plants—The Kahuna Lā‘au Lapa‘au
A Unique Hawaiian Culture
Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth
Kamehameha’s First Major Battle Captain Cook Establishes Western Contact The Death of Captain Cook The Rise of the Warrior Kamehameha The Death of Kīwala‘ō at the Battle of Moku‘ōhai Games, Rituals, and Celebrations The Battle of Kepaniwai—Kamehameha Invades Maui The Olowalu Massacre The Hawaiian Sandalwood Trade Dedication of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau George Vancouver Visits the Hawaiian Islands The Battle of Nu‘uanu
1800—1850 Parker Ranch The Exploits of Georg Anton Schäffer ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia—The First Christian Hawaiian The Hawaiian Flag The Breaking of the Kapu The Mission Houses Humehume and Kaua‘i’s Last Rebellion Kapiolani, by Lord Alfred Tennyson The Twelve Companies of American Missionaries The Demise of Boki The Hawaiian Language Pronunciation Common Hawaiian Words Hiram Bingham (1789-1869) Scholars of Hawaiian History Early Publications Kawaiaha‘o Church French / Catholics Restoration Day The Whaling Era Washington Place
1850—1900 Heroes of Kalaupapa—Father Damien and Mother Marianne Mark Twain in the Sandwich Islands King Kamehameha Day—Henry Berger and the Royal Hawaiian Band Ali‘iōlani Hale ‘Iolani Palace The Legend of Pele Public Transportation The Coronation Pavilion Statue of King Kamehameha I The Bayonet Constitution Kamehameha Schools and Bishop Museum The Sugarcane Era The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy The Waikīkī Beachboys Aloha ‘Oe Annexation—The Kū‘ē Petitions The Newlands Resolution Annexing Hawai‘i to the United States Princess Ka‘iulani—Heir to a Vanished Throne
1900—1950 The Organic Act The Pineapple Industry Lāna‘i City Native Reef Fish of the Hawaiian Islands Military Bases in the Hawaiian Islands The U.S. Military Immigrant Laborers Duke Kahanamoku—Surfer, Olympian, Movie Star, Sheriff Historic Waikīkī Island Emblems Lei Day—May 1 Island Flowers and Lei King Kamehameha Hula Competition (Photo and Caption) Lei Making Methods Honolulu Hale War Memorial Natatorium Aviation The Massie Trial Communication Pearl Harbor Martial Law The 442nd/100th—Hawai‘i’s Nisei Soldiers Tsunamis Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands Nēnē—The Hawaiian Goose
1950—Present Unions The Democratic Revolution Daniel Inouye Ala Moana Statehood The U.S.S. Arizona Memorial Mormons in the Hawaiian Islands—The Polynesian Cultural Center The Merrie Monarch Festival Hula and Mele Preparing for the Dance The Spirit of Aloha The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe—Rediscovering the Past Kaho‘olawe Returned Eddie Would Go—The Story of Eddie Aikau Recent Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano ‘Onipa‘a Centennial Observance Historic Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano Historic Eruptions of Mauna Kea and Hualālai Volcanoes Historic Eruptions of Mauna Loa Volcano Mary Kawena Pūku‘i (1895-1986) SenatorDaniel Akaka Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine Mauna Kea Astronomy Hurricane ‘Iniki Devastates Kaua‘i Hurricanes The U.S. Apology to the Native Hawaiians The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe Lō‘ihi Seamount—The Next Hawaiian Island Bruddah Iz (1959-1997) The Bishop Estate Scandal Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn—Queen of Mākaha U.S.S. MissouriBattleship andU.S.S. BowfinSubmarine Humpback Whales June Jones and the University of Hawai‘i Warriors The Eternal Flame Representative Patsy Mink Senator Hiram Fong Modern Waikīkī
Native and Endangered Species of the Hawaiian Islands Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands Initial Colonizing Species—Adaptive Radiation Bird Species in the Hawaiian Islands Plant and Animal Extinctions Threats to Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Population and Visitor Statistics Hawaiian Kingdom, Republic, Territory, and State of Hawai‘i
The State of Hawai‘i—The Aloha State Island Nicknames O‘ahu—The Gathering Place Kaua‘i—The Garden Isle Ni‘ihau—The Forbidden Isle Moloka‘i—The Friendly Isle Lāna‘i—The Private Isle Maui—The Valley Isle Hawai‘i—The Orchid Isle Kaho‘olawe
Facts About the State of Hawai‘i Land Area: 6,423.4 square miles (16,636.6 sq. km). Size Comparison: 47th largest of the United States. Statehood: Became 50th state on August 21, 1959. Latitude: Between 19º and 22º north (main Islands). Longitude: Between 155º and 161º west (main Islands). State Bird: Nēnē—Hawaiian goose (Branta sandvicensis). State Tree: Kukui—Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana). State Flower: Pua Ma‘o Hau Hele—Yellow Hibiscus (Hibiscus brackenridgei). State Marine Mammal: Koholā—Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae). State Team Sport: Outrigger Canoe Paddling. State Fish: Humuhumu-nukunuku-ā-pua‘a—Reef triggerfish (Rhinecanthus rectangulus). State Song (Anthem): Hawai‘i Pono‘ī (words written by King Kalākaua, music by Henry Berger). State Gem: Black Coral. Official State Nickname: The Aloha State. State of Hawai‘i Holidays
ØNew Year’s Day—January 1.
ØDr. Martin Luther King Jr. Day—January 19.
ØPresidents’ Day—February 16.
ØPrince Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana‘ole Day—March 26.
ØGood Friday—April 9.
ØMemorial Day—May 31.
ØKing Kamehameha Day—June 11.
ØIndependence Day—July 11.
ØAdmissions Day—Third Friday in August.
ØLabor Day—September 6.
ØVeterans’ Day—November 1.
ØElection Day—November 2.
ØThanksgiving Day—Fourth Thursday in November.
ØChristmas Day—December 25.
State Motto: Ua mau ke ea o ka ‘āina i ka pono. The life of the land is perpetuated (preserved) in righteousness.
State of Hawai‘i Holidays
ØNew Year’s Day—January 1.
ØDr. Martin Luther King Jr. Day—January 19.
ØPresidents’ Day—February 16.
ØPrince Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana‘ole Day—March 26.
ØGood Friday—April 9.
ØMemorial Day—May 31.
ØKing Kamehameha Day—June 11.
ØIndependence Day—July 11.
ØAdmissions Day—Third Friday in August.
ØLabor Day—September 6.
ØVeterans’ Day—November 1.
ØElection Day—November 2.
ØThanksgiving Day—Fourth Thursday in November.
ØChristmas Day—December 25.
State Seal: Hawai‘i’s State Seal was created in 1959 when the Hawaiian Islands became the 50th state. Designed after the Territorial Seal, the State Seal is circular in shape, with the words “State of Hawai‘i” on the top of the Seal, and Hawai‘i’s State Motto (see above) written on the bottom. In the middle of the State Seal is a heraldic shield, which is also the state’s Coat of Arms. Kapu sticks are on the lower left and upper right of the shield, and horizontal stripes are at the lower right and upper left of the shield. Above the shield is the sun, and “1959,” commemorating statehood. King Kamehameha I is to the left of the shield, while the Goddess of Liberty (holding the state flag) is on the right side of the shield. A phoenix with leaves of kalo (Colocasia esculenta, taro), mai‘a (Musa species, banana), and ‘iwa‘iwa (Adiantaceae, maidenhair fern) are at the bottom of the State Seal, which was designed by Viggo Jacobsen in 1895 for the Republic of Hawai‘i. The State Seal was designed after the Territorial Seal. [Photograph: State Seal]
Ocean Channels Between Islands Kaulakahi Channel“The single flame (streak of color”[1]) Between Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau Ka‘ie‘iewaho Channel*“Outer Ka‘ie‘ie,”[2] after ‘ie‘ie vine.B etween Kaua‘i and O‘ahu Kaiwi Channel “The bone”[3] Moloka‘i and O‘ahu Kalohi Channel“The slowness”[4] Between Lāna‘i and Moloka‘i Pailolo Channel“Pai (lift), oloolo (shifting)”[5] Between Maui and Moloka‘i ‘Au‘au Channel“Bathe”[6] Between Lāna‘i and Maui Kealaikahiki Channel “The way to foreign lands”[7] Kaho‘olawe and Lāna‘i ‘Alalākeiki Channel “Child’s wail (believed heard here)”[8] Maui and Kaho‘olawe ‘Alenuihāhā Channel “Great billows smashing”[9] Between Maui and Hawai‘i Island *The Ka‘ie‘iewaho is also called the Kaua‘i Channel. Freycinetia arborea
Na kai ‘ewalu. The eight seas. The “seas” that divide the eight inhabited islands.[10]
Distances: Hawai‘i Island to Midway Atoll: 1,580 miles (2,543 km). Hawai‘i Island to Kaua‘i: More than 400 miles (644 km).
Honolulu to Equator: 1,470 miles (2,366 km). Honolulu to Tokyo, Japan: 3,847 miles (6,191 km). Honolulu to Los Angeles, California: 2,557 miles (4,115 km). Honolulu to Anchorage Alaska: 2,781 miles (4,476 km). Honolulu to Midway Atoll: 1,309 miles (2,107 km).
[Illustration: Map of eight main Hawaiian Islands, each island boldly labeled.]
[Text underneath: The State of Hawai‘i. Text on each island: Kaua‘i, Ni‘ihau, O‘ahu, Maui, Lāna‘i, Kaho‘olawe, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i.]
O‘ahu—The Gathering Place Land Area: 596.7 square miles (1,545 sq.km.). Size Comparison: Third largest Hawaiian Island; most populated island. Island Emblem: Pua ‘Ilima—Flower of ‘Ilima (Sida fallax). Highest Elevation: 4,003 feet (1,220 m) at the summit of Ka‘ala in the Wai‘anae Range. Official Nickname:The Gathering Place.
O‘ahu is about 44 miles (71 km) long by 30 miles (48 km) wide, with more than 112 miles (180 km) of coastline and more than 100 white-sand beaches. Popular surfing sites are found on all sides of O‘ahu, including the north shore’s renowned Banzai Pipeline where the world’s best surfers challenge the giant winter waves.
O‘ahu has more than 900,000 residents, and each day the island hosts an average of nearly 70,000 tourists. Hotel rooms and other vacation accommodations number more than 36,000 rooms. [Photograph: Waikīkī]
The prominent geographical features of O‘ahu are two parallel mountain ranges: the older Wai‘anaeMountains and the deep-furrowed Ko‘olau Mountains. Formed by volcanic eruptions more than one million years ago, the two mountain ranges are aligned perpendicular to the northeast tradewinds, creating a wet windward side of O‘ahu (the eastern side) and a much drier leeward side.
The majestic Ko‘olau Mountains run north to south for the entire span of the island of O‘ahu. Between the two major mountain ranges is the fertile Leilehua Plateau, long known for its pineapple production. [Photograph: Ko‘olau Mountains at Waimanalo (steep furrows)]
O‘ahu has three prominent geologic landmarks known as tuff cones: Koko Head (Kohelepelepe), Punchbowl (Pūowaina), and Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi). These volcanic cones provide visual reminders of the island’s volcanic past. O‘ahu has 62 county parks as well as 25 state parks and three national parks. [Photograph/Map: O‘ahu] Kaua‘i—The Garden Isle Land Area: 552.3 square miles (1,430 sq.km.). Size Comparison: Fourth largest Hawaiian Island. Island Emblem: Mokihana—Fruit of Mokihana (Pelea anisata). Highest Elevation: 5,243 feet (1,598 m) at the summit of Mt. Kawaikini. Official Nickname: The Garden Isle.
Kaua‘i is the oldest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, having formed about five million years ago. The age of the island accounts for its many stunning features, from the deeply carved valleys of Waimea Canyon to the steep cliffs and spires of the Nāpali Coast.
Kaua‘i is about 33 miles (53 km) long and 25 miles (40 km) wide, with about 90 miles (145 km) of coastline. Kaua‘i is known for its scenic, rugged mountains as well as its pristine, white-sand beaches, with the most beach per mile of coastline of any of the eight main Hawaiian Islands
Kaua‘i is also known for resisting the rule of King Kamehameha I long after he conquered the other Hawaiian Islands. In 1810, Kaua‘i’s paramount ruler, King Kaumuali‘i, ceded the island of Kaua‘i to King Kamehameha to avoid impending war against Kamehameha’s powerful army. King Kamehameha had twice earlier attempted to invade Kaua‘i, but was not successful.
Today Kaua‘i has a resident population of about 62,000 people. The island’s major industry is tourism, but military spending and agricultural enterprises also bring significant income. Kaua‘i’s main agricultural products are sugarcane, coffee, papaya, pineapple, guava, and tropical flowers.
The 5,148-foot summit of Kaua‘i’s Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale is one of the rainiest spots on the planet, recording 681 inches in 1982, with an average annual rainfall of 451 inches, the highest in the world. This annual average rainfall exceeds even India’s Cherrapunji Village, which received 905 inches of rainfall in 1861, but has an average annual rainfall of just 428 inches. Scientists think Wai‘ale‘ale’s actual rainfall may be even more than 451 inches because researchers have seen the high winds at the summit blow the rain nearly horizontally over the gauges. Automated gauges atop Wai‘ale‘ale now relay weather information via satellite. [Photograph/Map: Kaua‘i]
Ni‘ihau—The Forbidden Isle Land Area: 69.5 square miles (180 sq.km.). Size Comparison: Seventh largest Hawaiian Island. Island Emblem: Pūpū Ni‘ihau—Ni‘ihau Shell Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca); Momi (Euplica varians); Laiki (Mitrella margarita). Highest Elevation: 1,281 feet, at summit of Pānī‘au. Official Nickname:The Forbidden Isle. Also called: Island of Yesteryear (Yesterday). [Illustration: Map—Ni‘ihau] A single volcano formed Ni‘ihau about 4.9 million years ago. Ni‘ihau is about 6 miles (9.7 km) wide and 18 miles (29 km) long, making it the smallest inhabited Hawaiian Island. Ni‘ihau is just over 17 miles (27 km) from the west side of Kaua‘i, across the ocean channel called Kaulakahi, which means “The single flame (streak of color).”[11] Ni‘ihau is relatively dry because it is in Kaua‘i’s rain shadow. The main town on Ni‘ihau is Pu‘uwai (“Heart”[12]), and Ni‘ihau’s 860-acre (348 ha) Hālali‘i Lake is the largest lake in all of the Hawaiian Islands. In pre-contact times, Ni‘ihau was known for the mats made there from the native makaloa (Cyperus laevigatus). These mats were considered the finest sleeping mats in all of ancient Polynesia. Ni‘ihau was also famous in ancient days for the fine quality of the uhi (Dioscorea alata, yams) that grew there. These yams were grated and used for medicinal preparations, and also were considered “slippery and tenacious,” as noted in the ancient proverb, “Ni‘ihau i ka uhi pahe‘e,” (“Ni‘ihau of the slippery yam.”)[13]
The Robinson family owns the island of Ni‘ihau, which is not open to tourism. The Robinsons are descendants of Eliza McHutcheson Sinclair, who purchased the island of Ni‘ihau from King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha) in 1864 for $10,000 worth of gold.
Largely isolated from the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, Ni‘ihau is considered by some to be the last bastion of pure Hawaiians speaking the Hawaiian language. Ni‘ihau has no airport, nor does it have an Island-wide electricity or phone system. [Photograph/Map: Ni‘ihau]
Moloka‘i—The Friendly Isle Land Area: 260 square miles (673 sq.km.). Size Comparison: Fifth largest Hawaiian Island. Island Emblem: Pua Kukui—Flower of Kukui (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut). Highest Elevation: 4,970 feet (1,515 km) at the summit of Kamakou. Official Nickname: The Friendly Isle.
Moloka‘i is located about 9 miles (14.5 km) northwest of Maui, 9 miles (14. 5 km) north of Lāna‘i, and 22 miles (35 km) southeast from Honolulu across the Kaiwi Channel. Moloka‘i is about 38 miles (61 km) long by 10 miles (16 km) wide, and somewhat rectangular in shape.
Moloka‘i has no fast food chains, high-rise buildings, shopping centers, movie theaters, or traffic signals. The main town, and perhaps Moloka‘i’s only true “town,” is Kaunakakai on the island’s southern coast.
The island of Moloka‘i has the highest percentage of native Hawaiians of any of the Hawaiian Islands except Ni‘ihau. Much of Moloka‘i’s relatively small population (less than 8,000 total) still clings largely to a subsistence lifestyle of farming, fishing, hunting, and gathering.
Moloka‘i was formed by Kauhakō and Kamakou Volcanoes, which originally created two separate islands but were later joined when lava flows formed the Ho‘olehua Plains. After the main part of Moloka‘i had been formed, Kauhakō Crater erupted offshore, creating the peninsula of Kalaupapa on the island’s northern side, and thus Kauhakō Crater became part of the island of Moloka‘i. The crater rises to 400 feet above sea level, and is the highest point on the Kalaupapa peninsula.
Moloka‘i has vast amphitheater valleys and spectacular coral reefs. The sea cliffs along Moloka‘i’s northern shore have an average steepness of more than 55 degrees and rise to more than 3,300 feet, making them among the highest sea cliffs in the world. The waterfall called Kahiwa (“The chosen one”[14])cascades 1,750 feet down the cliffs over a horizontal distance of 1,000 feet (305 m), and is one of the highest waterfalls in the Hawaiian Islands.
The western half of Moloka‘i is generally the drier side, and is dominated by the shield-shaped dome of Mauna Loa, which has two peaks, including 1,381-foot-tall Pu‘unānā, the highest point on west Moloka‘i. Located on the northwest coast are the dunes of Mo‘omomi, a unique Hawaiian habitat supporting many endangered plant species. Numerous archaeological sites are also located in the area. In ancient times, Mauna Loa was the site of adze quarries, where pōhaku pa‘a (basaltic rocks) were chipped into ko‘i (stone adzes) that had many important uses. Mauna Loa was also the site of he‘e hōlua (hōlua sledding), which involved using specially constructed papa hōlua (wooden sleds) to slide down a hillside or a ramp slide constructed of stone. [Photograph/Map: Moloka‘i]
Lāna‘i—The Private Isle Land Area: 140.5 square miles (364 sq.km.). Size Comparison: Sixth largest Hawaiian Island; smallest inhabited island. Island Emblem: Kauna‘oa—Native Dodder (Cuscuta sandwichiana). Highest Elevation: 3,370 feet, at the summit of Lāna‘ihale. Official Nickname: The Private Isle. Also called: The Pineapple Island, The Secluded Island. Lāna‘i is about 17½ miles (28 km) long by 13 miles (21 km) wide. The island is somewhat teardrop-shaped, with about 47 miles (76 km) of coastline. Lāna‘i is about nine miles west of Maui (across the ‘Au‘au Channel), and 9 miles (14.5 km) south of Moloka‘i. Lāna‘i’s Pālāwai Basin is the alluvium-filled crater of the single volcano that formed the island. The volcano last erupted about 1.3 million years ago. During the last century many pineapples were grown in the fertile Pālāwai Basin. There are not many paved roads on Lāna‘i, and much of the island is accessible only by four-wheel-drive vehicles. On a clear day one may see five of the Hawaiian Islands from atop Lāna‘ihale (“House [of] Lāna‘i”[15]), the highest point on Lāna‘i. The 3,370-foot (1,027-km) summit of Lāna‘ihale is about 5 miles (8 km) southeast of Lāna‘i City. The peak of Lāna‘ihale is the highest point of the ridge that runs from southeast to northwest across the island. This ridge is a significant geographical feature affecting Lāna‘i’s climate, which is relatively dry because the West Maui Mountains block the northeast tradewinds. [Photograph/Map: Lāna‘i] Maui—The Valley Isle Land Area: 727.2 square miles (1,883 sq.km.). Size Comparison: Second largest Hawaiian Island. Island Emblem: Pua Lokelani—Damask Rose (Rosa species). Highest Elevation: 10,023 feet (312 m) at the summit of Haleakalā. Official Nickname: The Valley Isle.
Maui has a resident population of about 140,000, and is about 48 miles (77 km) long by 26 miles (42 km) wide and ringed with beautiful beaches, quiet coves, and hidden waterfalls. During the November to May whale-watching season, Maui is one of the best Hawaiian Islands to view breaching humpback whales. A well-known local saying, “Maui nō ka ‘oi,” translates to “Maui excels”[16] or “Maui is indeed the best.”[17]
Maui was formed by two separate volcanoes, which today are bridged by an isthmus of land that connects the two parts of the island. The West Maui Mountains rise to 5,788 feet at Pu‘u Kukui (“Candlenut Hill”[18]), and are older and more sculpted by erosion than the younger East Maui Mountains. The broad, sloping hills of the East Maui Mountains rise up to the 10,023-foot summit of Haleakalā Volcano, a site of ancient Hawaiian astronomy.
Throughout the 1900s, Maui’s economy was centered on agriculture, especially sugar and pineapple. In the 1970s, resort development and tourism became the economy’s driving force. The championship golf courses and beachfront resort hotels of western Maui’s Kā‘anapali and Kapalua are now world-renowned, as is the bustling town of Lahaina. Other parts of the island remain remote and undeveloped, bathed in waterfalls and rainbows and steeped in Maui’s rich cultural history. [Photograph/Map: Maui]
Hawai‘i—The Orchid Isle Land Area: 4,028 square miles (10,432 sq.km.). Size Comparison: Hawai‘i Island is the largest Hawaiian Island. Island Emblem: Pua Lehua—Red Blossom of ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua (Metrosideros species). Highest Elevation: 13,796 feet at the summit of Mauna Kea. Official Nickname: The Orchid Isle. Also called: The Big Island.
Hawai‘i Island is the youngest Hawaiian Island, at less than one-half million years old, and also the largest Hawaiian Island. Hawai‘i Island is more than twice as big as the rest of the Hawaiian Islands combined, and more than four times as big as Maui (the second largest Hawaiian Island).
Hawai‘i Island is about 93 miles (150 km) long by 76 miles (122 km) wide, and still growing due to the active lava eruptions coming from Kīlauea Volcano. Hawai‘i Island supports a great diversity of native ecosystems, from HawHsnow-covered peaks to lava deserts and lush rainforests. Near the coast lava crackles and hisses as it flows into the sea. Snow tops the 13,796-foot (4,205-m) summit of Mauna Kea volcano, the highest spot in the Hawaiian Islands and all the Pacific Basin.
Six separate volcanoes formed Hawai‘i Island, and five of the volcanoes are above sea level: Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, Kohala, Hualālai and Kīlauea Volcanoes. The sixth volcano, Mahukona, is submerged off the island’s northwest shore.
Kīlauea Volcano is currently the most continuously active volcano on Earth, having covered more than 500 square miles (1,295 sq.km.) with lava in the last 1,100 years. Kīlauea has erupted almost non-stop since 1983, covering more than 38 square miles (98 sq.km.) of Hawai‘i Island with lava.
This activity continues as the flank of Kīlauea Volcano erupts lava near Hawai‘i Island’s southeast coast and pours molten earth into the sea, adding to the island’s size and creating new material for black sand beaches.
Agricultural products of Hawai‘i Island include macadamia nuts, Kona coffee, and papayas as well as diversified products (e.g., mushrooms, lettuce) that supply the island’s fine restaurants. A large quantity of tropical flowers, such as anthuriums and orchids, are also grown. Another major export is beef.
Hawai‘i Island’s two main airports are Kona International Airport and Hilo International Airport. The smaller Waimea Kohala Airport is used by private charters and commuter flights.
Hilo is the county seat, with a population of about 163,000. Hawai‘i Island has about 266 miles (428 km) of coastline. Driving around the island’s circumference can be accomplished in about 222 miles (357 km). [Photograph/Map: Hawai‘i Island]
Ku ka‘apā ia Hawai‘i, he moku nui. It is well for Hawai‘i to show activity; it is the largest of the islands. Hawai‘i should lead forth for she is the largest.”[19]
Kaho‘olawe Land Area: 44.6 square miles (116 sq.km.). Island Emblem: Hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum) Highest Elevation: 1,483 feet at the summit of Pu‘u Moa‘ulanui. Size Comparison: Eighth largest Hawaiian Island.
Kaho‘olawe is about 11 miles (18 km) long and 6 miles (10 km) wide, and located less than 7 miles (11 km) southwest of Maui. A relatively dry island, Kaho‘olawe is largely blocked from heavy rains by Maui’s Haleakalā Volcano.
According to Hawaiian tradition, Kaho‘olawe is the sacred home of the god Kanaloa. Ancient chants have revealed that a site at the 1,444-foot elevation on a Kaho‘olawe mountain called Moa‘ulaiki was a place where Polynesian ocean navigators were trained in the arts of celestial navigation, using stars to guide them over the vast Pacific Ocean.
Kaho‘olawe is also the site of many ancient heiau (sacred places of worship). Hakioawa (“Breaking of [the] harbor”[20]) in north Kaho‘olawe is said to be where ‘Ai‘ai, the fish demigod, erected a kū‘ula (altar) on a cliff overlooking the ocean. The temple at Hakioawa is thought to have been built before A.D. 1600. On the Kaho‘olawe volcano called Lua Makika is a large stone quarry used in ancient times.
More than 2,500 historical and archaeological sites have been identified on Kaho‘olawe. Many of Kaho‘olawe’s native sites were destroyed when the military used the island for bombing practice. Kaho‘olawe’s native ecosystems have also suffered a long history of abuse including introduced goats and cattle ranching degrading the natural habitat.
In 1981, Kaho‘olawe was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. The island has also been designated as a cultural reserve by the State of Hawai‘i. (See Kaho‘olawe Returned, Chapter 12.) [Photograph/Map: Kaho‘olawe; Moa‘ulaiki]
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Combined Land Area: 3.108 square miles (8 sq.km.), not including Midway Islands (not part of state). Size Comparison: One-tenth of one percent of the State of Hawai‘i’s land area. Also called:The Leeward Islands; The Kupuna Islands.
The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands constitute .1% (one-tenth of one percent) of the State of Hawai‘i’s land area. The eight main Hawaiian Islands comprise the other 99.9% of the total land area of the State of Hawai‘i. The 124 scattered islets, shoals, and atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are located to the west-northwest of the main Hawaiian Islands, extending as far as Kure Atoll about 1,264 miles (2,034 km) from Kaua‘i. Most of the tiny islets barely rise above the water’s surface. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands contain about 70% of the United States’ coral reefs and support at least 7,000 native species, and about half of these species are endemic (unique) to the Hawaiian Islands. The species include fish, birds, marine mammals and other flora and fauna. [Photograph/Map: Northwestern Hawaiian Islands]
Origins of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
Each of the Hawaiian Islands was born on the seafloor of the Pacific Ocean at the site of the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot, a stationary plume of magma (molten lava) rising up from deep in the Earth and erupting onto the seafloor to form volcanic islands. During the last 80 million years, the Hawaiian hot spot has created at least 107 volcanoes that now span over the Pacific seafloor for more than 3,100 miles (5,000 km) to form the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain, with the Hawaiian Islands at the southwest end.
The Hawaiian Islands are continually carried northwest by the movement of Earth’s crust. The southeast portion of Hawai‘i Island (the most recently formed island at less than one-half million years old), is currently above one edge of the erupting hot spot plume of lava. The other edge of the magmatic hot spot is about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of Hawai‘i Island, where the newest undersea volcano is forming.
This newest volcano, called Lō‘ihi Seamount, is about 3,116 feet below the ocean’s surface and rises up more than 9,000 feet (2,743 km) from the seafloor. The erupting summit of Lō‘ihi should rise above the water about 50,000 to 200,000 years from now to become the next Hawaiian Island.
From 1983 to the present, Kīlauea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island has erupted almost continuously, increasing the island’s size by more than 370 acres (150 ha). In 1984, Kīlauea Volcano erupted fiery fountains of lava to heights of more than 1,500 feet (457 m).
[Photograph: Erupting lava]
The Hawaiian Archipelago The Hawaiian archipelago includes the eight main islands as well as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, extending in a line from southeast to northwest for about 1,523 miles (2,451 km). Slicing through the Tropic of Cancer, the Hawaiian Islands extend from Hawai‘i Island at about 19º north latitude, to Kure Island at 28.5º north latitude, and from 154º to 179º west longitude.
[Photograph: Cliffs and spires of Nāpali Coast]
[Illustration: Overview map of eight main Hawaiian Islands.]
Ages of the Islands IslandAge (in millions of years)__[21]__ Kaua‘i 5.1 Ni‘ihau 4.9 O‘ahu 2.6-3.7 Maui 1.32-.75 Lāna‘i 1.28 Kaho‘olawe 1.03 Moloka‘i 1.76-1.9 Hawai‘i .4-.43
Ancient Polynesians
The ancient Polynesians were master navigators who sailed their wa‘a kaulua (double-hulled voyaging canoes) to inhabit hundreds of Pacific islands over thousands of years before finally discovering the Hawaiian Islands. Using only the moon and sun as their clock and calendar, they were guided by the stars, winds, and flight patterns of birds. The Polynesians were the first to reach the Hawaiian Islands, an isolated island group totaling less than 6,500 square miles (16,835 sq.km.) in the middle of an ocean covering more than 70 million square miles (181,300,000 million sq.km.), nearly one-third of the Earth’s surface.
When Captain Cook and his crew established Western contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, they found a friendly, self-sufficient and productive people with all the components of a highly developed culture. There was a fairly rigid caste structure, though the Hawaiians also maintained a system of communal subsistence based on the natural resources of wedge-shaped land divisions known as ahupua‘a.
Resources were shared within these ahupua‘a, formed naturally by mountain ridges and ocean bays and extending from the high valley to the sea, including the offshore coral reefs. The ahupua‘a contains all of the different resources important for survival.
O kau aku, o ka ia la mai, pelā ka nohona o ka ‘ohana. From you and from him—so lived the family. The farmer gave to the fisherman, the fisherman to the farmer.[22]
‘Aumākua—Sacred Guardians
The world of the ancient Hawaiians was rich with spiritual forces closely linked to the natural environment. Certain species were considered sacred ‘aumākua, guardian spirits that might be seen in visions or dreams. This connection to the natural world and these spiritual beliefs continue today—the Hawaiian culture is a living culture, and the ancient philosophies still resonate in the daily lives of Hawaiians.
As personal or family gods, ‘aumākua may take on various physical manifestations, becoming incarnate in living animals that appear to warn or protect. Some ‘aumākua are the ‘io (Hawaiian hawk), manō (shark), pueo (owl), honu (sea turtle), kōlea (golden plover), and hīnālea (wrasse), with different species being ‘aumākua to different families. [Illustrations/photos of above species (hawk, shark, owl, sea turtle, plover, wrasse).]
Heiau and Kapu Ancient Hawaiians built many heiau, sacred places of worship, including shrines to gods and places of refuge. Heiau structures included stone enclosures, platforms, and earthen terraces. A heiau might also include an ‘anu‘u, or oracle tower, covered with white kapa (tapa) barkcloth. Offerings and prayers were made to ‘aumākua, personal or family gods and sacred guardians that were considered protectors that should be respected and even fed.
The Tahitian high priest Pā‘ao arrived in the Islands sometime before A.D.1200, and initiated a new social order. The highest class was the mō‘ī (king, queen) and his/her ‘aha kuhina (chiefs and advisers). Next were the ali‘i (royalty), kāhuna (priests and experts in a given profession), maka‘āinana (commoners who were mostly farmers), and lastly the kauā (or kauwā) class, who were the lowest outcast members.
Pā‘ao also introduced kānāwai, a strict system of laws and regulations that determined if something was kapu (sacred or forbidden). Commoners fell prostrate to the ground in the presence of chiefs, who possessed more mana (divine power).
Before the arrival of Pā‘ao the Hawaiians had built various heiau, but Pā‘ao constructed the first luakini (temple of human sacrifice), honoring Kūkā‘ilimoku, the god of war. This luakini was known as Waha‘ula Heiau, located at Puna on Hawai‘i Island. Pā‘ao also introduced Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes.
Many other types of heiau were also built throughout the Islands: heiau ho‘oūlu insured good fishing; heiau ho‘oulu ua insured rain; and heiau ho‘oulu ‘ai brought an increase in food crops. Treatment of the sick was done at heiau hō‘ola, and the large number of these found throughout the Islands signified the Hawaiians’ advanced state of medicinal healing knowledge. Today one of the only surviving heiau hō‘ola is Keāiwa on ‘Aiea Heights.
Many heiau were dedicated to Lono, the god of agricultural fertility. Agricultural heiau were known as waihau or unu, where gifts such as pigs, bananas, or coconuts were offered. Fishermen often placed a kū‘ula (fish god) atop a stone altar located near the coast, while bird catchers in the mountains made their offerings at a ko‘a (stone platform).
The site of a heiau was chosen by a kahuna kuhikuhi pu‘uone (master architect) who valued a location for its mana, or spiritual power. Major heiau were usually constructed of lava rock walls built into a rectangular formation on the ground, or raised terrace platforms forming a more substantial structure. Structures built within heiau utilized wood of the native ‘ōhi‘a lehua and cordage woven from olonā. Pili grass was used for thatching. Ki‘i (wooden carved figures representing gods) were carved from ‘ōhi‘a lehua and placed in and around the heiau. [Photograph: Heiau]
The strict sanctions of the kapu system in ancient times ensured the separation of the classes, and prescribed much of the daily lives of the islanders. Kapu breakers and defeated warriors were subject to immediate death unless they could reach a pu‘uhonua, or place of refuge, where a priest could absolve them.
One such place was Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau on Hawai‘i Island’s South Kona coast, with a 1,000-foot (305-m) high, 10-foot (3-m) long stone wall. Now a National Historical Park, Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau encompasses ancient royal grounds and a reconstructed heiau and pu‘uhonua with carved images of ki‘i (ancient gods).
Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau also has a petroglyph site, a loko ‘ia (fishpond), lava tree molds, and a canoe that was hand-carved from koa. A heiau on the nearby coastal point holds the bones of 23 chiefs, and these bones are said to hold mana (spiritual power) that is imparted to those that come near. Pu‘ukoholā Heiau overlooks the Pacific Ocean about 30 miles (48 km) north of Kailua-Kona on Hawai‘i Island. The rising warrior Kamehameha constructed this luakini heiau (sacrificial temple) as a result of a prophecy that the construction of the massive heiau would allow him to unite all of the Islands under his rule.
Kamehameha had thousands of his men work to construct the 224-foot (68-m) long, 100-foot (30-m) high structure of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau. A human chain 20 miles (32 km) long passed stones from hand-to-hand all the way to the site.
Also found at the Pu‘ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site are the ruins of Mailekini Heiau, which was used by King Kamehameha‘s ancestors. Hale o Kapuni Heiau, dedicated to a shark god, is submerged offshore.
Many other heiau are found throughout the main Hawaiian Islands as well as on the remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Necker Island, 310 miles (499 km) northwest of Ni‘ihau, was inhabited in ancient times and has the remains of an extensive heiau complex. The island was uninhabited when Captain Cook first established Western contact in 1778. (See Dedication of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau, Chapter 12.)
Celestial Navigation Seafaring Polynesians navigated the oceans guided only by the clues that nature provided, such as the positions and movements of the sun, moon, stars, and constellations as well as the flight patterns of birds and the prevailing winds and seas. The Polynesians likely began their west-to-east journeys when westerly winds replaced the prevailing easterly trade winds. If the voyagers failed to find land, then they could wait for the trades to return and carry them home. The Polynesians also used the star that Westerners call Polaris (also called the North Star) to determine the direction toward the Hawaiian Islands. The ancient navigators called this star Hōkūpa‘a (“Fixed Star”) because it is located due north and appears “fixed” in the sky. The Earth spins to the east, so to an observer looking north, the star doesn’t change position, as do all the other stars in the sky. In the northern hemisphere, Hōkūpa‘a’s altitude is very close to the observer’s latitude, and in the Hawaiian Islands the latitude is between 18.5 and 22.5 degrees above the horizon.
The star called Hōkūle‘a (hōkū means “star”; le‘a means “happiness,” or “joy”) was also important to ancient Polynesians trying to navigate their wa‘a kaulua (double-hulled voyaging canoes) to the Hawaiian Islands. The name Hōkūle‘a refers to the star that Westerners call Arcturus. Voyagers sailing to the Hawaiian Islands from the Marquesas or Tahiti needed to determine how far north to sail. They knew that at the latitude of Hawai‘i Island, the star Hōkūle‘a would be directly overhead (a zenith star). At the high point of its nightly arc across the sky, Hōkūle‘a points the way to the Hawaiian Islands.
The Polynesian voyagers utilized many different types of navigational clues. For example, they knew that clouds tend to pile up over islands, revealing land in the distance. Land also reflects light, and so the color of the sky may reveal an island’s location. Even phosphorescence on the water at night is said to have helped guide the ancient navigators. The Polynesian voyagers also relied on their knowledge of the daily and seasonal cycles of birds. Migratory birds such as the kōlea (Pacific golden plover) and the ‘akē‘akē (ruddy turnstone) winter on Central Pacific islands and then head back to their arctic breeding grounds in April or May. Sighting these species revealed to the Polynesian mariners that somewhere to the north or northeast there was land.
The flight directions of pelagic (oceanic) birds were also helpful, including ‘ua‘u (petrels), ‘ua‘u kani (shearwaters) and mōlī (albatross). These pelagic birds spend most of their time over the ocean seeking fish, squid, and crustaceans and then return to land during the nesting season.
Non-pelagic birds such as ‘a (boobies), noio (terns) and koa‘e (tropicbirds) all feed over the sea by day but return each night to their island homes. Navigators watched for these species at dusk because sighting them meant land was near at hand. During their open ocean journeys, the navigators also looked for birds congregating over feeding areas, as this revealed locations where fishing would be productive.
I wawā no ka noio, he i‘a ko lalo. When the noio make a din, there are fish below. When the people gossip, there is a cause.[23]
The First Hawaiians Polynesians sailed double-hulled voyaging canoes to the Hawaiian Islands, bringing pua‘a (pigs), moa (chickens), ‘īlio (dogs), and more than two dozen species of plants for food, clothing, and tools. In addition to these Polynesian-introduced species, they also utilized native plants from the mountains to the sea. Specific parts of the plants used included the bark, leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, wood, sap (resin), flower pollen, and flower bracts. [Note: A bract is “a specialized leaf from the axil of which a flower or flower stalk arises; the leaf of an inflorescence.”[24]] Plants were used extensively to create food products, lei, dyes, scents, containers, tools, weapons, musical instruments, canoes, hale (houses), and heiau (sacred places of worship). Many plants also had extensive ritual and ceremonial uses. One of the most important plants brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the Polynesians was kalo (taro), which they pounded into poi, a staple of their diet. They grew the taro in rock-terraced fields with networks of irrigation channels. Taro was cultivated extensively in lowland areas where the lo‘i kalo (taro patches) complemented the Hawaiians’ extremely productive and well-stocked loko i‘a (saltwater fishponds). [Illustration: Lo‘i kalo (taro patch)]
‘Ono kāhi ‘ao lū‘au me ke aloha pū. A little taro green is delicious when love is present. Even the plainest fare is delicious when there is love.[25] The settlers also caught fish from the coral reefs and deeper ocean waters, and ate honu (turtles), and shellfish. Along the shoreline and in the shallow ocean waters Hawaiians gathered limu (seaweed) that provided essential vitamins and minerals as well as spicy flavors. Limu was often mixed with pa‘akai (sea salt), another natural resource gathered from ponds along the coast. Varieties of limu also had spiritual and ceremonial uses. Limu kala was worn as a lei to bring healing, and used in ho‘oponopono, an ancient cultural process that involves offering and receiving forgiveness.
* Though niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palm) is considered a Polynesian introduction, there is a chance that it also may be native to the Hawaiian Islands, as the seeds are very durable in ocean water for many months. Some plants that are currently considered Polynesian introductions may later, upon further scientific evidence, turn out to be native to the Hawaiian Islands.
[Note: Though niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palm) is considered a Polynesian introduction, there is a chance that it also may be native to the Hawaiian Islands, as the seeds are very durable in ocean water for many months. Some plants that are currently considered Polynesian introductions may later, upon further scientific evidence, turn out to be native to the Hawaiian Islands.]
Traditional Uses of Polynesian Introduced Species The Polynesian setters of the Hawaiian Islands brought pua‘a (pigs), moa (chickens), and ‘īlio (dogs) to the Hawaiian Islands on their voyaging canoes. They also brought dozens of species of useful plants. Tall niu (coconut palms) were a source of food and provided material for cordage as well as for musical instruments such as the pahu (drum). Growing near the lo‘i kalo (taro patches) was pia, the Polynesian arrowroot. Pia’s starchy tubers were mixed with shredded niu (coconut), wrapped in kī (ti) leaves and baked in an imu (underground earthen oven) to make the tasty treat known as haupia. The pudding-like mix known as kūlolo was made with kalo (taro) corms, niu (coconut), and kō (sugarcane) wrapped in kī (ti) leaves and baked in an imu. Dozens of varieties of ‘uala (sweet potatoes) were cultivated, as were uhi (yams). Kō (sugarcane) and mai‘a (bananas) were grown near dwellings. Bananas were also grown in upland areas and at the forest’s edge along with groves of ‘uala (breadfruit trees). Almost all of the species brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the Polynesian settlers eventually became naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, growing without the aid of human cultivation. Two important Polynesian-introduced species that did not become naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands are ‘uala (Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit) and ipu (Lagenaria siceraria, bottle gourd). The wood of the breadfruit tree was fashioned into papa ku‘i ‘ai (poi-pounding boards), papa he‘e nalu (surfboards), and large drums, while the tree’s leaves, bracts and flower clusters were used as a fine sandpaper to polish wooden bowls as well as to polish kukui nuts that were strung into lei. Kukui were strung together and burned to provide the primary source of light in ancient Hawai‘i, while the tree’s blossoms and leaves were used to make lei, as were leaves of kī (ti) and blossoms of kō (sugarcane). Calabashes (bowls) for poi and other foods were made primarily from kamani trees and from the red-grained milo, as well as from the wood of kou. [Note: Kou was long considered to be a Polynesian introduction but is now classified as indigenous. The native koa was also used to make calabashes (bowls) for holding certain items, however not for food, since the tannic acid in koa wood imparts an unpleasant taste to food.] Another Polynesian-introduced plant widely used in ancient Hawai‘i was ipu, the bottle gourd. Ipu were used as containers for food and other items, and were also made into musical instruments such as the pā ipu (double gourd drum), found only in the Hawaiian Islands. Many Polynesian-introduced plants had important ceremonial uses in ancient Hawai‘i. Mai‘a (bananas) and kalo (taro) were used as offerings at loko i‘a (fishponds). Noni (Indian mulberry), ‘ōhi‘a ‘ai (mountain apple), and ‘awa (kava) were part of many medicinal preparations.
Note on Polynesian-Introduced Species: The precise number of plants brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers remains uncertain, and likely includes several species that were brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the Polynesians, and were already native (indigenous) to the Hawaiian Islands. These species include: hala (Pandanus tectorius, screwpine), hau (Talipariti tiliaceum), and kou (Cordia subcordata). The 25 Polynesian-introduced species listed include 24 species shown quite conclusively by research to be Polynesian introductions, along with ‘ohe (Schizostachyum glaucifolium, bamboo), which is probably a Polynesian introduction, though its status is still questionable. Kou (Cordia subcordata), long thought to be a Polynesian introduction (and not native to the Hawaiian Islands) was recently determined to be native. Hala (Pandanustectorius, screwpine) was also thought to have been a Polynesian-introduced species (and not native to the Hawaiian Islands) until hala fossils dated to more than one million years ago were discovered along Kaua‘i’s north shore. This find proved quite conclusively that hala is indeed a native Hawaiian plant. Species that are generally considered indigenous in the Hawaiian Islands, but which may be Polynesian-introduced, include: pā‘ihi (Rorippa sarmentosa), pili (Heteropogon contortus, twisted beardgrass), and ‘uhaloa(Waltheria indica). Various other Polynesian-introduced species were also brought unintentionally. Following is a summary of all species known to be introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers, as well as other species that may have been brought to the Hawaiian Islands, intentionally or unintentionally, by Polynesian settlers previous to Western contact in 1778. Intentional Polynesian introductions include: pua‘a (Sus scrofa, pigs); moa (Gallus g. gallus, chickens); ‘īlio (Canis familiaris, dogs); and at least 24 (and probably more than 26) plant species. Unintentional Polynesian introductions include: Geckos (Gekkonidae): Indo-Pacific gecko (Hemidactylus garnotii); mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris); stump-toed gecko (Gehyra mutilata); tree gecko (Hemiphyllodactylus typus). Skinks (Scincidae): azure-tailed skink (Emoia impar); moth skink (Lipinia noctua noctua); snake-eyed skink (Cryptoblepharus poecilopleurus). Plants (possibly Polynesian-introduced; some of these plant species may be indigenous Hawaiian species, but have been noted as potential Polynesian introductions.): kāmole (Ludwigia octivalvis, primrose willow); ‘ihi ‘ai (Oxalis corniculata, yellow wood sorrel); kūkaepua‘a (Digitaria setigera); koali kua hulu (Merremia aegyptia, hairy merremia); neke (Cyclosorus interruptus, formerly Thelypteris interrupta, maiden fern); Paspalum scrobiculatum (ricegrass, no known Hawaiian name). Snails (Lamellaxis gracilis; Lamellidea oblonga; Gastrocopta pediculus.) Other (unintentional) Polynesian-introduced species include: Polynesian black rat (Rattus exulans); ectoparasites; Laelaps hawaiiensis, and others (carried on rats). Based on Kirch, Patrick V. (Citing Cooke 1926; Cooke and Kondo 1960; Pilsbry 1916-1918; Solem 1959.) The Impact of the Prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian Ecosystem. Pacific Science, Vol.36, No.1, January, 1982. In addition, freshwater clams (Pisidium casertanum; Musculium partumeium) found in ancient taro ponds may have been transported on taro stock brought to the Hawaiian Islands by early Polynesian settlers. (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.). The early Polynesian settlers brought many other species to Hawai’i besides plants. Some of these other species were brought intentionally for use as food sources, but other species were brought unintentionally, coming as stowaways on the Polynesians’ voyaging canoes and then establishing breeding populations in the Hawaiian Islands. The geckos and the skinks listed above are presumed to have arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in this manner (as stowaways on the voyaging canoes), but there remains a possibility that some of these lizard species may instead have arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on their own (e.g., floating to the Hawaiian Islands on rafts of debris), and thus are native to the Hawaiian Islands.]
Traditional Uses of Native Hawaiian Species
Polynesian-introduced species were very useful in ancient Hawaiian culture, but they numbered only in the dozens, compared to thousands of native Hawaiian species. Many of native Hawaiian species are endemic (unique) to the Hawaiian Islands, and the use of these endemic resources contributed greatly to the unique Hawaiian culture that evolved in the isolated archipelago.
The yellowish wood of ‘ahakea was made into papa ku‘i ‘ai (poi-pounding boards) as was the reddish wood of ‘ōhi‘a lehua, which was also used to make ‘umeke (bowls), ihe (spears), kū‘au (mallets), and ki‘i (carved images of sacred temple gods). The red-brown wood of lama was made into fish traps, while fishhooks were made from the hardwood olopua. Ihe (spears) and pou (house posts), were made from olopua, ‘a‘ali‘i, naio,and ‘ōhi‘a lehua. Houses were often thatched with pili grass, particularly in the warmer and dryer areas. The majestic koa tree was fashioned into large, twin-hulled canoes and also used to make jewelry, weapons, and wooden carvings.
Maile leaves were woven into lei, and used in hula along with various mountain ferns such as palapalai and pala‘ā. Native blossoms woven into lei came from ‘ōhi‘a lehua, māmane, hala pepe, ‘ohai, ‘āwikiwiki, kou, and nānū (native gardenia). Another traditional lei flower was nuku ‘i‘iwi, notable for its long, curved blossoms that evolved to fit perfectly with the long beaks of honeycreeper birds. ‘Ilima growing near the sea provided orange flowers for the beautiful ‘ilima lei that were reserved for ali‘i (Hawaiian royalty). [Photograph: Nuku ‘I‘iwi]
Leaves for lei were gathered from various native species including ‘ōhelo, ‘ōlapa, pūkiawe, ‘ōhi‘a lehua‘a‘ali‘i and pa‘iniu (native lily). Lei were also made with the berries of the native ‘ākia, ‘ōhelo, ‘ūlei, and kūkaenēnē, and the seeds of the native kāmakahala, ‘ōhi‘a lehua and ‘a‘ali‘i. Also strung into lei were the fragrant seed capsules (“berries”) of Kaua‘i’s endemic mokihana. The native hāpu‘u and ‘ama‘u tree ferns were valued for their pulu, the silky hair growing at the base of the young fronds. Pulu was used as an absorbent for dressing wounds, and for embalming the dead. [Note: When embalming the dead, the brain, tongue, and body organs were removed from the deceased and the spaces were filled tightly with pulu, which absorbed the body fluids. The body openings were then sewed shut. A body preserved in this way was known as i‘aloa, which means, “long fish.” Bodies embalmed with pulu could remain preserved for up to several months.]
The tree ferns were also valued for the edible, starchy pith in their trunks, which was cooked in an imu (underground earthen oven) and eaten. Also cooked and eaten were the starchy bases of the stems of the now rare pala fern, which had medicinal and ceremonial uses. The young fronds and roots of the kikawaiō fern were eaten raw, as were the pepe‘e (young coiled fronds) of the hō‘i‘ō fern, often eaten with ‘ōpae (mountain shrimp) and poi.
Ka i‘a ho‘opumehana i ka weuweu. The fish that warms the clumps of grass. Mountain shrimp, which cling to weeds and grasses along the banks of streams when a cloudburst occurs in the upland. Unlike the ‘o‘opu, they are not washed down to the lowland.[26]
The uluhe fern was used to make a medicinal tea. The fern ally moa and the tropical club moss wāwae‘iole were consumed for medicinal purposes and also used in lei. The bracts (specialized leaves) of the hīnano (flower cluster of the male hala tree) were woven into the finest of the ancient mats, known as moena hīnano, used only by ali‘i (chiefs and royalty) and kāhuna (priests and experts in a given profession). Kohekohe was used as offerings at loko i‘a (fishponds). Leaves of hala (lau hala) were woven into baskets, floor mats and sails for voyaging canoes. Hala fruitlets were woven into a lei symbolizing the passing of the old year and the beginning of a new year, and worn during the ancient harvest festival known as Makahiki. The inner bark of hau and olonā provided fibers used to make the strong cordage for canoe lashings as well as fishnets, which were also made from the native sedge ‘ahu‘awa. Hau was rapidly rotated against the harder olomea to start fires using friction. The tough ‘ie‘ie vine, which grows mostly in wet areas, was woven into fish traps and fine baskets, and used for the base of mahiole (feather-crested helmets). The buoyant wood of wiliwili was made into papa he‘e nalu (surfboards) as well as ama (canoe outriggers) and fishnet floats. The broad, wedge-shaped leaves of loulu, the native fan palm, were used to provide protection from the rain and sun (loulu means “umbrella”). Loulu was also used for plaiting (interlacing strips of leaf material), particularly for the construction of heiau (sacred places of worship and refuge). Other plants used for plaiting included lau hala, makaloa and ‘aka‘akai. Edible native berries eaten by the ancient Hawaiians included pōpolo, ‘ūlei, ‘ōhelo, naupaka kahakai and ‘ākala, the Hawaiian raspberry. The fruit of the native lama tree was also eaten. Hala fruit was eaten during times of food scarcity. [Illustration: Uses of native plants]
‘Ōahi—The Fire-Throwing Ceremony
In the ancient ‘ōahi (fire throwing) ceremony, flaming logs of pāpala and hau were hurled into the strong seaward winds blowing off the sea cliffs of northwestern Kaua‘i. The fiery wood showered sparks over the ocean waters as people in canoes beneath the cliffs attempted to catch the burning embers, sometimes tattooing themselves with the fiery logs to commemorate the event.
Pulelo ke ahi ha‘aheo i na pali The firebrand soars proudly over the cliffs. An expression of triumph. Referring to the firebrand hurling of Kaua‘i, or to the glow of volcanic fire on Hawai‘i.[27] [Illustration: Fire-throwing ceremony]
Medicinal Plants—The Kahuna Lā‘au Lapa‘au Cultural knowledge in ancient Hawai‘i was passed on through apprenticeships, including training by kāhuna (priests and experts in particular professions). The kahuna lā‘au lapa‘au was an herbalist and healer trained from an early age to identify, prepare and administer medicinal treatments made from the natural resources of the Hawaiian Islands.
Nānā no a ka lā‘au ku ho‘okāhi. Look for the plant that stands alone. Often said by those seeking strong medicinal herbs. A plant that stood by itself was considered better for medicine than one that grew close to others of its kind.[28]
The kahuna lā‘au lapa‘au had an extensive botanical, pharmacological and medicinal knowledge of more than 300 plants and ferns (both native and Polynesian-introduced) as well as at least 29 animals (mostly marine creatures) and about twelve minerals, including pālolo (clay), ‘alaea (red ocherous earth) and pa‘akai (sea salt). These ingredients were prepared in a variety of ways and utilized to create a multitude of medicinal treatments. The kahuna lā‘au lapa‘au followed many rituals during the gathering of medicinal materials, as well as during the preparation and administration of treatments. If the afflicted person was a female, prayers were offered to the goddess Hina. The god Kū was prayed to if the patient was male. Prayers were also offered to gods associated with particular plants. For example, when gathering the important medicinal plant pōpolo a prayer was offered to the god Kāne, as pōpolo is considered an embodiment of Kāne. At the conclusion of the medicinal treatment, a small piece of food was eaten. This was considered a closing (pani) and the food eaten was often from a marine species with a similar sounding name to the land plant that had been used in the medicinal treatment. This twinning of plants is detailed in the Kumulipo,[29] the Hawaiian creation myth in which many land and sea species are paired.
E ‘imi i ke ola mawaho. Seek life outside. Consult a kahuna to see what is causing the delay in healing. Said when a person lies sick, and recovery is slow.[30]
[Illustration: Hawaiian forest scene, understory of ferns, etc.]
A Unique Hawaiian Culture
From the time the ancient Polynesians first discovered and settled the remote Hawaiian archipelago, created an amazingly rich and complex Pacific island culture unlike any other. The unique Hawaiian language that evolved among the isolated islanders is still considered among the most fluid and melodic of any language known. Of all the Pacific cultures, the Hawaiians were the only ones to construct and maintain shoreline loko i‘a (saltwater fishponds) where pua ‘ama‘ama (mullet) and pua awa (milkfish) entered through mākāhā (sluice gates), and then were raised and eaten when needed.
The sticky sap of pāpala kēpau was used to catch native forest birds whose plumage was woven into colorful ‘ahu ‘ula (feathered capes and cloaks). Mahiole (feather-crested helmets) made with the aerial root of the ‘ie‘ie vine and adorned with colorful bird feathers were found nowhere else in Polynesia. These elaborate and magnificently-crafted featherwork items were unmatched anywhere, and were preserved with hīnano, the inflorescence (flower cluster) of the male hala tree.
Also woven from the ‘ie‘ie vine were a great variety of twined baskets considered the finest in all of ancient Polynesia, a distinction also given to the moena pāwehe (sleeping mats) woven from the native sedge makaloa. Some forms of Hawaiian ki‘i pōhaku (petroglyphs), including certain muscled figure petroglyphs, are found nowhere except the Hawaiian Islands.
Riding waves on a surfboard was likely first done in the Society Islands, including Tahiti, but it was in the Hawaiian Islands that he‘e nalu (surfing) really took hold. The first papa he‘e nalu (surfboards) used by Hawaiians were up to 18 feet (5.5 m) long. The surfboards were carved from the buoyant wood of wiliwili (Hawaiian coral tree), ‘ulu (breadfruit tree), or koa, and weighed up to 175 pounds.
The early Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands also created many artistically decorated bowls and containers, and developed an innovative new method of carrying the containers using a continuous unknotted cord. No other Pacific culture produced such large ipu (bottle gourds), and this was a testament to ancient Hawaiians’ horticultural skills. The pā ipu (double-gourd drum) and the pūniu (coconut knee drum) were found nowhere else in Polynesia.
The culture that evolved among the ancient Hawaiians was in many ways different than anywhere else in the world. The uniqueness of the Hawaiian culture was in large part due to the variety of unique resources (e.g., endemic species) available to the ancient settlers who first landed on Hawaiian shores.
Ua lehulehu a manomano ka ‘ikena a ka Hawai‘i. Great and numerous is the knowledge of the Hawaiians.**[31]**
Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth
The Polynesians produced the finest kapa (tapa) barkcloth in ancient times, and the Hawaiians produced the finest kapa in all of Polynesia. Hawaiian kapa had the greatest variety of design and texture, and was made with a fermentation process and second beating that produced a homogenous quality generally free of defects, resulting in a barkcloth superior to kapa made in other locales.
The primary source of fibers for making kapa was the Polynesian-introduced wauke (paper mulberry tree). The long inner bark fibers of māmaki were another source of material for cordage and for making kapa. Kapa beaters (hoahoa and i‘e kuku ho‘ōki) and kapa-beating anvils (kua kuku) were made from numerous native trees, including kāwa‘u, koai‘e, uhiuhi, ‘ōhi‘a lehua, nīoi, kauila and pūkiawe.
Kapa was used to produce dozens of different products integral to early Hawaiian culture, including a great variety of fine clothing items such as long pā‘ū dresses and malo loincloths. Kapa items were colored and scented with dyes and fragrances derived from native and Polynesian-introduced plants, and often stamped with intricate geometric designs found nowhere else in Polynesia. Sap of ‘ulu (breadfruit) was sometimes painted onto kapa to give it a shiny appearance.
Plant materials used to scent kapa included maile, powdered ‘iliahi (sandalwood), and hīnano, the inflorescence (flower cluster) of the male hala tree. The flowers of kamani, valued for their pleasant orange-blossom fragrance, were also used to scent kapa. Dyes for kapa were made from a multitude of native and Polynesian-introduced species, and included the beautiful golden colors of ‘ōlena. A kapa moe (sleep covering) might consist of several layers of kapa sewn together, with the kilohana (upper layer) often beautifully decorated. Pā‘ū (women’s wrap-around skirts), were made of kapa and could be up to ten layers thick. The malo (loin cloth) worn by males was often stamped with two different designs, and then folded lengthwise so that both designs showed. [Illustration/photo: Kapa (tapa) items ]
A pūlo‘ulo‘u (kapa-covered stick) was carried in front of chiefs to signal their kapu (sacred) status, and a puela (triangular kapa strip) was displayed on canoes. The silky pulu (wooly hairs) found on hapu‘u (tree ferns) were used to embalm the deceased ali‘i (royalty) whose bones were preserved by wrapping them in kapa and placing them in a remote hidden cave or heiau (sacred place of worship).
The mashed fruit of the Polynesian-introduced noni (Indian mulberry) was used as a poultice by binding it to the wound with kapa.
Modern attempts to replicate traditional kapa-making techniques have only approximated the high quality kapa produced by the ancient Hawaiians. Rediscovering the traditional methods has given modern crafters a renewed appreciation for this ancient art. [Photographs: Kapa barkcloth with geometric designs; pā‘ū; malo]
Kamehameha’s First Major Battle In 1775, warriors of Hawai‘i Island ruler Kalani‘ōpu‘u battled the warriors of Maui’s ruler, Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili]. Angered by the recent slaughter of his people at Kaupō, Kahekili raised an army led by the famous warrior Kāne‘ōlaelae, and ordered his forces to avenge the attack on his people at Kaupō. A heated battle took place at Kaupō between the warriors of Kalani‘ōpu‘u and Kahekili, and this became known as the Battle of Kalaeoka‘īlio (“The cape of the dog”). Kekūhaupi‘o showed fearless bravery in this battle, and when he was suddenly surrounded my Maui warriors he was rescued by the young warrior chief Kamehameha. Despite the valiant fighting of Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s forces, they were outnumbered and had to flee the battlefield, and the Maui warriors were victorious. Many Hawai‘i Island warriors died in this battle. Those who survived returned to Hawai‘i Island where Kalani‘ōpu‘u again prepared to avenge his defeat by Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili]. The young warrior Kamehameha was displeased at having been ordered to attack the Kaupō people, and told Kalani‘ōpu‘u that such cowardly acts of war would not be supported by the war god. Kahekili was informed of the valiant fighting of the two warriors Kamehameha and Kekūhaupi‘o, and he mentioned to some of his chiefs that perhaps this brave warrior Kamehameha was his son. (Note: Though the father of King Kamehameha is usually listed as Keōuakupuapāikalaninui [Keōuanui], many think Kahekili is indeed the true biological father because Kamehameha’s mother Keku‘iapoiwa had visited Kahekili before the young ali‘i Pai‘ea Kamehameha was born.) Kalani‘ōpu‘u then ordered his most proficient fighters, the 800 warriors of the Chiefly Army of Keawe, to move inland to Wailuku toward the plain of Kama‘oma‘o. There they would confront the Maui warriors of Kahekili who were also supported by the O‘ahu warriors of Kahahana. The Maui and O‘ahu warriors hid at the sand dunes of Waikapū and nearby at a spot seaward of Wailuku, awaiting the arrival of Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s forces, who were soon surrounded. All of Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s Chiefly Army was slain except for two messengers who were left alive so they could bring the news of the slaughter to Kalani‘ōpu‘u. This battle came to be known as ‘Ālapa and Pi‘ipi‘i Heaped Up at Kakanilua, or Battle of the Sand Dunes.
Captain Cook Establishes Western Contact
Christopher Columbus (Cristobal Colón) reached the New World in 1492, Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães) of Spain sailed across the Pacific Ocean in 1519, and French, English, and Dutch ships undertook many voyages of discovery through the early 1700s, yet Westerners still had not found the Hawaiian Islands.
Magellan died during the voyage, but his ship and crew continued on and circumnavigated the globe, completing the journey in 1522. It would take 256 more years before British Captain James Cook finally established the first documented Western contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. (There are undocumented accounts of Spanish galleons reaching the Hawaiian Islands before 1778.)
The crews of Cook’s two ships, the HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first sighted O‘ahu and Kaua‘i in the dawn hours of January 18, 1778. Weather and ocean conditions kept Cook’s ships far offshore until the next day, by which time they had also sighted the island of Ni‘ihau.
When Cook’s ships approached Kaua‘i’s southeast coast on the afternoon of January 19, natives in canoes paddled out to meet them. The Hawaiians traded fish and sweet potatoes for pieces of iron and brass, which were lowered down from the larger ships to the Hawaiians’ canoes—and so began Western contact with the Hawaiian people. Cook’s ships remained offshore sailing along Kaua‘i’s southeast coast. On the morning of January 20, Cook allowed a few Hawaiians to come on board before he continued on in search of safe anchorage. On the afternoon of January 20, 1778 Cook anchored his ships near the mouth of the Waimea River on Kaua‘i’s southwest coast. Cook and twelve armed marines boarded three small boats and went ashore for the first time. As Cook and his men stepped onto land, hundreds of Hawaiians greeted them and offered various gifts including kapa (tapa) barkcloth, pua‘a (pigs), and mai‘a (bananas). Cook went ashore three times the next day, walking inland where he saw Hawaiian hale (houses), heiau (sacred places of worship), and agricultural sites. Cook’s crew estimated the total population of the eight main Hawaiian Islands to be around 400,000, with about 30,000 people living on Kaua‘i. (Note: Pre-contact population estimates vary from less than 300,000 to more than 700,000.) Captain Cook named the islands “The Sandwich Islands” in honor of his patron, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich.
The Death of Captain Cook
British Captain James Cook returned to the Hawaiian Islands one year after first establishing Western contact in 1778. After leaving the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, Cook had journeyed north in search of the elusive (because it was non-existent) “Northwest Passage,” a northwest route from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. On January 17, 1779, Cook sailed into Kealakekua Bay on Hawai‘i Island to restock his ships and prepare for further exploration. [Illustration: Map of Cook’s route to Hawaiian Islands in 1778, and then north, returning to the Hawaiian Islands in 1779.]
Cook was unaware that he was visiting the Islands during the ancient Hawaiian harvest festival known as Makahiki, a Hawaiian period of several months when time is taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility.
When Cook arrived on Hawai‘i Island during the Makahiki festival, he was greeted by processions and celebrations unlike any he had encountered before. Many historians state that Cook was received as the god Lono, fulfilling Hawaiian beliefs that Lono had long ago departed from Kealakekua Bay, promising to return. Others disagree, and accounts vary on whether Cook was indeed thought by the natives to be the god Lono. It is clear, however, that the Hawaiians gave preferential treatment to Cook.
Cook was brought to Hikiau Heiau, a sacred temple where kāhuna (native priests) put sacred red kapa cloth on him and offered sacred chants.
Cook left Kealakekua Bay on February 4, 1779 to survey the other Hawaiian Islands, but when a foremast of the HMS Resolution broke, Cook and his men returned to Kealakekua Bay. When one of Cook’s smaller boats was stolen, he went ashore with nine of his men to retrieve the boat. Cook planned to find the ruler of the island, Kalani‘ōpu‘u, and take him hostage in order to demand the return of the boat for the return of the chief.
On February 14, 1779, Cook and his men awakened Kalani‘ōpu‘u and compelled him to come to the ship. Meanwhile, members of Cook’s crew had blockaded the harbor so no one could escape. When a canoe attempted to pass the blockade, Cook’s crew fired on the natives, killing a chief. Learning that one of their chiefs had been killed, the natives gathered in a large crowd near shore just as Cook’s group reached shore to take their small boat out to the main ship.
During a violent encounter with the native Hawaiians on the shore, Cook and his men fired upon the natives. When Cook’s men paused to reload they were attacked. Cook yelled for his men to “...take to the boats!,” but it was too late—Cook was stabbed in the neck and killed, and floated face down in the water. At least four of Cook’s men were also killed. The rest of Cook’s group escaped, retreating to the main ship and leaving Cook behind along with the other members of his crew that had been killed.
Four marines and an unknown number of native Hawaiians died in the fighting during the following days as hostilities escalated. A stalemate existed over the return of Cook’s remains, which had been taken inland. Eventually a procession of Hawaiians bearing white flags and beating drums returned Cook’s remains wrapped in kapa (tapa) barkcloth and covered by a feather cloak. Within the kapa, however, were only some of Cook’s remains, while the rest remained in the possession of native chiefs.
Cook’s hands and feet had been preserved with pa‘akai (sea salt), and the rest of his flesh had been stripped from his bones and burned. (Note: Current historians note that this stripping and burning of flesh was normally reserved for ali‘i nui (high chiefs)).
Cook’s crew then held a naval burial service. The ship’s cannons were fired in salute, and Cook’s remains were lowered into Kealakekua Bay. Pressure from the British government eventually resulted in Cook’s remains being returned to his homeland. [Photograph: HMS Discovery or HMS Resolution]
The Rise of the Warrior Kamehameha When Hawai‘i Island ruler Kalani‘ōpu‘u met with his chiefs in 1780, he informed them that after he died his oldest son Kīwala‘ō [Kīwala‘ō Kauikeaouli (Kauikeouli)] would be the new ruler, and his son Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula would get land. Kamehameha (Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s nephew) would become chief of Kohala on land that was Kamehameha’s by inheritance, and Kamehameha would be given guardianship of the family’s feathered war god, Kūkā‘ilimoku, along with the responsibility of caring for the heiau (sacred places of worship) associated with the war god. Afterward, Kalani‘ōpu‘u captured an enemy chief of Puna named Imakakola for a human sacrifice ceremony to consolidate his chiefdom. Imakakola was taken to the luakini heiau (where human sacrifices are performed) at Kamā‘oa called Pākini, which was built by Kalani‘ōpu‘u. When Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s son Kīwala‘ō initiated the sacrificial ceremony, Kamehameha boldly stepped in and finished the ritual, placing Imakakola on the altar. This action by Kamehameha caused controversy and led to a rift between Kīwala‘ō and Kamehameha, who then returned to Kohala. Kalani‘ōpu‘u died in April of 1782, and Kīwala‘ō brought the deceased ruler’s bones to Hale-o-Keawe, the Royal Mausoleum at Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau in Kona on Hawai‘i Island. As specified by Kalani‘ōpu‘u before his death, his oldest son, Kīwala‘ō, became the new ruler of Hawai‘i Island, and his other son, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, was given land. Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s nephew, Kamehameha, was given guardianship of the family’s feathered war god, Kūkā‘ilimoku, and also became chief of Kohala on Hawai‘i Island. Kīwala‘ō then redivided the lands of Hawai‘i Island. Chief counselor for Kīwala‘ō at this time was Keawemauhili, who was given large portions of Kona and Hilo. (Spelling clarification: Frazier notes that the spelling “Keawemauhili” more properly reflects the original meaning and symbolism (p. xxiv, Desha, Stephen L., translated by Frazier, Frances N. Kamehameha and his Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 2000), however, the spelling “Keaweama‘uhili” is used by Pūku‘i (Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983), and in other publications.) Kamehameha and Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula were both slighted by Kīwala‘ō’s redivision of lands, which took away from Kamehameha and the Kona chiefs lands that were formerly under their rule.
Kīwala‘ō’s division of lands on Hawai‘i Island angered many important Kona chiefs. When Kīwala‘ō attempted to take control of disputed lands, this caused Kamehameha to unite with the chiefs of Kona, and he soon became their leader. Loyal to Kīwala‘ō were chiefs of Ka‘ū, Puna, and Hilo, including Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s brother, Keawemauhili. Kona chiefs aligned with Kamehameha:
Keaweāheulu—Kamehameha’s uncle.
Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe—Ka‘ahumanu’s father.
Kekūhaupi‘o—Warrior teacher of Kamehameha.
Kala‘imāmahu—Son of Keōuakupuapāikalaninui [Keōuanui] and Kamakaeheikuli; half brother of Kamehameha.
Kawelo‘okalani—Half-brother of Kamehameha.
Keli‘imaika‘i—Brother of Kamehameha.
Kame‘eiamoku and Kamanawa—Sacred royal twins of Kekaulike; sons of Keawepoepoe and Kanoena; uncles of Kamehameha; depicted on the State of Hawai‘i’s official coat of arms.
Chiefs aligned against Kamehameha:
Kīwala‘ō[Kīwala‘ō Kauikeaouli (Kauikeouli)]—Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s oldest son, and heir to his rule of Hawai‘i Island.
Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula—Kīwala‘ō’s younger brother and chief of Puna and Ka‘ū.
Keawemauhili—Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula’s uncle and Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s brother.
The Death of Kīwala‘ō at the Battle of Moku‘ōhai
In 1782, the Battle of Moku‘ōhai was fought in Ke‘ei, Kona. The young warrior Kamehameha led his warriors to victory, and the chief Kīwala‘ō [Kīwala‘ō Kauikeaouli (Kauikeouli)] was killed. When Kīwala‘ō died he was wearing an ‘ahu ‘ula (feathered cloak), which then became the property of Kamehameha. (Note: This feathered cloak is now in the collection of the Bishop Museum.)
One account states that an injured Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe crawled to Kīwala‘ō, who also had been injured, and then Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe slit Kīwala‘ō’s neck with a leiomano (shark-tooth weapon). (Note: Accounts differ on the sequence of events leading to Kīwala‘ō’s death at the Battle of Moku‘ōhai. Another version holds that Kīwala‘ō was stabbed to death, or killed by stones.)
After Kīwala‘ō was killed, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula fled to Ka‘ū and Keawemauhili was captured, but then was allowed to escape, presumably because of his high rank. After the Battle of Moku‘ōhai, Hawai‘i Island was divided into three chiefdoms:
Keawemauhiliruled Hilo and a portion of Puna and Hāmākua.
Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula ruled Ka‘ū and part of Puna.
Kamehameha ruled Kona, Kohala, and northern Hāmākua.
Kamehameha then campaigned for nearly a decade to control the rest of Hawai‘i Island. Kamehameha’s two opponents were: Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula (Kīwala‘ō’s younger brother and chief of Puna and Ka‘ū) and Keawemauhili (Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula’s uncle and Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s brother). Kamehameha also began a military campaign to conquer other Hawaiian Islands.
Games, Rituals, and Celebrations Ancient Hawaiians enjoyed a great variety of pā‘ani (sports and games), many of which were part of more serious rituals and ceremonies. The game of kōnane is similar to the Western game of checkers, and was played using pebbles on a stone or wood surface called a papa kōnane. A traditional loop and ball game was known as pala‘ie. Various hei (string figures) were made using string looped around the fingers. Ancient Hawaiians produced at least 115 of these string figures, and many of the figures were associated with particular chants.
Ancient Hawaiians also engaged in many contests of strength and balance, including uma and pā uma (hand and wrist wrestling), kula‘i wāwae (foot-pushing), kula kula‘i (chest pushing), heihei kūkini (foot races), and hākōkō (wrestling). Ku‘i a lua was a dangerous form of hand-to-hand fighting, sometimes resulting in broken bones.
Pua (arrows, or darts) were sometimes made from stalks of kō (sugarcane) or other plants, and were used in games and contests. The finger-pulling contest in which opponents hooked their fingers together is known as loulou (“to link or hook together”), and the competitors see who can stay hooked the longest. A team tug-of-war game was known as pā‘ume‘ume, and ‘io was a tag game involving foot-racing. (Note: Pā‘ume‘ume is also called hukihuki.)
‘Ulu maika involved rolling stone discs for accuracy and distance. Ho‘olele lupe (flying kites) were made by covering a hau frame with kapa (tapa) barkcloth or plaited lau hala (leaves of hala), and then the kites are flown on a cord made from olonā.
Ancient Hawaiians also practiced kio (mock war games) in anticipation of real battle. They threw ku‘uku‘u (boomerangs) and participated in kākā lā‘au (spear fencing), ‘ō‘ō ihe (spear throwing), and ku‘i a lua (hand-to-hand fighting). Kūpololū involved using pololū (long spears) to pole vault, which was a necessary warrior skill for traversing ravines. Many activities occurred in or near the ocean, including ‘au (swimming) as well as lele kawa, jumping off cliffs into the sea in an attempt to make the least amount of splash. The goal of lele pahū was to make the biggest splash. The sport of kaupua was another ocean challenge, requiring participants to dive deep underwater to retrieve half-ripe ipu (gourds). Ancient Hawaiians also engaged in kaha nalu (body surfing), he‘e nalu (surfing), and heihei wa‘a (canoe racing).
Many ancient Hawaiian games and sports were played during the ancient Hawaiian harvest festival known as Makahiki, which began with the first appearance of the crescent moon following the new moon after the appearance of the constellation Makali‘i (Pleiades) rising in the east after sunset. During the Makahiki festival, time was taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility. He‘e hōlua involved using papa hōlua (wooden sleds) to slide down steep hills or down specially constructed stone ramps. The slides were lined with pili grass (twisted beardgrass) or tassels of kō (sugarcane), allowing the sledders to reach speeds sometimes exceeding 100 miles (161 km) per hour. Children often slid down the steep inclines on the stalks of a mai‘a (banana plants) or on hōlua kī, the leaves of kī (ti). Some contests engaged in during Makahiki were meant to strengthen the participants’ warrior skills.
He he‘e hōlua One who rides a hōlua sled. Said proudly of being a descendant of the chiefly families of Waipi‘o, Hawai‘i, who were well known for their skill in hōlua sledding.[32]
The Battle of Kepaniwai—Kamehameha Invades Maui In 1790, Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili] was the most powerful ali‘i (chief) in the Hawaiian Islands, ruling Maui, Lāna‘i, and Moloka‘i. He was in alliance with his half-brother, Kā‘eokūlani [Kā‘eo], ruler of Kaua‘i, who seized O‘ahu by killing its chief and sacrificing him to his own war god, also killing lesser chiefs of O‘ahu and using their skeletons to construct a house of bones. Fearing conquest of Hawai‘i Island by Kā‘eokūlani and Kahekili, Kamehameha decided to strike first, and landed his troops on Maui to fight against Kalanikūkupule, son of Kahekili. Kamehameha considered it a good omen when the feathers of his war god Kūkā‘ilimoku bristled.
Fighting between the two groups of warriors began in Wailuku, and then proceeded up into ‘Īao Valley where the precipitous cliffs at the head of the valley blocked escape. Kamehameha’s forces had the advantage of superior western weapons (muskets) as well as a cannon manned by the foreigners John Young (‘Olohana) and Isaac Davis (‘Aikake).
In Kamehameha’s victory at ‘Īao Valley, dead bodies from both sides are said to have blocked the river, giving the battle its name, the Battle of Kepaniwai (“Battle of the Water Dam”). The bloody confrontation is also referred to as Ka‘uwa‘upali (“Precipice-clawing”), referring to the fleeing warriors climbing the steep cliffs of ‘Īao Valley as they tried to escape.[33] Facing imminent defeat, Kahekili’s son, Kalanikūpule, fled over a narrow mountain pass along with his high chiefs, and they sailed to O‘ahu where Kahekili began war preparations. Kamehameha’s troops returned to Hawai‘i Island but Kamehameha sailed to Moloka‘i to meet with his chiefs and advisers.
The Olowalu Massacre Pioneering American trader Simon Metcalfe arrived in 1790 in command of the snow Eleanora. After the chief Ka‘ōpūiki stole one of his skiffs, Metcalfe killed more than 100 Hawaiians as retribution. Off the coast of Hawai‘i Island, Metcalfe also punished Chief Kame‘eiamoku by whipping him. Some weeks later, Kame‘eiamoku attacked the Fair American, which was under the command of Metcalfe’s 18-year-old son, Thomas, who was killed along with all of the crew except for Isaac Davis (later known as ‘Aikake), who was left tied to a canoe, half blind and nearly dead. It is said that Davis’ life was spared because of his brave fighting. Simon Metcalfe left his boatswain John Young (later known as ‘Olohana) onshore and sailed away from the Hawaiian Islands without even knowing if his son had been killed. The Fair American was taken over by Kamehameha, and Davis and Young became Kamehameha’s supporters (and advisers), manning large guns from canoes during the invasion of the northern coast of Hawai‘i Island as well as during a later attack on O‘ahu. Davis and Young were later known as ‘Aikake and ‘Olohana. John Young eventually became governor of several Hawaiian Islands and had estates on all the Islands. Isaac Davis (‘Aikake ) eventually became a chief, married a relative of King Kamehameha I, became governor of O‘ahu, and owned estates on O‘ahu, Maui, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i Island. Young’s granddaughter was Queen Emma (1836-1885), the wife of King Kamehameha IV.
The Hawaiian Sandalwood Trade ‘Iliahi, the Hawaiian name for the sandalwood tree, means “fiery surface” and refers to the tree’s reddish blooms and new leaves. Sandalwood trees may be up to 65 feet (20 m) tall, with small leathery, elliptical-shaped leaves that are about 4 inches (10 cm) long with a glossy surface. ‘Iliahi also produces small purple fruits, and the flowers may be green, yellow, pale red, or magenta, growing in clusters that are often pleasantly scented, and sometimes used in lei. Ancient Hawaiians had many uses for the tree, including placing its powdered heartwood between layers of kapa (tapa) barkcloth to impart the sweet fragrance to the cloth. A mixture added to kapa dyes was made by adding ‘iliahi to the oil of niu (coconut palm) heated with hot stones. Sandalwood also had various medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as part of a treatment to sooth the pains of aching joints. The wood of ‘iliahi was used to make various products, including the ‘ūkēkē, a musical instrument comprised of a wooden bow with strings that were strummed while the player’s mouth was used as a resonance chamber, producing a speech-like sound though no noise was made by the player’s vocal cords. The ‘ūkēkē was the only stringed instrument in ancient Hawai‘i.
In 1790, ship captain John Kendrick (c.1740-1794) left two of his crew on the island of Kaua‘i to collect sandalwood. This was a prelude to the sandalwood trade, which began in 1791 when it was discovered that the fragrant wood could be sold for a high price in Canton, China. Extensive sandalwood groves in the mountains of the Hawaiian Islands were harvested and shipped to China where they valued the close-grained fine-smelling wood for making fine furniture, boxes, chests and carvings, as well as perfume and incense. The older trees were the most valued due to their increased fragrance (the scent increases with age).
In 1811, Jonathan and Nathan Winship arrived on the O‘Cain and the Albatross, and took away a load of sandalwood. (Note: Jonathan and Nathan Winship initially arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1806.)
King Kamehameha was pleased with his profits and granted the Winships and Captain William Heath Davis an exclusive ten-year contract for sales of sandalwood on all the Hawaiian Islands except Kaua‘i. (Note: The sandalwood contract was cancelled in 1813 due to the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States.) Between 1810 and 1820, sandalwood sold for about $125/ton, generating more than $3 million. The peak years of the sandalwood trade were from 1810 to 1840, a time that also saw a steadily increasing desire for Western goods in the Islands, and consequently a large debt incurred by the Hawaiian monarchy. By 1821, sandalwood exports totaled about 1,400 tons annually. Chiefs forced maka‘āinana (commoners) to climb high in the mountains to cut down the tall trees. Carrying the wood down from the mountains was hard work, and intensive harvesting of sandalwood occurred at the expense of the lo‘i kalo (taro patches) and other traditional agricultural food production and cultural practices. Sandalwood traders supplied the Hawaiians with furniture, clothes, liquor and other Western goods that increasingly eroded away at traditional native ways of living. As the sandalwood forests of the Hawaiian Islands were logged at a rapid pace to meet China’s growing market, the supply of the valued wood rapidly declined and was eventually exhausted. By 1840, nearly all of the large, marketable sandalwood trees in the Hawaiian Islands had been cut down, ending the sandalwood trade with China. Though the large sandalwood groves of ancient times are gone, smaller trees remain. Currently only one of the four endemic (unique) Hawaiian sandalwood species is listed as endangered. [Photographs: Sandalwood tree; ‘ūkēkē; sandalwood box; and/or other sandalwood items]
Dedication of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau
After the young warrior Kamehameha’s military victory at the Battle of Kepaniwai (see The Battle of Kepaniwai), he sent Ha‘alo‘u (the grandmother of Ka‘ahumanu) to O‘ahu to consult with Kapoukahi, a highly respected kahuna (priest) of Kaua‘i, who was in Waikīkī at the time. Kapoukahi answered the request from Kamehameha for an oracle, telling Kamehameha that he would be victorious over all the Hawaiian Islands only if he built a heiau dedicated to his war god, Kūkā‘ilimoku. This heiau was to be built at Kawaihae on Hawai‘i Island, and named Pu‘ukoholā (“Whale hill”).[34] Kamehameha’s royal architect Kapoukahi traveled from Kaua‘i to assist Kamehameha in the construction and consecration of the massive heiau at Kawaihae.
In the summer of 1791, with construction of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau completed, Kamehameha asked Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, chief of Hawai‘i Island’s Puna and Ka‘ū districts, to attend the dedication of the heiau, telling Keōuakū‘ula his presence was important if there was to be peace between the rivals. Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula and 26 of his chiefs and friends, including the highest chiefs of Ka‘ū, arrived at Kawaihae Bay in two large canoes.
Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was in one of the canoes, and in the other canoe was a young chief named Pauli Ka‘ōleiokū, the son of Kamehameha and Kānekapōlei (the mother of Keōuakuahu‘ula with Kalani‘ōpu‘u). Greeting Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula and his men were Kamehameha’s war canoes arranged in a great crescent shape surrounding Kawaihae Bay to prevent Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula’s escape. Kamehameha’s men onshore had muskets and cannons. As they arrived at the shoreline of Kawaihae Bay, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was killed along with many of his chiefs and other members of his group. Historical accounts of this event by prominent early historians differ considerably on various points. In most but not all accounts, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was killed by Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe, who is said to either have killed Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula with a spear, or put Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula in a lua (fighting) hold and drowned him (said to have been done to keep Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula’s body unmarred for the human sacrifice at the heiau). Another account has Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula killed by a slingstone that was hurled from on shore, hitting Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula in the temple. Also uncertain about this event: whether the killing of Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was ordered by Kamehameha or was done by Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe without Kamehameha’s approval; the number of other chiefs with Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula who were killed; and other significant facts.
After the initial attack on Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, Kamehameha reportedly prevented his men from attacking the people in the other canoe, which included Pauli Ka‘ōleiokū, Kamehameha’s first son. The bodies of the killed chiefs (including Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula) were sacrificed on the altar of the luakini heiau atop the hill at Pu‘ukoholā. With his rival, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, dead, Kamehameha controlled Hawai‘i Island.
Note: Pu‘ukoholā means “Whale hill”[35] according to Pūku‘i, but was later explained by Frazier to instead be spelled Pu‘ukohola (no macron), and meaning “built as the house of the god, a pu‘u [desire] for death and not for life. The death which was to be bound securely within this heiau was in the lagoon (kai kohola) and not in the deep sea nor on land.”[36]
Hele aku ‘oe ma‘ane‘i, he wa‘a kanaka; ho‘i mai ‘oe ma‘ō he wa‘a akua. When you go from here, the canoe will contain men; when you return, it will be a ghostly canoe. Warning to Keouakuahu‘ula by his kahuna not to go to meet Kamehameha at Kawaihae. He went anyway and was killed.[37] George Vancouver Visits the Hawaiian Islands British Captain George Vancouver (1758-1798) had served under Captain Cook on his second Pacific voyage, and was Cook’s midshipman on his third voyage when Cook first found the Hawaiian Islands. Vancouver returned to the Hawaiian Islands on March 5, 1792 in command of the Chatham and the Discovery (not the same ship Captain Cook sailed). Vancouver came to the Islands again in 1793 and 1794, meeting with many important Hawaiian chiefs. Vancouver also introduced sheep, cattle, goats, and geese as well as a variety of seeds and plants including almond and orange trees as well as grapevines. Vancouver hoped that the food products would be raised and cultivated by the Hawaiians and then would later supply food for visiting ships of British seamen.
On February 25, 1794, Vancouver obtained an informal treaty of cession from Kamehameha I. The two men were friends, and Kamehameha sought assurance that the Hawaiian Islands would be under British protection.
Kamehameha received a gift of a British flag (a Union Jack) from Vancouver, and flew the flag for the next 22 years at various places where he lived. It is uncertain what meaning Kamehameha attributed to the flag, however, since the British Parliament never ratified the apparent cession agreement with Vancouver. During Vancouver’s 1794 visit, his carpenters helped Kamehameha construct the 36-foot Britannia, the first foreign-designed ship in the Hawaiian Islands.
The Battle of Nu‘uanu In February of 1795, Kamehameha and his warrior army sailed from Kohala on Hawai‘i Island to Lahaina, Maui to take on food and other provisions, and then sailed to Kaunakakai, Moloka‘i where they prepared to invade O‘ahu. In April of 1795 they set sail from Moloka‘i to invade O‘ahu. Kamehameha had an estimated 960 canoes as well as 20 armed foreign ships, and his troops totaled an estimated 16,000 soldiers, many trained in modern musketry. Also allied with Kamehameha were 16 foreigners, including several manning Kamehameha’s cannons.
Kamehameha’s warriors landed on O‘ahu’s southern shores from Waikīkī to Wai’alae, and then prepared to meet the forces of O‘ahu’s chief Kalanikūpule, an estimated 9,000 warriors arrayed throughout Pū‘iwa and La‘imi, and mauka (toward the mountains) all the way to Luakaha. Kamehameha’s warriors who landed at Wai‘alae marched over the plains of Kaimukī to Mō‘ili‘ili where they joined with the troops marching from Waikīkī. Kamehameha’s united army then proceeded behind Pūowaina (now called Punchbowl Crater) to Nu‘uanu where the warriors confronted the forces of Kalanikūpule, who were also supported by the forces of the chief Ka‘iana‘ahu‘ula [Ka‘iana] who had deserted Kamehameha and joined Kalanikūpule.
The first confrontations occurred at La‘imi and Pū‘iwa, and neither side gained a clear advantage. Kamehameha’s warriors killed Ka‘iana‘ahu‘ula, and the O‘ahu forces were gradually overpowered and retreated up into Nu‘uanu Valley. Many of the fleeing warriors climbed the valley’s sides while others retreated up to Nu‘uanu Pali at the head of the valley.
Fleeing from Kamehameha’s onslaught, some of Kalanikūpule’s warriors escaped over the valley’s ridges and others made it down the trail at the end of the pali (cliff). Those who didn’t escape were confronted by Kamehameha’s soldiers at the edge of the precipice at Nu‘uanu Pali. Many of the O‘ahu warriors were driven over the edge of the cliff at Nu‘uanu Pali, and met their death on the rocks hundreds of feet below. (Note: Historical accounts of the events that occurred at Nu‘uanu Pali vary considerably, and it is possible that some warriors may have jumped off the precipice rather than surrender. The number of soldiers that died at the head of Nu‘uanu Pali is also uncertain, with estimates varying from 300 to more than 2,000. Overall, it is estimated that as many as 10,000 warriors (from both sides) died in the Battle of Nu‘uanu, making the confrontation the deadliest event ever in the Hawaiian Islands, including Pearl Harbor.)
Chief Kalanikūpule escaped from the battlefield and hid in the Ko‘olau mountains. He was captured several months later in the upper Waipi‘o-‘Ewa area, and the defeated chief was killed and presented to Kamehameha, who offered the body as a sacrifice to his war god Kūkā‘ilimoku. This is said to have occurred on the altar called Pu‘ukapa at Moanalua.
The Battle of Nu‘uanu was Kamehameha’s final major military conquest. With his victory, Kamehameha gained control of all of the Hawaiian Islands except Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, furthering his attempt to establish a united Hawaiian Kingdom. King Kamehameha I established a system of government wherein each island had a governor. There was also a Council of Advisers, a Treasurer, and a Prime Minister. Taxes were levied, and could be paid with handicrafts or produce.
King Kamehameha instituted a fee for licensing trade and wharfage, and encouraged the sandalwood trade with foreign ships. He initially ruled from Kawaihae on Hawai‘i Island, then moved the capital to Hilo in 1796. Kamehameha moved the capitol to Lahaina, Maui in 1803 and lived in a red stone house originally built for Queen Ka‘ahumanu. In 1804 the center of government was moved to Honolulu, which had the best available port. [Illustration: Nu‘uanu Pali battle scene]
He aupuni ko Kamehameha. Kamehameha has a government. A warning not to steal. Kamehameha united the islands and made laws that gave everyone peace and safety. Killing and stealing were utterly prohibited.[38]
Parker Ranch In 1815, John Palmer Parker arrived in Waimea, Hawai‘i to kill wild cattle for King Kamehameha I. Kamehameha hired Parker to shoot the cattle, which had proliferated in Waimea due to a kapu (prohibition) placed upon them with the intention of letting the animals multiply after they were brought to the island by George Vancouver. The cattle were killed for their meat, which was salted and sold to visiting ships. The hides were also exported. Parker claimed to have shot well more than 1,000 cattle. Parker later married a Hawaiian princess, the cousin of Kānekapōlei, the wife of the high chief Kalani‘ōpu‘u. Parker began acquiring grazing land and building up a herd of tame cattle, and he also built a sawmill. John Palmer Parker’s son, John Palmer Parker II, continued to increase the size of Parker Ranch. In 1943, 30-year-old Richard Palmer Smart became the sole owner of Parker Ranch, the second largest private ranch in the United States at more than a half million acres.
The Exploits of Georg Anton Schäffer
Georg Anton (Egor Nikoloaevich) Schäffer (1779-1836) was a surgeon in the Russian army, and had built hot air balloons in Moscow in 1812 to observe the movements of Napoleon’s armies. In 1815, the Russian-American Company sent Schäffer to the Hawaiian Islands to retrieve or seek appropriate payment for the cargo of the Behring, which had wrecked on Kaua‘i. When Schäffer first arrived at the end of 1815, he cured King Kamehameha I of a feverish cold, and was given land on O‘ahu. Schäffer then began building a blockhouse on the Honolulu waterfront, causing John Young (‘Olohana) to persuade King Kamehameha to halt the work. (See 1815.) With three Russian ships and their crews, Schäffer then traveled to Kaua‘i where he befriended Kaua‘i’s vassal ruler, Kaumuali‘i. On May 21, 1816, Schäffer enticed Kaumuali‘i to sign a document putting Kaua‘i under the protection of the Russian Czar, Alexander Pavlovich. Schäffer proceeded to build Fort Elizabeth at Waimea, Kaua‘i, naming the fort in honor the consort of the Russian Emperor. Fort Elizabeth overlooked Waimea Bay, with guns positioned to protect the anchorage’s trading vessels. Schäffer also built two forts in Hanalei, Kaua‘i, including Fort Alexander overlooking the mouth of the Hanalei River and Fort Barclay on Hanalei Bay.
Though Schäffer was overstepping his authority, he sought a trade monopoly for Russia, and in return promised Kaumuali‘i independence from King Kamehameha I and conquests of other Hawaiian Islands Kaumuali‘i felt he had a hereditary right to rule. Schäffer in turn would get rights to all of the valuable sandalwood growing on O‘ahu. Kaumuali‘i had ceded the island of Kaua‘i to King Kamehameha I in 1810, however, so the vassal ruler’s agreement with Schäffer was considered treasonous. Nevertheless the Czar’s flag flew over Kaua‘i and Schäffer built two more forts in Hanalei.
When Otto von Kotzebue on the Russian Navy brig Rurik visited the Hawaiian Islands in 1816, he repudiated Schäffer’s acts. In May of 1817, Kaumuali‘i renounced his agreement with Schäffer, who was soon forced to leave the Hawaiian Islands. On July 7, 1817, Schäffer left on the American vessel Panther headed for Macao. In 1821, Schäffer went to Brazil and was made a nobleman by Emperor Dom Pedro I, under the title of Count von Frankenthal.
‘Ōpūkaha‘ia—The First Christian Hawaiian
‘Ōpūkaha‘ia was born in 1792, and was just an infant when his parents and brother were killed at Kaipalaoa on Hawai‘i Island in an encounter known as Nāmakaehā’s Rebellion, the last battle of King Kamehameha I, at Kaipaloa in south Hilo in September of 1796. This conflict was instigated by Nāmakaehā, the cousin of Ka‘iana‘ahu‘ula [Ka‘iana], the half-brother of the high chief Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili].
When Kamehameha’s warriors arrived, Nāmakaehā’s forces were in control of Hilo. A battle ensued at Kaipaloa in south Hilo and ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia’s parents and brother were killed. Nāmakaehā was offered as a sacrifice to Kamehameha’s war god Kūkā‘ilimoku at the heiau at Pi‘ihonua.
After his parents were killed, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia was raised in Nāpō‘opo‘ō on Kealakekua Bay by his kahuna uncle. In 1809, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia left the Hawaiian Islands for New England (Connecticut) on the ship Triumph, under the command of Captain Caleb Brintnall. The ship first went to the Seal Islands in the American northwest, and then stopped in the Hawaiian Islands before going to Canton, China, New York, and finally to New Haven, Connecticut.
‘Ōpūkaha‘ia was influenced by students of Andover Seminary and Yale College, and he became a Christian and took the name Henry Obookiah. He began translating the Bible into Hawaiian and had plans to travel back to the Hawaiian Islands but died of typhus fever in Cornwall, Connecticut on February 17, 1818 at the age of 26. Considered the first Hawaiian convert, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia’s had planned to return to the Hawaiian Islands with the First Company of American missionaries. On July 26, 1993, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia’s remains, which had been buried in Connecticut since 1818, were returned to Hawai‘i Island. On August 15, 1993 the remains were reburied at Kahikolu Cemetery in Nāpō‘opo‘o, South Kona.
The Hawaiian Flag In 1794, Kamehameha I received a gift of a British flag (a Union Jack) from British Captain George Vancouver. (See 1794, February 25.) Before the Hawaiian flag was originated, the Hawaiian people had not used flags in the manner of other nations. The Hawaiians did have the kāhili (royal feather standard), and the puela (triangular kapa strip), which was often carried on canoes. They also had the pūlo‘ulo‘u (kapa-covered stick ), which was carried in front of the chiefs to signal kapu (sacredness). By 1816, a uniquely Hawaiian flag was created, though there is still much uncertainty regarding its exact origins and the intent of its designers, including King Kamehameha I. Alexander Adams is believed to be the one who placed the Union Jack at the upper left corner, inspiring today’s Hawaiian flag. (See 1817.) A January 1, 1862 letter to the editor of the Hawaiian newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a stated: “The Hawaiian flag was designed for King Kamehameha I in the year 1816. As the King desired to send a vessel to China, to sell a cargo of sandal wood, he in company of John Young, Isaac Davis...and Captain Alexander Adams...made this flag for the ship, which was a war vessel called the Forester, carrying 16 guns, and was owned by King Kamehameha I. The flag having been made, the vessel sailed for Macao, China where the flag was not credited nor recognized as a government flag...”[39] The flag flown on the Forester (renamed Kaahumanu) differed from today’s Hawaiian flag in that it did not contain the diagonal cross of St. Patrick, because the British ensign initially included only the cross of St. Andrew and St. George. The diagonal cross of St. Patrick was added in 1801, and soon also appeared on the official flag of the Hawaiian Islands. The eight horizontal stripes of the Hawaiian flag represent the eight main Hawaiian Islands. The colors of the stripes are alternating red, white and blue, with red said to symbolize Hawaiian gods, white symbolizing truth, and blue for the ocean. The flag was used to represent the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, the Republic, the Territory, and finally the State of Hawai‘i. There was originally a ninth stripe (bar), apparently representing the archipelago, but the number of stripes was reduced to eight after statehood. “The national ensign shall consist of eight horizontal stripes, alternating white, red, blue, etc., beginning at the top, having a jack cantoned in the dexter chief angle next to the point of suspension. The jack shall consist of a blue field charge with a compound saltire of alternate tinctures white and red, the white having precedence; a narrow edge of white borders each red side of the saltire. A red cross bordered with white is charged over all. The jack is half the hoist and 7/16 the fly in length. The arms of the red cross with border shall be equal in width to one of the horizontal stripes; the white border shall be one third the width of the red cross.” The Hawaiian Statutes of 1896, Chapter 10[40] [Illustration or Photographs: Hawaiian Flag; British Flag (comparison)]
The Breaking of the Kapu King Kamehameha’s 24-year-old son Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho, took the throne as King Kamehameha II on May 20, 1819. Within months of assuming the throne, the king ate food in public with the dowager queens Ka‘ahumanu and Keōpūolanikauhiakama [Keōpūolani], thus breaking the kapu (prohibition) against men and women eating together. This was known as the ‘Ai Noa. (‘Ai Noa means “to eat freely, without observance of taboos.”) The feast during which the kapu was broken was attended by several foreigners as well as high chiefs. When the defiant act brought no retribution from the gods, eating together was no longer kapu, and this began a process that eroded away at traditional Hawaiian religious beliefs and eventually led to the complete overturning of the traditional kapu system. Many sacred temples were dismantled and abandoned, and idols were burned. Kekuaokalani, the son of King Kamehameha I’s younger brother, Keli‘imaika‘i, rebelled against King Kamehameha II’s abolishment of the eating kapu. Kekuaokalani was the keeper of King Kamehameha I’s renowned war god Kūkā‘ilimoku, and was encouraged to revolt by revered kāhuna (high priests) including Kūāiwa and Holoialena. In 1819, Kekuaokalani fought the forces of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) at the Battle of Kuamo‘o on Hawai‘i Island. Both sides were armed with Western weapons. Kalanimoku led Liholiho’s forces, which were supported by canoe-mounted American swivel guns. Kekuaokalani was killed at Kuamo‘o along with his wife Manono and the kahuna Kūāiwa. The last battles took place at Waimea, and the revolt was defeated. (Note: Warriors who survived these battles were later pardoned by King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho)). Soon after, another rebellion was defeated in Hāmākua.
Wehe ka piko la, e ka hoahānau. Undone is the navel string, O kinsman. A family relation is severed. Said by Keopuolani to Kekuaokalani when she attempted to quell a rebellion, meaning that the tie of kinship between the two cousins, Liholiho and Kekuaokalani, was being severed by the latter’s refusal to be reconciled.”[41]
The Mission Houses On September 15, 1821 a Hale Pule (Christian Meeting House) was dedicated in Honolulu at the future site of Kawaiha‘o Church at the corner of South King and Punchbowl Streets. Hawaiians framed and thatched this original structure, and the missionaries installed imported windows, doors, a pulpit, and a bell. The church was built to hold 300 people. Also built in 1821, near the Christian Meeting House, was the Hale Lā‘au (Frame House), a two-story prefabricated structure that the missionaries brought with them around Cape Horn. The Frame House served as a residence for various missionaries, including Hiram Bingham, Gerrit Judd, and Elisha Loomis (the printer). The other structure still standing from the original Sandwich Islands Mission headquarters is Hale Kamalani, also known as the Chamberlain House. Constructed in 1831, the Chamberlain House was built of coral blocks, and home to the Mission’s business agent, Levi Chamberlain (1792-1849). The Chamberlain House was also was used to store the considerable amount of supplies of the mission. Chamberlain had arrived in the Hawaiian Islands as a lay missionary in 1823, and later helped to found O‘ahu’s Punahou School (originally called Kapunahou). On January 7, 1822, missionary Elisha Loomis used a second hand iron and mahogany Ramage press brought on the Thaddeus to complete the first printing in the North Pacific region at the grass-thatched Hale Pule (Christian Meeting House). Ke‘eaumoku II (Governor Cox) pulled the lever to begin the printing process. In 1823, a new Hale Pa‘i (Printing Office) was constructed of coral blocks and became the home of the Mission Press, which eventually printed millions of pages in the Hawaiian language. Language teachers and translators utilized the lead-type press and were helped by nā kānaka pa‘i (native Hawaiian assistants) such as John Papa ‘I‘i. The first book published in the Islands came off the press in 1823, and was entitled Na Himeni Hawaii (Hymns of Hawai‘i). In the following years, items produced at Hale Pa‘i included books, broadsides, hīmeni (hymns), newspapers, rules, primers, and the first translation of the Bible into the Hawaiian language. Prominent early missionary printers included Elisha Loomis, Stephen Shepard, Edmund Rogers, Lemuel Fuller, and Edwin Oscar Hall. Hale Pa‘i is considered the birthplace of the written Hawaiian language. Today the complex of missionary buildings is known as the Mission Houses Museum, also called Nā Hale Hō‘ike‘ike O Nā Mikanele (“Exhibition House of the Missionaries”). The Mission Houses Museum is located at 553 S. King Street, Honolulu (across from Kawaiaha‘o Church); Phone: 808-531-0481; Open 9 to 4, Tuesday-Saturday; www.lava.net/ormhm/main.htm. The Frame House is the oldest wood frame house in the Hawaiian Islands, and is now restored to reflect its original architecture and decor, including furnishings representing its appearance more than 180 years ago. (Note: In 1841 a coral block structure was added to the Frame House.) [Photograph: Mission Houses Museum]
Humehume and Kaua‘i’s Last Rebellion Prince George Kaumuali‘i, also known as Humehume, was born about 1797 to Kaua‘i’s King Kaumuali‘i and a commoner wife. As a child, Humehume was sent to the United States for an education, but the money given to the boy’s guardian to pay for his education was either squandered or lost. Humehume eventually enlisted in the U.S. Navy and was reportedly wounded during the War of 1812. (Note: Some accounts call into question Humehume’s reported military participation and injury.) Humehume then worked in the Boston Navy Yard and later studied at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut. On May 3, 1820, Humehume returned to Kaua‘i and was reunited with his father after many years apart. In 1824, after Kaumuali‘i passed away on O‘ahu, Humehume challenged the rule of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) with a surprise attack on the fort at Waimea, Kaua‘i. The fort was successfully defended, and Humehume’s troops retreated to nearby Wahiawa and Hanapēpē. King Kamehameha II was away in England at the time of the attack, leaving kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu in charge of the Hawaiian monarchy. In response to Humehume’s rebellion, the well-armed troops of Ka‘ahumanu’s principal counselor Kalanimoku, marched on Hanapēpē and the Wahiawa plains. (Note: Kalanimoku (1768-1827) was also known as Billy Pitt, Kalanimoku was the right hand man, treasurer and principal counselor (kālaimoku) to King Kamehameha I and to later to kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu. Kalanimoku was present at the death of Captain Cook, and took the nickname of “Billy Pitt” after William Pitt, the English Prime Minister; guardian of young Liholiho (the future King Kamehameha II)). Maui’s Governor Hoapili commanded the warriors, which included about 350 Maui soldiers and up to 1,000 soldiers from O‘ahu. Kalanimoku’s warriors easily defeated Humehume’s meager and ill-prepared forces, who were armed only with spears and relatively few muskets. An estimated 50 to 130 of Humehume’s group were killed, including women and children. It was said that many of the dead were left on the battlefield to be eaten by pigs, and thus the event came to be known as ‘Aipua‘a (“Pig eater”[42]). Humehume fled on horseback into the mountains with his wife and child, and was later captured. Ka‘ahumanu replaced virtually all of Kaua‘i’s chiefs with chiefs from O‘ahu and Maui who were loyal to her and to King Kamehameha II.[43] Humehume remained imprisoned on O‘ahu until his death of influenza on May 3, 1826. [Photograph: Humehume]
Kapiolani, by Lord Alfred Tennyson
When from the terrors of Nature a people have fashion’d and worship a Spirit of Evil Blest be the Voice of the Teacher who calls to them, “Set yourselves free!”
Noble the Saxon who hurled at his Idol a valorous weapon in olden England! Great, and greater, and greatest of women, island heroine Kapiolani Clomb the mountain, and flung the berries and dared the Goddess, and freed the people Of Hawa-i-ee!
A people believing that Peelè the Goddess would wallow in fiery riot and revel On Kilauea, Dance in a fountain of flame with her devils or shake with her thunders and shatter her island, Rolling her anger Thro’ blasted valley and flowing forest in blood-red cataracts down to the sea!
Long as the lava-light Glares from the lava-take, Dazing the starlight; Long as the silvery vapor in daylight Over the mountain Floats, will the glory of Kapiolani be mingled with either on Hawa-i-ee.
What said her Priesthood? “Woe to this island if ever a woman should handle or gather the berries of Peelè Accursed were she! And woe to this island if ever a woman should climb to the dwelling of Peelè the Goddess! Accursed were she!”
One from the Sunrise Dawned on His people and slowly before him Vanished shadow-like Gods and Goddesses, None but the terrible Peelè remaining as Kapiolani Ascended her mountain, Baffled her priesthood, Broke the Taboo, Dipt to the crater, Called on the Power adored by the Christian and crying, “I dare her, let Peelè avenge herself!” Into the flame-billows dashed the berries, and drove the demon from Hawa-i-ee.
The Demise of Boki Boki was governor of O‘ahu under King Kamehameha II. His original name was Kamā‘ule‘ule (“The one who faints”), and he was nicknamed Boki after King Kamehameha I’s favorite dog, Poki (“Boss”). (Note: Boki was a fairly common name at the time for dogs.) In the late 1820s, Boki came into conflict with kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu when he resisted the new laws that were passed, and did not enforce them. In May of 1827, Ka‘ahumanu and the Council charged Boki with intemperance, fornication, adultery and misconduct, and fined him and his wife Liliha. Heavily in debt, Boki decided to sail to the South Pacific (New Hebrides) after he received information provided by a visiting Australian ship about a plenteous source of sandalwood. The Kamehameha and the Becket left the Hawaiian Islands on December 2, 1829, carrying Boki and some 500 of his followers. Disaster ensued when the two ships became separated somewhere near the Fiji group, and the Kamehameha perished in a fire apparently started by a smoker who accidentally ignited gunpowder in the ship’s hold. The crew of 250 died, along with Boki. The crew of the Becket was decimated by disease and other mishaps, and finally returned to Honolulu on August 3, 1830 with just 20 survivors.
The Hawaiian Language
Hawaiian is one of about 30 languages comprising the Polynesian language family. The Hawaiian language has a soft, smooth cadence, and a melodic, song-like quality that has been described as spoken music. Linguists note that the Hawaiian language is most similar to the language of the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti and less so to Samoan and Tongan. The Hawaiian language also bears a relationship to languages of the Philippines, Indonesia, Madagascar and Fiji. When Captain Cook first visited the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, Hawaiian was a spoken language but not a written language. Cook’s best linguist expert aboard the Resolution, Surgeon William Anderson, compiled a list of 250 words, writing down as best he could in English what the native Hawaiians were saying. In 1829 missionaries selected a 12-letter alphabet and outlined a structure for the written Hawaiian language. They adopted five vowels (a, e, i, o, and u) and seven consonants (h, k, l, m, n, p, and w). The new written language was modeled after the oral Hawaiian language, attempting to accurately represent the Hawaiian sounds with English letters. The missionary scholars provided some rules for the ordering of words in clauses and phrases. In the Hawaiian language, mood, case, and tense are shown with particles rather than inflection. Typically a sentence will begin with a verb, followed by a subject, object and prepositional phrase. Refinements to the written Hawaiian language were made over the years, and symbols (diacritical marks) were developed to represent stresses and accents. The reverse apostrophe symbol (‘) is called an ‘okina, and represents a “glottal stop,” which is a slight pause similar to the stopping of sound in the English “oh-oh!” A horizontal line above a vowel (e.g., ā), is called a macron, or kahakō, and is used to show long, stressed vowels, or glides.
The number of native speakers of Hawaiian in 1983 was estimated at only about 1,500 people, mostly elder citizens who spoke Hawaiian to each other. In the last decade the number of native speakers has grown substantially as a result of immersion schools, college programs, and mentoring by kūpuna (elders, grandparents), kumu (teachers) and kāhuna (spiritual leaders and experts in particular professions), who share their traditional cultural knowledge with the next generation.
A new generation is now learning the Hawaiian language, keeping the culture alive and perpetuating ancient knowledge and traditions. Today the number of native Hawaiian speakers is estimated to be more than 7,000 people, and most are younger than thirty years old. Music written and sung in the Hawaiian language has also made a popular resurgence.
Ke ho‘i a‘e la ka ‘ōpua i Awalau. The rain clouds are returning to Awalau. Said of a return to the source.[44] Pronunciation: A general guide for pronouncing the vowels in Hawaiian words is to pronounce: a as in about, or above e as in wet, or let i as in sweet, or the y in pity o as in rope, or hole u as in root, or moon
The vowels above are listed as they are pronounced when unstressed. When stressed, they sound much the same, but the “e” is pronounced more like the “ay” in play rather than like the e in wet. There are exceptions to the above rules, especially when vowels are combined with other vowels to form diphthongs. Also, if a w is after an i or an e, it is usually pronounced like a lax v, but after u and o it is usually pronounced like the English w.
The constitution of the State of Hawai‘i recognizes Hawaiian as an official state language, along with English. Most place names in the Islands are Hawaiian words, including names of streets, towns, and buildings as well as mountains, valleys, beaches, and bays.
Ancient Hawaiians named many things around them, including lo‘i kalo (taro patches), heiau (sacred places of worship), fishing sites, and even particular rocks and trees, which sometimes represented ancestors or gods. Today many stores and homes are given Hawaiian names. [Photograph: Hawaiian elders]
Common Hawaiian Words These are the Hawaiian words most often heard and most useful to know for people living in or visiting the Hawaiian Islands.
‘a‘ā rough lava ‘ahi yellowfin tuna (very ono) ahupua‘a natural watershed land division extending from the mountains to the sea ‘āina land, earth akamai smart, clever, knowledgeable ‘alalā Hawaiian crow ali‘i chief, chiefess, royalty of ancient Hawai‘i aloha hello, good bye, love, affection aloha kakahiaka good morning ānuenue rainbow ‘aumakua family or personal god, guardian, ancestral spirit (plural: ‘aumākua) auwē (or aue) expresses wonder, fear pity, scorn, or a groan (e.g., oh dear!) E komo mai! come in, welcome! hālau place for hula instruction, or canoes; group hale house Hana bay, valley hana hou encore, repeat, do again hānai adopted foster child haole formerly any foreigner; now refers primarily to those of Caucasian ancestry hapa haole of mixed blood, part Caucasian, part Hawaiian Hau‘oli Lā Hānau Happy Birthday Hau‘oli Makahiki Hou Happy New Year he‘e nalu surfing, to ride a surfboard heiau sacred temple, ancient Hawaiian place of worship hōkū star Hono- valley or bay (e.g., Honolulu) honu sea turtle honua land, earth ho‘olaule‘a celebration hui group, organization hukilau a group pulling a fishing net (huki) ashore (lau) hula a Hawaiian dance, cultural practice, art form imu an underground earthen-oven using hot rocks; traditional for lū‘au ka the kāhili feather standard used by royalty kahuna spiritual guide, priest, expert in a profession (plural: kāhuna) kai sea kakahiaka morning kalo taro kālua cooked underground, baked (e.g., kālua pig at a lū‘au) kama‘āina native born, (means “child of the land”), also long-time resident kanaka maoli native Hawaiian kāne man or boy, male (Kāne is a Hawaiian god) kapa (tapa) cloth made from bark kapu sacred, forbidden kaukau food keiki child, offspring (also kama) kīpuka vegetation surrounded by lava flow koholā humpback whale kōkua help, assistance komo mai come in, welcome kona leeward side, leeward winds konohiki rights native land or fishing rights ko‘oloau windward kula school; plain, or open country land kuleana responsibility, right, small land parcel ku‘u ipo my sweetheart kumu teacher kupuna ancestor, grandparent, relative lānai porch, balcony, veranda lani sky, heaven lau hala leaf of hala tree, used to weave many items le‘a joy, happiness lei garlands of flowers, seeds, ferns, shells, feathers or other materials liliko‘i passion fruit limu seaweed (many types are edible) lo‘i, lo‘i kalo irrigated taro terrace lōlō crazy, feeble-minded lomi salmon mixed with onions and seasoning lomilomi masseur, masseuse (lomi means “to rub, massage”) lū‘au Hawaiian feast (also means “young taro leaves”) mauna mountain, peak mahalo thank you mahalo nui loa thank you very much mahimahi dolphin fish (not dolphins) mahina moon makai toward the sea mālama to care for, support, preserve malihini newcomer, visitor mana spiritual or divine power, wisdom mana‘o thought, idea, opinion manini stingy manō shark mauka toward the mountains, inland mauna mountain Mele Kalīkimaka Merry Christmas mele song or chant, to sing, merry menehune legendary small race of ancient Hawaiians moana ocean mo‘i king mo‘i wahine queen moku island, islet mu‘umu‘u loose-fitting dress (introduced by missionaries) nai‘a dolphin nalu wave nani pretty, beautiful nēnē native goose, Hawai‘i’s state bird nō ka ‘oi the best! (e.g. Maui nō ka ‘oi—Maui is indeed the best) nui big, large ‘ohana family, extended family—named after the ‘ohā (offshoots) of kalo (taro) ‘okole buttocks ‘ono delicious ‘ō‘ō digging stick, digging implement pāhoehoe smooth, ropy lava pali steep cliff or precipice paniolo Hawaiian cowboy papa he‘e nalu surfboard pau finished, done (pau hana—end of work day, job finished, etc.) pilikia trouble poi taro root pounded into edible paste pono correctness, morality, goodness pua flower, blossom, garden puhi eel puka hole, door, opening pūpū appetizer, hors d‘oeuvre pu‘u hill, mound tūtū grandmother, aunt ‘ukulele small, guitar-like instrument wahine woman wai water, stream, river wikiwiki speedy, hurry, quick
The Twelve Companies of American Missionaries From the 1820s to the 1860s, a steady stream of missionaries arrived in the Hawaiian Islands (then known as the Sandwich Islands), first converting ali‘i (chiefs) and then maka‘āinana (commoners) to Christianity. The First Company of American missionaries arrived on March 31, 1820 on the brig Thaddeus, which left Boston for the Hawaiian Islands on August 31, 1819 under the command of Andrew Blanchard. The missionaries arrived at Kailua-Kona on April 4, 1820, and began their congregational mission work. On April 27, 1823, under the command of Reuben Clasby, the Thames arrived carrying the Second Company of American missionaries. On March 30, 1828, under the command of Richard D. Blinn, the Parthian arrived with the Third Company of American missionaries. Arriving with the Third Company was Gerrit Parmele Judd (1803-1873), a medical doctor who spent a lifetime of service in the Islands, including serving as a minister and adviser of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). In 1845, Judd became the Hawaiian Kingdom’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs. On June 7, 1831, under the command of Avery F. Parker, the New England arrived carrying the Fourth Company of American missionaries. More than 1,100 missionary schools were operating by 1831, with a total enrollment of more than 50,000 students, mostly adults. On May 17, 1832, under the command of Captain Swain, the whale ship Averick arrived carrying the Fifth Company of American missionaries. By the early 1830s, missionaries were running more than 1,000 schools that were educating as many as 50,000 people. In 1833, under the command of Captain Rice, the Mentor arrived carrying the Sixth Company of American missionaries. On board was Reverend John Diell (1808-1841), who later opened the Seamen’s Bethel in Honolulu (1837), and was first chaplain of the American Seamen’s Friend Society.[45] Diell later organized the O‘ahu Bethel Church. On December 5, 1834, under the command of Captain Henry, the Hellespont arrived carrying the Seventh Company of American missionaries. The Hilo Boy’s Boarding School was established in 1836 by missionaries David and Sarah Lyman. On April 9, 1837, under the command of Charles Sumner, the barque Mary Frazier arrived carrying the Eighth Company of American missionaries. From 1838 to 1840, more than 20,000 Hawaiians were converted to Protestantism and became members of the Congregational Church during an evangelical crusade led by Titus Coan (1801-1882). This event later became known as “The Great Revival.” By the 1840s, at least 17 mission stations existed throughout the Hawaiian Islands. On May 21, 1841, under the command of Captain Easterbrook, the Gloucester arrived carrying the Ninth Company of American missionaries. In 1842, Kawaiha‘o Church was dedicated in Honolulu. On September 21, 1842, under the command of Captain Doane, the brig Sarah Abigail arrived carrying the Tenth Company of American missionaries. On July 15, 1844, under the command of Captain Doane, the brig Globe arrived carrying the Eleventh Company of American missionaries. On February 26, 1848, under Captain Hollis, the Twelfth (and final) Company of American missionaries arrived on the bark Samoset.
Hiram Bingham (1789-1869)
Hiram Bingham and his wife Sybil came to the Hawaiian Islands with the First Company of American missionaries in 1820. Bingham preached his first sermon in the Islands on April 25, 1820, and performed the first Christian marriage on August 11, 1822 when he married the missionary youth Thomas Hopu to his bride Delia.
Hiram continued preaching and teaching throughout the Islands for the next two decades, and Hiram and Sybil had seven children. Hiram was particularly influential among the ali‘i (the ruling class) of the native Hawaiians.
Bingham also helped develop the Hawaiian alphabet, assisted in the first translation of the Bible, and was the architect and first pastor of Kawaiaha‘o Church.
(Note: To the left of the front door of the Kawaiaha‘o Church, near the original cornerstone, is a centennial memorial plaque honoring Reverend Hiram Bingham.)
Bingham performed the marriage service of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) and Queen Kalama in 1837. Bingham also helped establish PunahouSchool for missionary children and chiefs’ children (originally called Kapunahou).
The Binghams moved back to New England in 1840 due to Sybil’s poor health, and she passed away that same year. Hiram Bingham later wrote A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands (New York: Sherman Converse; 1847). In 1852, Hiram Bingham married Naomi E. Morse.
Scholars of Hawaiian History
Many early historical writings in the Hawaiian Islands were the product of personal interviews with native Hawaiian elders and were written in the Hawaiian language.
A written Hawaiian language did not exist when Captain Cook and his crew first arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Soon after Western contact a written language was configured and then gradually refined (See The Hawaiian Language), and numerous historical accounts began to be written in the Hawaiian language.
Particularly notable was the voluminous amount of research done by students of Maui’s Lahainaluna Seminary, which was founded in 1831 by American Protestant missionaries as a seminary of advanced education for young Hawaiian men. In 1836, Reverend Lorrin Andrews (1795-1868), head of the Lahainaluna Seminary, published the first significant Hawaiian-English dictionary, which included about 5,700 words and was entitled Vocabulary of Words in the Hawaiian Language. In 1845, the Lahainaluna Seminary Press published the first English-Hawaiian Dictionary, He Hoakakaolelo no na Hualelo Beritania (A Dictionary of English Words), edited by Artemas Bishop (1795-1872) and J. S. Emerson (1800-1867). In 1865, Andrews published a Hawaiian-English Dictionary containing about 15,000 words. Lahainaluna’s history teacher, Reverend Sheldon Dibble (1809-1845), had his students collect oral histories from their own elders and other native Hawaiians. This resulted in the gathering of a great deal of information about the pre-contact past of the Hawaiian Islands. In 1838, Dibble published Ka Moolele Hawaii (Mo‘o ‘ōlelo means “story” or “history.”[46]), a history of the Hawaiian Islands written in the Hawaiian language. The book was translated into English a few years later and then published in the Hawaiian Spectator newspaper. In 1839, Dibble published A History and General Views of the Sandwich Islands Mission (New York: Taylor & Dodd), and then in 1843, History of the Sandwich Islands (Lahaina, Maui: Press of the Mission Seminary). Dibble’s historical reports were developed with the assistance of two particularly prolific Lahainaluna students, David Malo (c.1793-1853) and Samuel Mānaiakalani Kamakau (1815-1876). Malo and Kamakau collected and documented many legends, genealogies, and chants as well as specific details of historical events of pre-contact times. The extensive writings of Malo and Kamakau were originally published in Hawaiian language newspapers in the 1860s and 1870s. Malo’s writings were dated around 1840, but were not published in English until Nathaniel Emerson’s translation entitled Hawaiian Antiquities (Ka Moolele Hawaii), published by the Hawaiian Gazette Company in 1903. Kamakau wrote historical articles for Hawaiian language newspapers Ke Au ‘Oko‘a and Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a, producing more than 200 articles between 1866 and 1871. Samuel Mānaiakalani Kamakau was also a founding member of the Royal Hawaiian Historical Society in 1841, and served in the Legislature from 1851 until his death in 1876. Kamakau’s Ruling Chiefs of Hawai‘i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961) was translated byMary Kawena Pūku‘i (1895-1986) and published by Kamehameha Schools Press in 1961. A second volume of Kamakau’s writings, entitled Ka Po‘e Kahiko: The People of Old (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1964) was translated by Pūku‘i and published by Bishop Museum Press in 1964, 88 years after Kamakau passed away. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1815.) Mary Kawena Pūku‘i also translated articles written by John Papa ‘I‘i (c.1800-1870) for the newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘afrom 1866 to 1870. ‘I‘i had been the personal attendant of Liholiho (the future King Kamehameha II) and also served as a childhood guardian of Princess Victoria Kamāmalu. ‘I‘i was a language advisor to missionary Hiram Bingham (1789-1869) and was appointed to the House of Nobles and Privy Council under King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). ‘I‘i also helped draft the Hawai‘i Constitution of 1852, and was a justice on Hawai‘i’s Supreme Court from 1852 to 1864. Pūku‘i’s translation of ‘I‘i’s writings, were entitled Fragments of Hawaiian History, was edited by Dorothy Barrère and published by Bishop Museum Press in 1959. Zephyrin Kepelino (c.1830-1876), a descendant of the famous Tahitian priest Pā‘ao, wrote at least six Hawaiian-language books in the mid-1800s. The most notable of these texts was entitled Kepelino’s Traditions of Hawaii, published by Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in 1932. The text of Kepelino’s Traditions of Hawaii was translated by Martha W. Beckwith (1871-1959). (Note: According to tradition, sometime before the year A.D. 1200, the Tahitian high priest (kahuna) by the name of Pā‘ao founded a high priest line, known as kahuna nui. Pā‘ao returned to Tahiti and brought back a chief named Pili, who ruled Hawai‘i Island and began a 700-year dynasty, siring the royal line leading to King Kamehameha I.) Another man who had a significant influence on the transcribing of early Hawaiian history was Judge Abraham Fornander (1812-1887). Born in Sweden, Fornander became a Circuit Judge in 1864 and was a member of the King’s Privy Council under King Kamehameha IV. Fornander later conducted extensive interviews with Kepelino and Kamakau, and with the help of native assistants he arranged interviews with many native Hawaiians. Collectively, this information became the basis of Fornander’s An Account of the Polynesian Race. After his death, Fornander’s Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folklore was published by Thomas G. Thrum. Volume II of An Account of the Polynesian Race was republished as Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I (Mutual Press: 1996).
Early Publications
The first published chart of the Hawaiian Islands was included in the 1784 official account of Captain James Cook’s third voyage. In 1788, A Voyage Round the Worldby George Dixon included drawings and written descriptions of the Hawaiian Islands. Memoires du Capitaine Peron sur ses Voyages was published in 1824 by Pierre Francois Peron, including descriptions of King Kamehameha I and the Hawaiian Islands in the late 1700s.
Lord George Anson Byron, who brought the bodies of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) and Queen Kamāmalu back from London on the frigate Blonde in 1825, later published Voyage of H.M.S. “Blonde” to the Sandwich Islands, 1824-25. William Ellis visited the Islands in 1822 and again in 1823, and then published Hawaiian Tour in 1826 and Polynesian Researches, during a Residence of Nearly Six Years in the South Sea Islands in 1830. Ellis had lived in Huahine, Tahiti and studied the language, and was able to communicate well with native Hawaiians in their own language, taking many notes and providing one of the most complete records of early Hawaiian life, including extensive descriptions of Hawaiian history and culture.
The Hawaiian translation of the New Testament was published in 1832, and presented by missionary Hiram Bingham to the kuhina nui and former queen, Ka‘ahumanu, shortly before her death. Also published in 1832 was the Hawaiian translation of the standard New England elementary arithmetic text He Helu Kamalii, and a geography text He Hoikehonua.
OnFebruary 14, 1834, Lahainaluna Seminary began publication of a four-page Hawaiian language weekly, Ka Lama Hawaii (The Hawaiian Luminary), which was the first periodical printed in the North Pacific region (west of the Rockies). Edited by Reverend Lorrin Andrews, the periodical included woodcut illustrations and listed Lahaina ship arrivals. The Honolulu newspaper Kumu Hawaii began publication in 1834, along with the Hawaiian language newspaper Kekumu.
In 1834, Lahainaluna Press published Ke Anahonua, including sections on mathematics, navigation, and land surveying. Also in 1834, the Mission Press published the first Hawaiian Almanac. On July 30, 1836, Nelson Hall and S. D. MacIntosh began publication of the four-page weekly Sandwich Island Gazette and Journal of Commerce, the first English-language newspaper in the Hawaiian Islands, which continued publication until July of 1839. (Note: The Sandwich Island Gazette was also the first weekly English-language newspaper published west of the Rockies.)
The Honolulu Spectator began publication in 1837, and included regular weather record reports written by Dr. Thomas Charles Byde Rooke. In January of 1838, missionaries began printing the Hawaiian Spectator, the North Pacific region’s first literary journal, a quarterly review.
The first complete translation of the Bible into the Hawaiian language was completed on May 10, 1839. Entitled Ka Palapala Hemolele, the Bible was published in three volumes, totaling 2,331 pages. In 1843, Reverend S. C. Damon founded The Friend, a monthly journal that continued to be published for more than 100 years. The Pacific Commercial Advertiser was founded in 1856, initially as a weekly newspaper, becoming a daily newspaper in 1882, and now known as the Honolulu Advertiser. Ka Hoku o ka Pakipika(The Star of the Pacific) became the first independently owned newspaper in 1861 and was produced by native Hawaiians.
The influential Hawaiian language newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a began publication in 1861 and continued until 1927, making it the longest running Hawaiian language paper. Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a was founded by Luther Halsey Gulick.
On September 4, 1866, the Hawaiian Herald became the first daily newspaper in the Hawaiian Islands. The publication was short-lived, however, ending on December 21, 1866. Sanford Dole wrote Synopsis of the Birds of the Hawaiian Islands in 1869. On January 25, 1873, Scottish author Isabella Bird Bishop (1832-1904) began her travels around the Hawaiian Islands, later publishing an illustrated book, The Hawaiian Archipelago: Six Months Among the Palm Groves, Coral Reefs, and Volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands. The first Hawaiian Almanac and Annual was published by Thomas Thrum in 1875. Paradise of the Pacific magazine began publication in 1888, and is now known as Honolulu Magazine. The afternoon newspaper Hawaiian Star began publication in 1893. In 1900, the New China Daily Press became the first Chinese newspaper in the Hawaiian Islands. The Methodist Church of Honolulu began publishing Hanin Sisa (Korean News) in 1905. In 1912, the Japanese language newspaper Hawaii Hochi was begun by Frederick Makino.
The Honolulu Star-Bulletin was formed in 1913 when the Evening Bulletin merged with the Hawaiian Star. The weekly Hawaiian language paper Ke Alakai o Hawaii (Hawai‘i Guide) began publication in 1928.
Kawaiaha‘o Church Kawaiaha‘o Church (originally known as Stone Church) was dedicated on July 21, 1842 in Honolulu at the corner of South King and Punchbowl Streets. Construction on Kawaiaha‘o Church began in 1837 following plans drawn by missionary Reverend Hiram Bingham. The cornerstone of Kawaiaha‘o Church was laid on June 8, 1839, and the church was built in the New England style with Gothic influences. Presiding over the dedication was Reverend Richard Armstrong (Bingham had left due to poor health). More than 1,000 people worked on the construction Kawaiaha‘o Church, using blunt axes to cut coral reef from beneath 10 to 20 feet of water. Approximately 14,000 coral blocks, many weighing more than one ton, were cut from the ocean reef. Canoes were used to carry logs for the church from Ko‘olau Loa in northern O‘ahu to Kāne‘ohe Bay, and then the logs were hauled over the mountain. O‘ahu’s largest church, Kawaiaha‘o was built on the site of a previous church known as the Christian Meeting House, or Hale Pule (pule means “church”). The church’s clock tower was a gift of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). The clock was built in Boston and presented to the church in 1842 by James Hunnewell (and continues to keep accurate time). Kawaiha‘o was the site of the coronation of King Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani) in 1854, and he married Queen Emma there in 1856. Originally known as Stone Church, it was renamed Kawaiha‘o Church in 1862. In 1885 a bigger bell tower was added to Kawaiha‘o Church, and then electricity was installed in 1895. Due to extreme termite damage, a complete reconstruction of all but the coral block walls took place in 1925.
Kawaiaha‘o Church still reserves pews for descendants of Hawaiian royalty. These velvet-lined pews were located at the rear of the church and marked with kāhili, the traditional feather standards that are symbols of Hawaiian royalty. Portraits of Hawaiian royalty and important figures associated with Kawaiaha‘o line the walls along the upper balconies. The church’s spectacular pipe organ dominates the rear upper balcony. The 10:30 a.m. Sunday service at Kawaiaha‘o Church is still said in the Hawaiian language as well as English.
Located just inside the main entrance gate to Kawaiaha‘o Church is the Tomb of King Lunalilo, a substantial memorial that is one of the first cement-block structures in the Islands. Many of early missionaries of the Hawaiian Islands are buried in a cemetery behind Kawaiaha‘o Church. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1821, Sep. 15; 1837; 1843, July 31; 1872, June 11; and Mission Houses, Chapter 12.) [Photographs: Kawaiaha‘o Church; Tomb of King Lunalilo]
French / Catholics On May 30, 1786, the Boussole and the Astrolabe, two 500-ton armed naval frigates under the command of French navigator Count de la Pérouse, arrived at the Maui location now known as La Pérouse Bay (Hawaiian name: Kalepolepo). The Solide became the first French trading ship to come to the Hawaiian Islands in October of 1791 under the command of Etienne Marchand. Under the command of French Navy captain Louis de Freycinet (1779-1842), the French corvette Uranie arrived on August 8, 1819, and Kamā‘ule‘ule (Boki), the future governor of O‘ahu, was baptized aboard the ship. The ship’s draftsman, Jacques Arago (1790-1855), wrote an account of the visit, including numerous illustrations depicting Hawaiian life at the time. Under Captain Plassard, The Comète arrived on July 7, 1827, carrying three Roman Catholic missionaries from Bordeaux France: Alexis Bachelot, Patrick Short, and Abraham Armand. Reverend Alexis Bachelot led the first Catholic Mass in the Hawaiian Islands on July 14 (Bastille Day), 1827. On November 30, 1827, the first baptism of the child of a foreigner in the Islands was performed on a child of Spaniard Francisco de Paula Marín (1774-1837), who served King Kamehameha I in various capacities, including as a physician, adviser, accountant, and supplier of rum. The first Catholic chapel in the Hawaiian Islands opened in 1828 in Honolulu on land granted by King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). In 1829, Protestant convert and kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu ordered that practicing Catholics be punished and sent to the island of Kaho‘olawe, which became a penal colony. In 1831, Ka‘ahumanu expelled from the Island Catholic priests, including Reverends Bachelot and Short, and strongly discouraged believers in the Catholic religion. Reverend Bachelot returned to the Islands in 1837. On December 18, 1837, with the urging of Protestant missionaries, King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) issued an ordinance rejecting the Catholic religion, leading to a controversy with France. The British Royal Navy ship Sulphur arrived in Honolulu on July 8, 1837. The French naval vessel Venus also arrived, and there was controversy regarding Catholic priests in the Islands, resulting in a treaty assuring equal treatment for French residents. On June 7, 1839, King Kamehameha III issued a Declaration of Rights that came to be known as the Hawaiian Magna Carta. The document was a predecessor to the first formal constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1840, and also served as the constitution’s preamble. On June 17, the king issued an Edict of Toleration regarding religious differences, reversing his earlier stance banning the practice and teaching of Catholicism. On July 9, 1839, the French Navy frigate L’Artemise arrived under the command of Cyrille Pierre Theodore Laplace, who was commissioned by the French government to demand rights for French citizens in the Hawaiian Islands, and to “destroy the malevolent impression which you find established to the detriment of the French name...and to make it well understood that it would be to the advantage of the chiefs of those islands of the Ocean to conduct themselves in such a manner as to not incur the wrath of France...if necessary, with all the force that is yours to use, complete reparation for the wrongs which have been committed.” Despite King Kamehameha III’s earlier Edict of Toleration, Laplace threatened war unless his demands were met, including freedom of worship, a site for a Catholic Church, and $20,000 in reparations (which was paid by local merchants). On July 17, King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) and Laplace signed the Convention of 1839, granting numerous protections to French citizens in the Hawaiian Islands. Officials of other countries became alarmed when Laplace made additional demands, and this led to official recognition of Hawaiian independence by France, Great Britain, and the United States. In May of 1840, Bishop Rouchouze, the vicar apostolic of the Pacific, arrived along with three other Catholic priests, including the exiled Father Maigret. Under the protection of the French, a permanent Catholic mission was established in 1840. The first Catholic printing press was established in November of 1841. The French sloop-of-war Embuscade arrived in 1842 under the command of Captain S. Mallet, who wanted assurances that Catholic priests would be allowed to worship and French wines could be imported. By 1843, about 100 Catholic Mission schools operated in the Islands, with about 3,000 students. Our Lady of Peace Cathedral was blessed and dedicated at 1184 Bishop Street in Honolulu on August 15, 1843, to serve Honolulu’s Roman Catholic Diocese. On March 22, 1846, the French naval frigate Virginie arrived under the command of Rear Admiral Hamelin, who repayed the $20,000 demanded by Captain Laplace in 1839. Father Louis Desire Maigret (1804-1882), who first arrived in 1837, was named Vicar Apostolic to the Sandwich Islands (the Hawaiian Islands) in 1846, and he served until his death in 1882. The French Navy frigate Poursuivante and steam-corvette Gassendi arrived off Honolulu in April of 1848 under the command of Rear Admiral Legoarant de Tromelin, who presented ten demands, including equality of worship, and then engaged in reprisals that included taking over government buildings, damaging the fort in Honolulu (see 1815), and seizing the yacht of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli), Tromelin departed ten days later, taking with him Guillaume Patrice Dillon, the French consul whose complaints initiated Tromelin’s actions. Also in 1848, a full-length portrait of Louis Philippe, painted by renowned portraitist Franz-Xavier Winterhalter, arrived as a gift from the ruler of France to King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). The portrait of Louis Philippe is now on display in the ‘Iolani Palace Blue Room. King Kamehameha III signed a secret agreement with the United States in 1851, assuring protection in the event of further French interference. In 1864, Father Damien was ordained a Roman Catholic priest at Honolulu’s Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace, and in 1873 he begins his service on Moloka‘i’s Kalaupapa Peninsula. (See Heroes of Kalaupapa.)
Restoration Day On February 10, 1843, Lord George Paulet of Britain arrived on the frigate Carysfort, and using the threat of military might he demanded a formal “provisional cession” of the Hawaiian Islands to Britain. Paulet’s arrival was prompted by complaints from the British consul in Honolulu of harassment of British subjects in the Islands. King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) acquiesced to Paulet’s demands to avoid bloodshed, and he allowed the British flag to be raised in Honolulu. This occurred at a time when several major countries were attempting to expand their political, military, and economic influence in the world, and the Hawaiian Kingdom was seeking recognition of its independence. On May 10, 1843, King Kamehameha III’s Deputy Minister, Dr. Gerrit Parmele Judd (1803-1873), resigned and brought the public papers of the king to the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna‘ala to keep them from being taken by British naval officers. Judd then used the coffin of the late Queen Ka‘ahumanu as a desk as he wrote appeals to London and Washington for help in resisting the illegal activities of Paulet. On July 31, 1843, the provisional cession of the Hawaiian Islands to Britain was rescinded by Britain’s Admiral Richard Thomas (1777-1851), who was sent by Queen Victoria to restore control of the Hawaiian Islands to King Kamehameha III. The British flag, which had flown over the Islands for five months, was lowered and the Hawaiian flag was raised. Admiral Thomas declared King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) an independent sovereign. July 31 was later proclaimed Restoration Day. On November 28, 1843, Great Britain and France issued a joint declaration, signed in London, formally recognizing the independence of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, referred to at the time as the Sandwich Islands.
Ua mau ke ea o ka ‘āina o ka pono The life of the land is perpetuated (preserved) in righteousness Hawai‘i’s State motto, said by King Kamehameha III in a speech at a Kawaiaha‘o Church service on Restoration Day.
The Whaling Era The whaling era in the Hawaiian Islands began on September 29, 1819 when two New England ships, the Equator and the Balena, became the first whaling ships to arrive. The Equator was captained by Elisha Folger and the Balena was captained by Edmund Gardner. While anchored in Kealakekua Bay, the Balena harpooned a large sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) that yielded more than 100 barrels of oil, beginning Hawai‘i’s whaling era. In 1820, the Nantucket whaling ship Maro, under the command of Joseph Allen, became the first whaling ship to enter Honolulu Harbor. Allen later discovered rich whaling waters off Japan, and soon hundreds of whaling ships headed for the area to exploit the bountiful sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) resource. The Hawaiian Islands, being centrally located between the American west coast and Japan, quickly developed into a major staging area for ships going to and from the newly discovered whaling area. The main Hawaiian ports for the whaling ships were in Honolulu and Lahaina, and thousands of Hawaiians were recruited to work on the ships. In 1822, about 60 whaling ships patrolled Hawaiian waters, and the number continued to grow into a shore-based fishery in the Hawaiian Islands that developed specifically to hunt whales. The Globe, a Nantucket whaling ship under the command of Thomas Worth, arrived in Honolulu on May 1, 1823, and was later involved in whaling history’s worst mutiny, led by Samuel Comstock. More than 100 whaling vessels arrived in 1824. In October of 1825, the Lahaina home of Reverend William Richards was attacked by the crew of the British whaling ship Daniel who were angry at restrictions enacted due to missionary influences. In October of 1827, the sailors of the British whale ship John Palmer, under the command of Captain Elisha Clarke, fired a cannon at a missionary house in Lahaina, Maui due to a conflict between the sailors and the missionaries. In 1828, a total of 159 whaling ships arrived in Hawaiian ports, including 112 in Honolulu and 47 in Lahaina. The whaling industry continued to grow, with a total of 198 whaling ships stopping in Hawaiian ports in 1832, including 118 in Honolulu and 80 in Lahaina, and Honolulu merchant Henry A. Peirce outfitted the Denmark Hill, the first whaling ship to sail under the Hawaiian flag. In 1834, the whaling ship Helvetius wrecked on the reef off Diamond Head with 1,400 barrels of whale oil on board. Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) sent men to assist, and about 500 barrels of oil were salvaged. In the 1840s, several companies in the Islands attempted to hunt local whales. At this time, oil from the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) sold for $1 per gallon, and oil rendered from whale blubber, such as from the humpback whale, sold for 30 cents per gallon. The peak year for whaling ship arrivals at Hawaiian ports was 1846, when at least 596 whaling ships arrived, including at least 429 at Lahaina and 167 at Honolulu. Oil from sperm whales fueled the Industrial Revolution. On November 8, 1852, the death of imprisoned whaler Henry Burns led to a riot by thousands of sailors who set fire to the Honolulu police station. In 1859, 549 whaling ships stopped at Hawaiian ports, and that same year oil was discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania and became the new source of lubricants for industry, marking the end of the heyday of the whaling industry. By this time whales were rapidly disappearing due to over-harvesting.Whaling ship arrivals in 1859 included 249 ships arriving in Honolulu, 116 ships arriving in Lahaina, and 184 ships arriving in other ports. About 600,000 pounds (272,000 kg) of whalebone (baleen) and 775,000 pounds (351,500 kg) of whale oil were transshipped from the Islands in 1868. Before plastic was invented, the baleen was in demand for use in women’s corsets, hoop skirts, umbrellas, and a variety of other products that required strong, flexible material (see Humpback Whales). An early Arctic freeze north of the Bering Strait in 1871 destroyed the North Pacific whaling fleet, including seven Hawai‘i-owned ships.
Humpback whales were near extinction in 1966 when the International Whaling Commission prohibited all hunting of humpback whales in the North Pacific Ocean. (See Humpback Whales.)
Washington Place Washington Place was built in Honolulu on South Beretania Street in 1847 by sea captain and merchant John Dominis, the father of Queen Lili‘uokalani’s husband, John Owen Dominis. The senior Dominis disappeared at sea around 1850, and when John Owen Dominis passed away in 1891 the queen inherited Washington Place and lived there until she died in 1917. In 1921, due to the political efforts of Prince Kūhiō, the Territory of Hawai’i purchased the stately Washington Place and began using it as a governor’s mansion. Renovations took place in 1922, 1925, and 1953. In 1973 Washington Place was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. Washington Place is now a museum with historical exhibits primarily dedicated to telling the story of Queen Lili‘uokalani and displaying the queen’s personal effects, important personal papers, and historical documents. Washington Place also continues to be used as a public reception area.
Heroes of Kalaupapa—Father Damien and Mother Marianne In 1865, the first victims of Hansen’s disease (leprosy) in the Hawaiian Islands arrived at Kalawao on Moloka‘i’s Kalaupapa Peninsula, beginning the practice of segregating patients at the remote site. Hansen’s disease is caused by the slow-growing bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. Over the following decades, nearly 9,000 Hansen’s disease patients were quarantined at Kalaupapa. Kalaupapa Peninsula is located along Moloka‘i’s north-central coast, and is surrounded on three sides by ocean and on the other side by cliffs rising up 2,000 to 3,000 feet. The area is accessible only by boat, airplane, foot, or mule. The trail into Kalaupapa descends about 1,600 feet (500 m) and includes 26 switchback turns. The peninsula’s many archaeological sites attest to the fact that Kalaupapa was an important place in ancient Hawai‘i, and well populated before Captain Cook established Western contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. In 1873, the Belgian priest known as Father Damien (Joseph Damien DeVeuster) volunteered to minister to the needy at the Kalaupapa leper colony. In 1874, Father Damien built Our Lady of Sorrows Catholic Church at Kalua‘aha, Moloka‘i on the site of Moloka‘i’s first Christian mission. Serving tirelessly to help the residents of Kalaupapa, Father Damien died there of leprosy 16 years later, in 1889. In 1936, the body of Father Damien was exhumed on Moloka‘i and sent to Belgium. Bones from Father Damien’s hand were reinterred on Moloka‘i. Today Father Damien’s spirit lives on as one of Hawai‘i’s beloved heroes. Referred to as the “Martyr of Moloka‘i,” Father Damien is immortalized in a statue that faces Beretania St. on O‘ahu, in front of the State Capitol Building, and another statue in Washington D.C.’s National Statuary Hall. Pope John Paul II beatified Father Damien on June 4, 1995 in Brussels, Belgium, bringing the priest one step closer to sainthood. Roman Catholic nun Mother Marianne Cope was another selfless and dedicated servant who ministered to the leprosy patients of Kalaupapa. Born in Germany as Barbara Koob, she took the name Marianne upon joining the Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis in New York in 1862. Mother Marianne later volunteered to minister to leprosy patients in Honolulu, and then moved to Kalaupapa in 1888 to supervise a new girls’ home for Hansen’s disease patients. Later she also ran a home for boys. At Kalaupapa, Mother Marianne first worked alongside Father Damien, and then continued working at Kalaupapa for decades after Damien’s passing. She ministered to the needy for a total of 30 years until she passed away in 1918 at the age of 80. Mother Marianne was known for her uplifting attitude. She helped the patients in many small but meaningful ways such as planting flowers and trees, organizing picnics, sewing clothes for the residents, and playing piano so they could sing along. Mother Marianne also founded Maui’s first hospital, now known as Maui Memorial Hospital. King Kalākaua honored Mother Marianne with royal decorations, and famed author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote of her. In January of 2004, the Vatican’s Congregation for the Causes of Saints affirmed Mother Marianne’s “heroic virtue,” which was a step toward canonization and sainthood. Mother Marianne’s bones were exhumed in January of 2005 so they could be enshrined in the headquarters of the Sisters of St. Francis in Syracuse, New York. Also in 2005, Mother Marianne was beatified, the last formal step before sainthood. [Photographs: Father Damien; Mother Marianne]
[Sidebar] Mark Twain in the Sandwich Islands Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910), a Missouri-born, California newspaper correspondent and former riverboat pilot going by the pseudonym Mark Twain, arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on March 18, 1866 aboard the steamer Ajax. Sporting a Wild West moustache and auburn hair, Twain was on assignment to write a series of travel letters about the whaling and sugarcane industries in the Islands. He writes about everything from government corruption to social life to volcanoes, and calls the Hawaiian Islands the “Isles of the Blest.” After returning to California Mark Twain began a novel about the Hawaiian Islands, which he later abandoned, though it is said the book became a model for A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court. Twain visited Maui’s ‘Īao Needle, (Kūkaemoku), the summit of Haleakalā, the site of Captain Cook’s death at Kealakekua Bay, and Kīlauea Volcano where he stayed at the Volcano House. Of the volcano Twain noted, “Vesuvius is a soupkettle compared to this.” Twain later wrote of the Islands: “No alien land in all the world has any deep strong charm for me but that one; no other land could so longingly and so beseechingly haunt me, sleeping and waking, through half a lifetime, as that one has done.” Twain’s writings about the Hawaiian Islands are included in the travelogue Roughing It as well as the newspaper articles he wrote in 1866 and some speeches, lectures, and personal letters.
King Kamehameha Day—Henry Berger and the Royal Hawaiian Band A royal proclamation in 1872 by King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha) declared June 11 a Hawaiian national holiday in honor of King Kamehameha I. Originally known as Commemoration Day, the holiday later became known as King Kamehameha Day. On June 11, 1872, the Royal Hawaiian Band gave its first concert under the lead of Heinrich “Henry” Berger (1844-1929), who was brought from Germany to lead the band. Henry Berger attended the Berlin Conservatory of Music before he was picked by German leader Wilhelm I, for King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha), to become the Hawaiian Kingdom’s bandmaster. Berger held the bandmaster post for 43 years, giving more than 9,000 concerts including several United States Mainland tours with the band, increasing the popularity of Hawaiian music. Berger also authored the music of Hawai‘i’s State song, Hawai‘i Pono‘ī; the words were written by King Kalākaua. Berger was an organist at Kawaiaha‘o Church, and assisted Queen Lili‘uokalani in the writing of the well-known song, Aloha ‘Oe.
Ali‘iōlani Hale In 1874, construction was completed on Ali‘iōlani Hale at 417 South King Street in Honolulu. The two-story building was initially planned as a palace for King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha). King Kamehameha V laid the cornerstone for Ali‘iōlani Hale on February 19, 1872. Ali‘iōlani was one of the names of King Kamehameha V, and is thought to be a contraction of Ali‘i-iō-lani, which means “Chief unto heavens” referring to the heavenly nature of Hawaiian royalty. Another interpretation of the name Ali‘iōlani Hale, is “House of Heavenly Kings.” Ali‘iōlani Hale became the new seat of the Hawaiian government after the Honolulu Courthouse was extensively damaged in a riot by supporters of Queen Emma, who had asserted a claim to the throne but lost the election to King Kalākaua. Built with concrete blocks, Ali‘iōlani Hale was the first major Western-style building constructed by the Hawaiian monarchy. The concrete block construction used to build Ali‘iōlani Hale was pioneered in the Hawaiian Islands. Designed by architects Thomas Rowe and Robert Stirling in the Renaissance Revival style, Ali‘iōlani Hale is notable for its distinctive four-story clock tower. Ali‘iōlani Hale housed the Supreme Court, Legislature, and House of Nobles, and the old Honolulu Courthouse became the main office for American Factors Ltd. (Amfac), a “Big Five” company. On November 8, 1875, the National Museum opened in Ali‘iōlani Hale, and the museum’s first supervisor was Charles Reed Bishop. The museum’s collection included many royal artifacts that were later transferred to the collection of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum. In January of 1893 after the overthrow of the monarchy, Ali‘iōlani Hale was the site of the announcement by Sanford Ballard Dole that a Provisional Government had been formed.
The Provisional Government renamed Ali‘iōlani Hale the “Court House,” though it came to be known as the “Judiciary Building” and has been used for that purpose ever since that time. The House of Representatives and the House of Nobles met there until 1896 when they moved to ‘Iolani Palace, which they renamed “The Executive Building.” In 1911, Ali‘iōlani Hale was in disrepair due to termite damage, and was set on fire so only the exterior walls remained. Architects Ripley and Reynolds designed a new floor plan, including a rotunda and double staircase. A new wing on Ali‘iōlani Hale was completed in 1944, and a second story was added to the new wing in 1949. Refurbishments/renovations took place in 1965, 1972, and 1978. Ali‘iōlani Hale is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Today Ali‘iōlani Hale includes the King Kamehameha V—Judiciary History Center of Hawai‘i, (founded in 1989), which provides educational exhibits about Hawai‘i’s judicial processes. In front of Ali‘iōlani Hale is a statue of King Kamehameha I. Ali‘iōlani Hale Judiciary History Center: phone-808-539-4999; website: Jhchawaii.org; open free to general public for self-guided tours, Mon.-Fri., 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. [Photograph: Ali‘iōlani Hale]
‘Iolani Palace
The cornerstone for ‘IolaniPalace was laid on December 31, 1879 in midtown Honolulu at King and Richards Streets. A project of King Kalākaua, ‘Iolani means “Hawk of heaven,” or “Royal hawk,” referring to the flight of the ‘io (Hawaiian hawk), considered a sign of royalty.
‘Iolani Palace was built near the site of the earlier royal palace, called Hale Ali‘i, which was built by Mataio Kekūanaō‘a for his daughter, Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, and given to King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) in 1845 when the king moved his court to Honolulu from Lahaina.
Hale Ali‘i was named ‘Iolani in 1863 at the request of King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha), who chose the name “‘Iolani” to honor his deceased brother Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani (King Kamehameha IV). ‘Iolani is also the name of a sacred hawk of Hawaiian mythology.
Some of the stones used in the foundation of ‘Iolani Palace were brought from Kūki‘i Heiau in Puna on Hawai‘i Island, which was built by ‘Umi, a Hawai‘i Island chief, around A.D. 1500.
A project of King Kalākaua, ‘IolaniPalace was completed in 1882. Measuring 140 long and 100 feet wide, the palace cost nearly $360,000 to build. The building’s architectural style was said by newspapers of the day to be “American Florentine.” The architectural style was also called “American Composite.”
‘IolaniPalace was the royal palace of the Hawaiian monarchy for King Kalākaua and Queen Kapi‘olani from 1882 to 1891. ‘Iolani Palace served as the royal palace for Queen Lili‘uokalani until the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893.
At least four years before the United States’ White House installed electricity, the original gas lamps in ‘Iolani Palace were replaced with electric lights. King Kalākaua was very interested in new technology, and once met Thomas Edison.
Electric lights were installed at ‘IolaniPalace on July 21, 1886. Five lamps in all are installed, including one at the Palace, one at the gate to the Palace on Richards Street, two on King Street, and one at the Government Building. Within two years Honolulu’s streetlights, which were formerly gasoline lamps, are also replaced with electric lights.
‘Iolani Palace was also ahead of its time in other ways, including flushing toilets and bidets, hot and cold running water, copper-lined tubs and other amenities. Beautifully crafted native and Polynesian-introduced woods such as koa, kou, kamani, and ‘ōhi‘a lehua were used throughout the interior along with other fine hardwoods.
The main floor of ‘IolaniPalace was used for formal functions, the royal family resided on the second floor, and the basement housed the Palace kitchen as well as all the wines, food, silver, and other materials to supply the lavish social events held at the Palace.
A dumbwaiter transported royal meals up to the first and second floors. The basement had rooms to house more than 40 servants, and a room for the kāhili, the feather standards that were symbols of Hawaiian royalty.
(Note: Many of these kāhili are now on display in the basement of ‘Iolani Palace, along with other precious cultural artifacts. The kitchen is also beautifully restored to authentically represent the era of the monarchy.)
Steeped with history as a royal palace, ‘Iolani Palace also served for seven months as the prison chamber of Queen Lili‘uokalani after the overthrow of the monarchy. The Palace was then used as the capitol building of the Republic of Hawai‘i (1893-1900), the Territory of Hawai‘i (1900-1959), and the State of Hawai‘i (1960-1969), and was known as the ExecutiveBuilding.
Many valuable items were taken from ‘Iolani Palace by those involved in the overthrow of the monarchy, and much of the Palace furniture was sold between 1895 and 1903 in public auctions. The Throne Room was used for meetings of the House of Representatives, and the State Dining Room was used as the Senate Chambers.
The Minister of Finance used the Blue Room, where heavy safes were installed, while the Minister of Foreign Affairs used the Gold Room, and the Attorney General used Queen Kapi‘olani’s Bedroom.
The Secretary of the Territory used the room now known as Queen Lili‘uokalani’s Prison Chamber, which later housed the Lieutenant Governor of the State of Hawai‘i.
In great disrepair, the Palace underwent extensive renovations beginning in 1969, and was opened as a museum in 1978. ‘Iolani Palace is located at King and Richards Streets in Honolulu; phone: 808-522-0832; internet site: www.alike.lcc.hawaii.edu/openstudio/iolani; guided tours offered to the public from 9 to 2:15, Tuesday to Saturday; gallery 9-4. The non-profit organization Friends of ‘Iolani Palace now runs the Palace as a museum, offering guided tours of the United States’ only royal palace.
The Legend of Pele Pele, the legendary goddess of fire and volcanoes, is the daughter of Wākea, the Sky Father, and Papa (Haumea), the Earth Mother. Pele is a creator of mountains and islands, including the Hawaiian Islands. She is also a destroyer and a burner of lands. Pele is able to assume different forms, and said to be akua kino lau “...because of her ability to change into a child, a beautiful maiden, a plain matron, or a very old woman.”[47] According to legend, Pele protects her sacred fires today in Halema‘uma‘u Crater at the summit of Kīlauea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island. Halema‘uma‘u means “House surrounded by the ‘ama‘u fern,” referring to the ferns that surround the volcanic crater. These ferns are said to be the embodiment of the demi-god Kamapua‘a, who pursued Pele’s love but was rejected. The battle between Pele and her sister continues today on Hawai‘i Island’s southeast coast where the lava meets the sea in fiery explosions. In ancient Hawai‘i, the fruiting branches of the native ‘ōhelo were thrown into Kīlauea Volcano as an offering to Pele. Another plant considered sacred to the goddess of fire and volcanoes was ‘ōhi‘a lehua. Pele is said to be found everywhere that fire comes up through the earth to light the sky. Wherever the ground is hot and steam hisses up from cracks in the earth, wherever the incandescent glow of molten rock and the smell of sulfur fill the air, and wherever lava erupts in fiery fountains into the sky, “...‘ae aia la ‘o Pele”—“...there is Pele.” [Illustration: Pele]
Public Transportation
Public transit in the Hawaiian Islands began in 1868 when horse-drawn carts operated by the Spring Pioneer Omnibus Line went into operation in Honolulu. The first streetcar in Honolulu was a mule-drawn tram operated by Hawaiian Tramways, Ltd. beginning in 1888. Benjamin Franklin Dillingham formed the Oahu Railway & Land Company in 1888, and the first train ran on September 4, 1889. With the permission of King Kalākaua, the first 9 miles (14.5 km) of track opened on November 16, 1889 (King Kalākaua’s 53rd birthday) when about 4,000 Hawaiian residents enjoyed free rides. The opening of the railroad has a significant influence on generating land sales and helping the sugar and pineapple industries.
Hawaiian Tramways, Ltd. was taken over by the Honolulu Rapid Transit & Land Company in 1903. By 1889, 12 miles (19 km) of track were laid on four routes: Nu‘uanu, Beretania, King Street, and Waikīkī. An electric trolley (tram line) was put into operation in Honolulu in 1900, replacing horse-driven and mule-driven tram cars. Operated by Pacific Heights Electric Railway Company, Ltd., the electric streetcars were open-sided, carrying 30 passengers and initially running between Pacific Heights and upper Nu‘uanu Avenue. Waikīkī’s horse-driven tram cars were replaced by an electric trolley (tram line) in 1902, connecting Waikīkī and downtown Honolulu. Railroad use in the Hawaiian Islands peaks in the 1900s with seven major railroads running on about 160 miles (257 km) of track. Oahu Railway and Land Company’s “narrow gauge” line with its double-track main line was one of the most advanced rail systems, including Mikado locomotives and automatic block signals. The rails were mostly used to carry sugar and pineapple as well as construction materials. During World War II the rails carry significant amounts of military personnel as well as civilians. The Honolulu Rapid Transit & Land Company began offering bus service in Honolulu in 1915 using locally built buses. American Car & Foundry buses were purchased from the United States Mainland in 1928. The last electric trolley ran in Honolulu in 1933 when buses became the predominant mode of public transit. The 1946 tsunami dealt the final blow to the Oahu Railway & Land rails when large sections of track were destroyed. Labor strikes also led to a decline in freight.
The Coronation Pavilion
On the grounds of ‘Iolani Palace is the Coronation Pavilion, an octagonal, copper-domed structure with eight tapered columns. The Pavilion was built for the coronation ceremony of King Kalākaua and Queen Kapi‘olani, which took place on February 12, 1883.
Two weeks of festivities included a grand lū‘au, parades, gun salutes, fireworks and formal receptions. The ceremony included the unveiling of the statue of King Kamehameha I in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale across the street from ‘Iolani Palace.
The Coronation Pavilion was also used for King Kalākaua’s 50th birthday jubilee, which took place in November of 1886. The Coronation Pavilion, is now used for inaugurations of Governors of the State of Hawai‘i, as well as for concerts by the Royal Hawaiian Band.
The Coronation Pavilion, also known as Keli‘iponi Hale, was originally closer to the ‘Iolani Palace, near the steps on the King Street side and connected by a bridge to the first floor veranda. The Pavilion was later moved to its current location a bit farther from ‘Iolani Palace (near the King-Richards Street corner).
In the early 1900s a concrete basement was added, and concrete columns and balustrades replaced what had been delicate woodwork. During World War II the Pavilion was used as a bomb shelter.
Statue of King Kamehameha I As part of the 1883 coronation of King Kalākaua at ‘Iolani Palace, a statue of King Kamehameha I was unveiled across the street in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale, the judiciary building opposite ‘Iolani Palace. The Honolulu statue of King Kamehameha I is located at 417 South King Street in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale. Now an O‘ahu landmark, the King Kamehameha I statue is about 8½ feet (2.6 m) tall and shows the warrior king holding an ihe (spear), and wearing a mahiole (feather-crested helmet), ‘ahu ‘ula (royal feather cloak), malo (loin cloth), and kāma‘a‘ie (braided sandals). The statue is said to represent King Kamehameha I at the age of about 45.
King Kamehameha I remains the most renowned and revered warrior and ruler of the Hawaiian Islands. He was responsible for uniting the Hawaiian Islands under one rule and establishing the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, which lasted until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893. Every June 11, on King Kamehameha Day, the king’s statue is draped with many different lei, some more than 26 feet (8 m) long.
The statue is a replica of the original nine-ton statue cast by American sculptor Thomas Gould in Italy in 1883, which was based on an early engraving. That statue was lost in transport to the Hawaiian Islands, but then recovered in the Falkland Islands soon after a duplicate statue arrived in Honolulu.
The original King Kamehameha statue is now on Hawai‘i Island where it stands in front of the NorthKohalaCivicCenter in Kapa‘au, near Kamehameha’s birthplace.
‘Oni kalalea ke ku a ka lā‘au loa. A tall tree stands above the others. Said of a person of outstanding achievements.[48] [Photograph: King Kamehameha I with Ali‘iōlani Hale in background]
The Bayonet Constitution In 1887,a political organization of American merchants called the Hawaiian League instigated the Bayonet Constitution, which was drafted by Kalākaua’s Minister of Interior, Lorrin A. Thurston. The League’s membership included Sanford Ballard Dole. The Hawaiian League considered King Kalākaua to be corrupt. When King Kalākaua’s government sold its opium monopoly to a Chinese interest, the American’s tried to restrict King Kalākaua’s power. Holding a mass meeting, the League demanded the dismissal of Kalākaua’s Cabinet, including premier Walter Murray Gibson, and also insisted that Kalākaua sign a new constitution. A radical faction of the League wanted to march to ‘Iolani Palace with guns and annex the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, but Dole and the majority only wished to limit King Kalākaua’s monarchical powers. King Kalākaua soon signed a new constitution, which was later given the nickname “The Bayonet Constitution,” implying the document was signed at gunpoint. Accounts vary on the actual threats that were wielded against the king to force him to attach his signature to the new constitution, but the effects of the new document included drastic changes that severely curtailed Kalākaua’s power, and ended 23 years of rule under the previous constitution of King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha). One result of the Bayonet Constitution was that a vote of the Legislature became necessary to replace Cabinet members. The constitution also allowed nobles to be elected by those who owned large amounts of land, and this significantly reduced the power of Asians and native Hawaiians. The constitution allowed the Legislature to override the king’s veto, and extended voting rights to all Europeans and Americans who would take an oath to support the new constitution.
One view of these events attributes the new constitution to mercantile, commercial and industrial interests, including the Chamber of Commerce, sugar planters, and missionary store workers who banded together with the aim of abrogating the monarchy, declaring the Hawaiian Islands a Republic, and annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States.
Politically known as the “down-town party,” they sought to reduce King Kalākaua’s sovereign power. Another view emphasizes the corruption said to be taking place among Kalākaua’s Cabinet at the time, particularly by his premier and minister of foreign affairs, Walter Murray Gibson.
KamehamehaSchools and Bishop Museum Princess Pauahi and Charles Reed Bishop
Princess Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop (1831-1884) was the great granddaughter of King Kamehameha I, and the monarch’s last direct descendant.
Princess Pauahi was said to have once been engaged to the young Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha before he became King Kamehameha V, but instead she chose to marry Charles Reed Bishop. They wed on June 4, 1850 and lived in their Honolulu home called Haleakalā, located near King and Bishop Streets, and built by Princess Pauahi’s father in 1847.
Just an hour before King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha) passed away on December 11, 1872, he offered to name Princess Pauahi as his successor, but she declined. Princess Pauahi traveled to England in 1876 with her husband, and the couple was presented at Queen Victoria’s Court. They were later received by Pope Pius IX in Rome.
When Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani died in 1883, her will bequeathed to Princess Pauahi her elaborate mansion, Keōua Hale, located on Emma Street in Honolulu, as well as approximately 353,000 acres (143,000 ha) of Kamehameha lands, totaling nearly nine percent of all land in the Islands.
In 1885, Princess Pauahi inherited Haleakalā from her parents, Abner Pākī and Konia [Laura Konia]. Princess Pauahi also inherited approximately 25,000 acres (10,117 ha) of land from her parents and her aunt, ‘Akāhi.
When Princess Pauahi died in 1884, her will left 434,000 acres (175,634 ha) of land in perpetual trust to assist in the establishment of two schools in the Kamehameha name. Under the terms of the endowment of benefactor Princess Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop, Kamehameha School for Boys opened in Honolulu on October 4, 1887, and then Kamehameha School for Girls opened on December 19, 1894.
Today the Bishop Estate, officially renamed Kamehameha Schools, continues to operate Kamehameha Schools, including the 600-acre (243-ha) Kapālama campus in Honolulu as well as smaller campuses on Maui and Hawai‘i Island. The Estate has vast land holdings and investments worth nearly $7 billion, and educates more than 51,000 students annually on three campuses as well as through charter schools, community outreach programs, and in 28 preschools. Charles Reed Bishop (1822-1915) was born in Glen Falls, New York on January 25, 1822. Orphaned as a child and raised by his grandparents, Charles attended Glen Falls Academy through the eighth grade, working on his grandparents’ farm and at various jobs in New York. At age 24, he sailed around Cape Horn bound for Oregon, and then stayed in the Islands when the ship stopped to take on provisions. Bishop first posted books for the government and then in 1849 became Honolulu’s Collector General of Customs.
Bishop later opened a mercantile business with A.W. Aldrich, forming the firm of Aldrich and Bishop in 1858. They initially worked out of an office on the Honolulu waterfront, and the company later became the Bank of Bishop & Co. Ltd. Much of the bank’s initial business involved loans to companies involved in the whaling and sugar industries.
The Bank of Bishop & Co. later the bank did significant business with the “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke, which dominated the sugarcane industry in the Hawaiian Islands.
Charles Reed Bishop served on the Board of Education under King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha), King Lunalilo, and King Kalākaua,and then belonged to the Privy Council of Queen Lili‘uokalani. Bishop was also known for his philanthropy, serving on the boards of various charities and contributing generously to many needy causes.
After Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop passed away in 1884, her husband played a large role in carrying out the wishes stated in his wife’s will, which included the establishment of Kamehameha Schools.
Charles Reed Bishop contributed much of his own money to help construct the first school buildings at the original Kalihi location on O‘ahu, including the Preparatory Department facilities constructed in 1888, as well as Bishop Hall constructed in 1891. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Memorial Chapel was built in 1897.
To honor his wife, Charles Reed Bishop founded the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu in 1889, constructing Polynesian Hall and Hawaiian Hall on the same site as Kamehameha School. The school was relocated in the 1960s and Bishop Hall became part of the Bishop Museum, which was established to complement the Hawaiian education being provided for the students at Kamehameha Schools.
The Bishop Museum’s collection materials initially came from three prominent women who passed away in the mid-1880s: Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani, the granddaughter of King Kamehameha I; Princess Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop, the great-granddaughter of King Kamehameha I; and Queen Emma, the wife of King Kamehameha IV.
When Charles Reed Bishop passed away in 1915, his ashes were interred in Nu‘uanu, O‘ahu next to his wife in the Kamehameha Tomb at the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna‘ala. Honolulu’s Bishop Street, named after Charles Reed Bishop, is now the business and finance center of the State of Hawai‘i as well as the entire Pacific region. In 1969, the Bank of Bishop & Co. Ltd. was renamed First Hawaiian Bank, and remains today as the oldest financial institution in the state. [Photographs: Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop; Pākī;Konia [Laura Konia]; Charles Reed Bishop]
The Sugarcane Era Sugarcane was first processed and refined in the Hawaiian Islands in 1802 when a Chinese man on Lāna‘i set up boilers and a stone sugar mill shipped from China. Spaniard Francisco de Paula Marín, a physician and adviser of King Kamehameha I, manufactured sugar in 1819. The first successful commercial sugar plantation in the Hawaiian Islands and the first to export the product was Kōloa Sugar Plantation, established in Kōloa, Kaua‘i in 1835 under the direction of William Hooper for the American firm Ladd & Co. Ladd & Co. was a Honolulu mercantile trading house founded by William Hooper, Peter Brinsmade, and William Ladd in 1833. In 1851, David M. Weston of the East Maui Plantation invented a centrifugal machine that separated sugar from molasses, speeding up the drying process. The first steam-operated sugar mill in the Hawaiian Islands opened in Līhu‘e, Kaua‘i in 1853. With the help of American businessmen living on the Hawaiian Islands in 1854, King Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani) encouraged the development of plantation agriculture as the main force of Hawai‘i’s economy. In 1856, a 10-mile (16-km) long irrigation ditch was dug on Kaua‘i to supply water for the production of sugarcane at Līhu‘e Plantation, run by William Harrison Rice. The use of irrigation to grow sugarcane soon led to a massive expansion of sugarcane production as a commercial crop. The United States’ Civil War caused the price of sugar to rise in 1861, the same year the vacuum pan was invented, increasing productivity by allowing boiling of sugar at lower temperatures. In 1864, George N. Wilcox (1893-1933) leased Grove Farm sugar plantation in Līhu‘e, Kaua‘i and began using irrigation methods pioneered by William Harrison Rice to build Grove Farm into a major plantation. A trade agreement in 1867 between the United States and the Hawaiian Islands made it easier to sell Hawaiian sugar in the United States. King Kalākaua negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty in 1875 and it was passed by the United States Congress on September 17, 1876, allowing Hawaiian products to be sold in the United States without customs or duties. In return, the United States was allowed to use Pearl Harbor as a naval base. The Reciprocity Treaty resulted in a rapid expansion of the sugar industry in the Hawaiian Islands, which increased ten-fold over the next 15 years, and then continued to double each decade, providing an economic boost for the Islands and opening the door to the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States. In 1877, the firm of Alexander & Baldwin completed the construction of the 17-mile (27-km) long Hāmākua irrigation ditch from Haleakalā to East Maui. Claus Spreckels helped secure and develop some 18,000 acres of leased Crown lands on Maui in 1878, leading to the establishment of the Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Co. Spreckels constructed the 30-mile (48-km) long Ha‘ikū Ditch between 1878 and 1880 to carry 50 millions gallons (189 million liters) of water daily to sugarcane fields in Pu‘unēnē and Spreckelsville. Spreckels became known as the “Sugar King of Hawai‘i” and was later accused of corruption involving secret deals with King Kalākaua. James Ashley bored the first artesian well in the Hawaiian Islands for James Campbell on July 1, 1879 near Campbell’s ranch in Honouliuli, O‘ahu. More wells were soon bored to provide water for the cultivation of sugarcane on thousands of acres of ‘Ewa, O‘ahu. In 1880, 63 sugar plantations operated in the Islands, and all were controlled by the “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke. In 1888, Colonel Zephaniah Swift Spalding of Kaua‘i’s Makee Sugar Plantation introduced the first diffusion process plant for manufacturing sugar. Passage of the McKinley Tariff by the United States in 1890 eliminated advantages of sugar producers in the Hawaiian Islands over foreign producers. Construction of 22 steel cargo vessels was begun by the American-Hawaiian Steamship Company in 1900 for the purpose of transporting sugar. About 68,500 acres were planted with sugar in 1900, up from just 30,000 acres (12,140 ha) in 1880. In the early 1900s, 51 sugar companies operated at least 100 sugar mills. The Kohala Ditch was completed in 1905 on Hawai‘i Island after 18 months of construction, tapping the rivers of the Kohala mountains to irrigate the region’s sugar plantations. Designed by the well-known hydraulic engineer M. M. O’Shaughnessy, the Kohala Ditch was an engineering feat that included flumes and tunnels spanning 17 miles (27 km), requiring a long and difficult construction process took 17 lives. A power plant was built by Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company in 1916 to replace steam with electricity for milling sugar. Also in 1916, the Waiāhole tunnel was completed to bring water through the Ko‘olau mountains to central O‘ahu. The mechanical sugarcane planter was developed in the 1920s, and by 1933 the amount of land in the Hawaiian Islands dedicated to sugar production reached a peak, totaling more than 250,000 acres, with the “Big Five” companies controlling about 96% of the sugar crop. A federal sugar act in 1940 eliminated restrictions on United States sales of sugar refined in the Hawaiian Islands. In 1957, annual worker productivity on Hawaiian sugar plantations was the best in the world, reaching 65 tons per worker, up from 20 tons per worker two decades earlier. Hawai‘i was admitted as the 50th state in 1959, and increases in jet travel allowed tourism to thrive, gradually lessening sugar’s domination of Hawai‘i’s economy. Total revenues from tourism exceeded those of the sugarcane industry for the first time in 1960. Sugar production in the Hawaiian Islands peaked in 1966, with 1,234,121 tons of raw sugar produced.
YearPounds of Sugar Exported 1850 750,238 (and 129,432 gallons molasses) 1870 19 million (and 216,662 gallons molasses) 1880 64 million 1890 260 million 1910 1 billion 1932 2 billion 1965 2.4 billion 1966 2.46 billion
A landmark ruling by Judge William S. Richardson in 1973 in the McBryde Sugar Company v. Robinson court case declared that water supplies must remain within their originating watershed. Richardson’s term in the court was notable for expanding native Hawaiian rights and providing greater access to beaches and the waters around the Islands. Richardson was criticized by the legal profession and others, but championed by the public and by native Hawaiians. The Sugar Act expired in 1975 and led to the end of quotas and tariffs imposed to maintain prices of United States sugar. Sugar prices increased from 11 to 65 cents per pound. In subsequent years, many Hawaiian sugar plantations were shut down, including half of the industry when Alexander & Baldwin closed six plantations in 1982. By 2005, just two sugar mills remain operating in the Hawaiian Islands, Alexander & Baldwin’s Cane & Sugar on Maui and Gay & Robinson’s Olokele Plantation on Kaua‘i.
The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy In January of 1893, a small group of United States sugar planters and pro-annexation businessmen backed by 162 United States marines from the U.S.S. Boston led an insurrection against Queen Lili‘uokalani. They deposed the queen, abrogated the monarchy, and declared a Provisional Government with the goal of annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States. Hawai‘i’s previous 98 years of rule under eight different monarchs was effectively ended. The exact events of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy remain the subject of intense historical debate. The basic facts are as follows: Princess Lili‘uokalani became queen on January 29, 1981. Cabinet Ministers waited for Lili‘uokalani at ‘Iolani Palace to have her swear allegiance to the Bayonet Constitution. On January 14, 1893, Queen Lili‘uokalani informed her Cabinet members that she planned to proclaim a new constitution at the request of a majority of the Hawaiian people. After the prorogation (closing) of the Legislature at Ali‘iōlani Hale, the queen instructed her Cabinet Ministers to go to ‘Iolani Palace to sign the new constitution, which they had helped prepare. When the Cabinet Ministers refused to sign the new constitution, Queen Lili‘uokalani decided to defer any action, and gave a speech from the lānai of ‘Iolani Palace, telling the many people outside who were gathered there in anticipation of a new constitution being announced to go home peacefully because she would not be able to declare a new constitution. A group of annexation supporters then held a meeting and formed the “Committee of Public Safety.” They declared the queen’s actions treasonous, and made plans for a Provisional Government with the goal of eventually annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States. In consultation with United States Minister to Hawai‘i John Leavitt Stevens, the Committee of Public Safety was assured on January 15, 1893 that Stevens would land troops from the U.S.S. Boston if any danger was posed to American lives or property. The Committee of Public Safety called a meeting for the following day for all supporters of annexation. Supporters of Queen Lili‘uokalani also called for a meeting on the same day. On January 16, 1893 Queen Lili‘uokalani declared in an official proclamation that changes to the constitution would only be made with the consent of the Legislature. The two mass meetings were held, one by supporters of annexation and the other by supporters of Queen Lili‘uokalani. U.S. Minister Stevens, ordered the troops from the U.S.S. Boston ashore in Honolulu, saying the action was necessary to protect American lives and property. Stevens claimed the Americans were in danger and had no protection. Troops from the U.S.S. Boston came ashore at 5 p.m. and marched down King Street past Ali‘iōlani Hale to Arion Hall, across from ‘Iolani Palace. Meanwhile, the Committee of Public Safety met to further their plans for a Provisional Government. On January 17, 1893 Queen Lili‘uokalani requested assistance from U.S. Minister Stevens, but he refused. The Honolulu Rifles, an armed volunteer group, assembled in Ali‘iōlani Hale in opposition to the loyalist guard across the street at ‘Iolani Palace. At 2:30 p.m., on the rear veranda of Ali‘iōlani Hale, a Provisional Government was proclaimed by members of the Committee of Public Safety, which included Sanford Dole, the Provisional Government’s first president. U.S. Minister Stevens recognized the Provisional Government as Hawai‘i’s lawful government. That evening, about 100 armed men gathered around Ali‘iōlani Hale in support of the annexationists. They posted guards around Ali‘iōlani Hale, the new headquarters of the Provisional Government, and held drills on King Street in front of ‘Iolani Palace. Martial Law was declared, and troops from the U.S.S. Boston remained nearby. U.S. Minister Stevens raised the United States flag over the Hawaiian Islands on February 1, 1893 and troops from the U.S.S. Boston took over as official guards of Ali‘iōlani Hale, the center of the Provisional Government.
On March 4, 1893, Grover Cleveland succeeded Benjamin Harrison as President of the United States. Cleveland was a Democrat, replacing the pro-annexation administration of Harrison, a Republican. James H. Blount arrived on March 29, 1893 by order of the President to investigate the events leading to the overthrow of the Hawaiian government. Blount gave orders for the American flag to be taken down and the Hawaiian flag raised, and the United States naval forces were sent back to their ships. In June, 1893, Sanford Ballard Dole, the President of the Provisional Government, ordered that the government’s executive departments be moved to ‘Iolani Palace, with the garrison occupying the adjacent ‘Iolani Barracks. The Palace location was thought to be better defensively in the case of an attack. The Provisional Government also passed a resolution renaming ‘Iolani Palace the “Executive Building,” and renaming Ali‘iōlani Hale the “Court House” (it was often called the “Judiciary Building”). The Blount Report was given to President Cleveland on October 18, 1893. The report blamed the overthrow of the monarchy on U.S. Minister Stevens, and suggested restoring the Hawaiian government. President Cleveland denounced the overthrow as lawless because it was achieved under “false pretexts.”
On November 4, 1893, orders were given by President Cleveland to restore the power of Queen Lili‘uokalani. President Cleveland also sent word that he regretted the “unauthorized intervention” that took away the queen’s sovereignty.
The Provisional Government refused to restore Queen Lili‘uokalani to the throne, saying that only armed conflict would force them to give up power. President Cleveland did not support annexation, but he was reluctant to order the use of force against the group of Americans and their supporters, who were mostly Americans. The Provisional Government called a Constitutional Convention in May, 1894 to draft the constitution of the “Republic of Hawai‘i.” In the courtroom of the Supreme Court at Ali‘iōlani Hale, the new constitution was written by nineteen delegates appointed by the Provisional Government along with 18 elected delegates. On July 5, 1894, the leaders of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy proclaimed the Republic of Hawai‘i, with Sanford Ballard Dole as president. On January 6, 1895, a small group of royalists, mostly native Hawaiians in support Queen Lili‘uokalani, attempted a counterrevolution to overthrow the Republic and restore the queen. The uprising apparently took place without any participation by Queen Lili‘uokalani, who denied any involvement. Hundreds of men were arrested, including Robert W. Wilcox, who was condemned to death, but within a few months he was pardoned. Martial Law was declared on January 7, 1895 and a military commission was appointed to court martial Queen Lili‘uokalani and others. Queen Lili‘uokalani was imprisoned in ‘Iolani Palace on January 16, 1895, and on January 24, 1895 she signed a formal abdication calling for the recognition of the Republic of Hawai‘i as the lawful government. Queen Lili‘uokalani later claimed that this abdication was invalid due to coercion, and that she signed the document only to spare the lives of her supporters. On February 5, 1895, Queen Lili‘uokalani was arraigned before the military commission for treason, a charge that was later changed to misprision of treason (knowing of treason, the attempted counterrevolution, but not disclosing it). Queen Lili‘uokalani was found guilty of misprision of treason on February 27, 1895 and sentenced to a fine of $5,000 and imprisonment with hard labor for five years. This sentence was not carried out, though Lili‘uokalani remained imprisoned in ‘Iolani Palace for seven months, until September 6, 1895. She was then confined to Washington Place until February 6, 1896, and then island-restricted until October 6, 1896. Queen Lili‘uokalani’s freedom was restricted for 21 months in all, from Jan. 16, 1895 until October 6 1896. Martial Law in the Hawaiian Islands was ended on March 19, 1895. In all, 37 people were found guilty of treason and open rebellion, 141 guilty of treason, and 12 guilty of misprision. Twenty-two people were exiled to the United States. President McKinley succeeded President Cleveland in 1897, and Queen Lili‘uokalani visited Washington D.C. to petition McKinley to restore the rights of the Hawaiian people, but her petition was not acted upon. (See Annexation—The Kū‘ē Petitions.) The Provisional Government sent a petition to Washington D.C. in 1897, and on June 16, 1897 President McKinley sent an annexation treaty to the Senate. Queen Lili‘uokalani submitted a formal protest, which was ineffective. The United States Senate later claimed that President McKinley’s act of sending the bill to the U.S. Senate amounted to a recognition of Hawai‘i’s Provisional Government. While acknowledging that the native monarchy was overthrown, they claimed that McKinley’s recognition of the Provisional Government meant the facts would not be reviewed further by the United States.
The Waikīkī Beachboys
In 1897, native Hawaiians in Waikīkī organized Hui Pākākā Nalu, charging tourists for ocean canoe rides. This was the forerunner of the Waikīkī Beachboys, a name given to a group of water sports instructors working on the beaches fronting the Royal Hawaiian and Moana Hotels from the 1920s to the 1950s. The first Waikīkī Beach Patrol was organized in the 1930s.
Many of the Beachboys had colorful names such as Toots, Chick, Steamboat, and Turkey. One of the most famous of the Beachboys was the legendary surfer and Olympic gold medallist Duke Kahanamoku.
Duke and other local surfers founded Hui Nalu (Club of the Waves) in 1911, and many of the club members eventually became Waikīkī Beachboys. Their clients along Waikīkī’s beachfront were mostly wealthy visitors who wanted to surf or ride an outrigger canoe in the waves. Clients also included Hawaiian royalty as well as the general public. Many visitors to Waikīkī stayed for lengthy periods of time, and the Beachboys developed friendships with them, sharing the aloha spirit and insights into Hawaiian culture. There were also many gifted musicians among the Beachboys. Rumors of the Beachboys’ amorous adventures abounded, as they had many female clients. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States entered World War II and Martial Law was imposed in the Islands, ending the carefree lifestyle many had known. The golden era of the Waikīkī Beachboys was over. In 1973, the Waikīkī Beachboys Canoe Club was formed to restore the original image of Waikīkī Beachboys, who embodied not only surfing and canoe paddling skills, but also a generous and open-hearted spirit of aloha. [Photograph: Ala Wai Canal]
Aloha ‘Oe Proudly sweeps the rain clouded by the cliffs As onward it glides through the trees It seems to be following the liko The ‘āhihi lehua of the vale (Chorus) Farewell to thee, farewell to thee Thou charming one who dwells among the bowers One fond embrace before I now depart Until we meet again.
Annexation—The Kū‘ē Petitions After the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, a small but powerful group of residents of the Hawaiian Islands led the movement for annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States. Annexation was also supported by many in Washington D.C., including President McKinley, a veteran of the U.S. Civil War and an avowed imperialist who was eager to increase the international prominence of the United States. A large number of native Hawaiians, however, opposed annexation just as they had opposed the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. On September 7, 1897, two native Hawaiian groups held a mass rally at Palace Square in front of ‘Iolani Palace to begin a petition drive against annexation. Another anti-annexation rally took place on October 8, 1897 to counter a visit to the Islands by pro-annexation senator John Morgan of Alabama. The two groups formed in support of Queen Lili‘uokalani after the 1893 overthrow were Hui Kalai‘āina, formed in 1887 by native Hawaiians opposed to King Kalākaua’s signing of the Bayonet Constitution, and Hui Aloha ‘Āina (one for men (Hui Aloha ‘Āina o Na Kane) and one for women (Hui Aloha ‘Āina o Na Wahine)). Thousands of native Hawaiians united in their opposition to annexation attended the rally and then set about getting signatures from residents of all the Hawaiian Islands. The Hui Aloha ‘Āina petition against annexation was titled “Palapala Hoopii Kue Hoohui Aina a Ka Lahui” (“Petition of the Nation Protesting Annexation,”) and contained 21,269 signatures. The population of the native Hawaiians at this time was about 40,000. The Hui Kalai‘āina petition contained 17,000 signatures, and called for the restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. (Note: The location of the Hui Kalai‘āina petition remains a mystery.) These signed documents are known as the Kū‘ē Petitions (kū‘ē means “to oppose, or protest”). Agreeing that the main goal was preventing annexation, group leaders decided to present only the Hui Aloha ‘Āina petition to the U.S. government in order to avoid showing a division of opinion. James Keauiluna Kaulia, the president of Aloha ‘Āina, and David Kalauokalani, the president of Hui Kala‘āina, traveled to Washington D.C. and in December of 1897 consulted with Queen Lili‘uokalani before presenting the petitions to Senators Hoar and Pettigrew. Traveling to Washington were four Hawaiians: James Kaulia, David Kalauokalani, William Auld, and John Richardson. During the decade after annexation, the deposed Queen Lili‘uokalani made five more trips to the United States to appeal for a settlement of the disputed Crown lands and fair treatment for the Hawaiian people. The 566 pages of signatures were sent to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and then discussed on the Senate floor in front of the whole Senate. (Note: The anti-annexation petitions, 556 pages in all, are now in the National Archives of the United States on the Mall in Washington D.C..) Queen Lili‘uokalani also presented an Official Protest to the Treaty of Annexation on June 17, 1897. The protest states, in part, “I declare such a treaty to be an act of wrong toward the native and part-native people of Hawaii, an invasion of the rights of the ruling chiefs, in violation of international rights both toward my people and toward friendly nations with whom they have made treaties, the perpetuation oft he fraud whereby the constitutional government was overthrown, and, finally, an act of gross injustice to me.”[49] By the time the native Hawaiian representatives left Washington D.C. in February, 1898, they had succeeded in persuading numerous pro-annexation senators to change their minds, leaving the Senate twelve votes short of passing the treaty (a 2/3 majority was required for ratification) and successfully stalling the political process of annexation. Some Senators pushed for a vote among the residents of the Hawaiian Islands, but pro-annexation Senators opposed this as they knew a vote would doom their cause. On June 15, 1898, the Spanish-American War moved to the Pacific’s Spanish Philippines, and the Hawaiian Islands became strategically important as a coaling base for the United States fleet. On July 6, 1898, a simple majority passed a Joint Resolution of Congress approving annexation. Known as the Newlands Resolution (after Congressman Frances Newlands), it was signed by President McKinley on July 7, 1898, and thus the Hawaiian Islands were annexed to the United States. The official transfer of power from the Republic of Hawai‘i to the United States took place on August 12, 1898. The Hawaiian flag at ‘Iolani Palace was taken down and replaced with the United States flag, which was raised over the Territory of Hawai‘i, with Sanford Ballard Dole as the first governor. About 1.8 million acres (.73 million ha) of Hawaiian Crown lands and government lands were ceded to the federal government as a result of annexation.
The Newlands Resolution Annexing Hawai‘i to the United States “Whereas, the Government of the Republic of Hawai‘i having, in due form, signified its consent, in the manner provided by its constitution, to cede absolutely and without reserve to the United States of America all rights of sovereignty of whatsoever kind in and over the Hawaiian Islands and their dependencies, and also to cede and transfer to the United States the absolute fee and ownership of all public, Government, or Crown lands, public buildings or edifices, ports, harbors, military equipment, and all other public property of every kind and description belonging to the Government of the Hawaiian Islands.” “Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress Assembled, that said cession is accepted, ratified, and confirmed, and that the said Hawaiian Islands and their dependencies be, and they are hereby, annexed as a part of the territory of the United States and are subject to the sovereign dominion thereof, and that all and singular the property and rights hereinbefore mentioned are vested in the United States of America.” “The existing treaties of the Hawaiian Islands with foreign nations shall forthwith cease and determine, being replaced by such treaties as may exist, or as may be hereafter concluded, between the United States and such foreign nations.” Approved July 7th, 1898 William McKinley
Princess Ka‘iulani—Heir to a Vanished Throne
Princess Ka‘iulani (1875-1899), the niece of Queen Lili‘uokalani and King Kalākaua, was proclaimed heir apparent to the HawaiianKingdom when Queen Lili‘uokalani ascended to the throne in 1891.
Princess Ka‘iulani was the daughter of Archibald Scott Cleghorn and Miriam Likelike (the sister of King Kalākaua and Queen Lili‘uokalani). Her full name was Victoria Kawēkiu J. Lunalilo Kalaninuiahilapalapa Ka‘iulani Cleghorn.
The young princess attended boarding school in England, and was a talented artist, musician, horseback rider and swimmer. She was also active in many charitable causes. Robert Louis Stevenson had visited Princess Ka‘iulani in Waikīkī, and when she departed for England he wrote a celebrated poem:
Forth from her land to mine she goes, The island maid, the island rose, Light of heart and bright of face The daughter of a double race. Her islands here in Southern sun Shall mourn their Kaiulani gone. And I, in her dear banyan’s shade, Look vainly for my little maid. But our Scots Islands far away Shall glitter with unwanted day, And cast for once their tempest by To smile in Kaiulani’s eye. Robert Louis Stevenson, 1889
Princess Ka‘iulani had many peacocks (also known by the Hawaiian word pīkake), and she was referred to by some as the “Princess of the Peacocks.” The birds roamed the gardens of fragrant, white Arabian jasmine flowers at Princess Ka‘iulani’s spacious Waikīkī estate known as ‘Āinahau, which was built by her father, Archibald Scott Cleghorn, the governor of O‘ahu, and was the palace of her uncle, King Kalākaua.
The blossom of the white Arabian jasmine flower was a favorite of Princess Ka‘iulani. From its association with the young princess, the Arabian jasmine flower later became known by the Hawaiian term pīkake. On March 6, 1899, at the age of 23, the last Hawaiian princess passed away at ‘Āinahau, where her favored flowers grew and where her peacocks roamed. The princess had become ill after going horseback riding in a rainstorm, and though her death was attributed to a fever, many believe she died of a broken heart as the last Hawaiian princess and heiress to a vanished throne. On the night she died the peacocks (pīkake) are said to have made extremely loud vocal displays of their grief.
The Organic Act On April 30, 1900 United States President McKinley signed the Organic Act establishing a Territorial government in the Hawaiian Islands. As a result, Hawaiian citizens of the Republic became American citizens of the Territory of Hawai‘i. On June 14, 1900 the Hawaiian Islands were officially incorporated as a Territory of the United States. The first governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i was Sanford Ballard Dole (1844-1926), one of the original revolutionaries involved in the 1893 overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. Dole then served as president of the Provisional Government from 1893 to 1894, President of the Republic of Hawai‘i from 1895 to 1898, and finally as the governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i until 1903. In November of 1900, Robert W. Wilcox, a member of the Home Rule Party and previously a participant in two attempted revolutions, was elected as the Territory’s first delegate to Congress (as a non-voting member). The Home Rule Party was organized by former royalists against the overthrow of the monarchy. When the Hawaiian Islands became a Territory, Hawaiian residents became United States citizens, but were not allowed to vote in presidential elections. Hawai‘i was allowed to send one representative to Congress, and this delegate could debate and introduce bills, but could not vote. Hawaiian voters elected a House of Representatives and a Territorial Senate. The United States Congress could veto any bill passed by the Hawai‘i Legislature.
The Pineapple Industry
Spaniard Francisco de Paula Marín (1774-1837), a physician and adviser of King Kamehameha I, planted the first pineapples in the Islands in 1813. Captain John Kidwell introduced the Cayenne variety of pineapple in 1885 in Mānoa, and it soon became the main variety grown in the Islands. In 1898, Alfred W. Eames cultivated and sold fresh pineapple, and his company later became Del Monte Fresh Produce Inc.
James Drummond Dole (1877-1958) formed the Hawaiian Pineapple Company on December 4, 1901, and he began growing the fruit on 60 acres in Wahiawā, O‘ahu. Dole’s first harvest occurred in 1903, resulting in the canning of 1,893 cases, increasing to 125,000 cases by 1905. In 1906, Dole constructed a pineapple cannery on O‘ahu in the Iwilei district. At the time it was the largest fruit factory in the world.
The processes of shelling and coring pineapples was mechanized in 1911 with the invention of the Ginaca machine, patented by Dole employee Henry Ginaca. In 1914, the Libby, McNeill & Libby pineapple cannery opened in Kalihi, employing about 1,000 workers.
Dole purchased 98% of the island of Lāna‘i in 1922 for $1,100,000, and soon had 19,000 acres of pineapples planted, producing almost one-third of the world’s pineapple crop. Dole became known as the “Pineapple King” and the industry dominated Lāna‘i for the next 65 years, producing as many as 250 million pineapples per year. In 1930, eight pineapple canneries packed a total of nine million cases. The Hawaiian Islands led the world in pineapple production in 1940, and by 1946, nine pineapple companies operated nine canneries and 13 plantations on 60,000 acres, employing up to 20,000 people, making it the second largest industry in the Hawaiian Islands with products valued at $75 million annually. Pineapple production peaked in 1955, with 76,700 acres planted. In 1985, businessman David H. Murdock purchased 98% of the island of Lāna‘i and initiated the construction of expensive townhouses as well as two new hotels: the Mānele Bay Hotel on the beach, and the Lodge at Kō‘ele in the mountains. The last major commercial pineapple harvest on Lāna‘i took place in 1992 and the plantation was closed, though some pineapple “show fields” still adorn the landscape.
Lāna‘i City Lāna‘i City is located about 1,700 feet above sea level and set beneath the hills of Lāna‘ihale on the island of Lāna‘i. Today Lāna‘i City remains the island’s central population area, and many brightly painted, early 1900s era homes line the streets. A tourist oriented economy has replaced the industrious company town once awakened each morning by the plantation whistle. [Photograph: Lāna‘i City]
Native Reef Fish of the Hawaiian Islands About 1,143 species of fish are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including 149 endemic (unique) fish species, and five native freshwater fish species. Hawai‘i’s native fish also include five freshwater species, known as ‘o‘opu, which spend part of their lives in the ocean. The five native ‘o‘opu fish species are endemic (unique) to the Hawaiian Islands and include four species in the family Gobiidae (commonly called gobies) and one species in the family Eleotridae (‘o‘opu ‘akupa, Eleotris sandwicensis). All five Hawaiian ‘o‘opu species are born as larvae in freshwater streams. The tiny larvae are then washed down into the ocean where they develop into fish before returning to the stream where they were born and swimming back up through the current. ‘O‘opu have specially adapted pelvic fins, which are fused to form a sucking disc, allowing the fish to climb up rocks and waterfalls and reach the upper levels of the streams to lay eggs and complete their life cycle.
The list below is not a complete list, but contains some of the most prominent reef fish species in the Hawaiian Islands. Hawai‘i’s native reef fish include:
Ø5 species of angelfishes (Pomacanthidae).
Ø24 species of butterflyfishes (Chaetodontidae).
Ø7 species of parrotfishes (Scaridae).
Ø24 species (probably more) of surgeonfishes (Acanthuridae).
Ø43 species of wrasses (Labridae).
Ø8 species of filefishes (Monacanthidae).
Ø25 species of scorpionfishes (Scorpaenidae).
Ø11 species of triggerfishes (Balistidae).
Ø1 species of trumpetfish (Aulostonus chinensis).
Ø2 species of cornetfishes (Fistulariidae).
Ø17 species of damselfishes (Pomacentridae)
Military Bases in the Hawaiian Islands In 1887, King Kalākaua signed a lease of Pearl Harbor to the United States for eight years as a result of the Reciprocity Treaty. (See The Sugarcane Era.) Camp McKinley, a tent encampment of United States infantry and engineers, was set up at Waikīkī’s Kapi‘olani Park on August 16, 1898. This was the first United States Army camp in the Islands, and home to the First New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment. Kahauiki Military Reservation was established in Honolulu in 1905, becoming the first permanent United States Army post in the Hawaiian Islands. The post was renamed Shafter Military Reservation in 1907 in honor of Civil War Medal of Honor winner, Major General William R. Shafter (1835-1906). Fort Ruger Military Reservation was established at Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi) in 1906. The Reservation was named in honor of Major General Thomas H. Ruger, who served from 1871 to 1876 as the superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point. A network of tunnels was carved into the mountain, and cannon emplacements were placed atop the crater rim along with observation posts and bunkers. Fort Ruger was reinforced during World War II, though the guns were never fired. The fort included Battery Harlow (1910-1943); Battery Birkhimer (1916-1943); Battery Granger Adams (1935-1946); Battery Dodge (1915-1925); Battery Mills (1916-1925); Battery 407 (1944); Battery Hulings (1915-1925); and Battery Ruger (1937-1943). In 1907, Fort Armstrong was built on Honolulu’s Ka‘akaukukui Reef near Kalehuawehe, a place known for its healing, cleansing baths. Fort Armstrong was named after Brigadier General Samuel C. Armstrong (1839-1893), son of Reverend Richard Armstrong (1805-1860), who arrived in 1832. Fort Kamehameha Military Reservation was established in 1907 at the entrance to Pearl Harbor at Hickam Air Force Base, becoming the only United States fort to be named after a foreign king. Soon constructed was a series of coastal artillery batteries, a “Ring of Steel” including long-range guns and mortars to fortify O‘ahu’s harbors. Coastal batteries at Fort Kamehameha included Battery Selfridge, Battery Randolph, Battery Jackson, Battery Hawkins, Battery Hasbrouck, and Battery Closson. Battery Selfridge (1911) was the first to be constructed at Fort Kamehameha, with two twelve-inch disappearing rifles able to fire 1,046-pound projectiles 17,000 yards. Battery Selfridge was named after Army aviator First Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge. Selfridge died when he flew as an observer in Orville Wright’s plane as it was being demonstrated to the Army. The plane lost a propeller at 150 feet, damaging a wing and causing it to crash, seriously injuring Wright. Selfridge was the first death in a heavier-than-air craft crash. See For DeRussy below for information about Battery Randolph (1911). Battery Jackson (1914) had two six-inch guns able to fire 106-pound projectiles 14,600 yards. Battery Jackson was named after Civil War veteran Brigadier-General Richard H. Jackson. Battery Hawkins (1914) had two three-inch rapid fire rifled cannon able to fire 15-pound projectiles 11,100 yards (within range of the entrance to Pearl Harbor). Battery Hawkins was named after Brigadier-General Hamilton Smith Hawkins, who led troops in the famous charge up the hill at the Battle of San Juan Hill (Cuba, 1898). Battery Hasbrouck (1914) had eight twelve-inch mortars able to fire projectiles 15,200 yards. Battery Hasbrouck was named after West Point graduate and Civil War veteran Brigadier-General Henry C. Hasbrouck. Battery Closson (1920) had two twelve-inch guns able to fire 975-pound projectiles 17.1 miles (27.5 km). Battery Closson was named after civilian veteran Brigadier-General Henry Whitney Closson (1832-1917). In 1908, construction of naval facilities began in Pearl Harbor, formerly known by the Hawaiian name “Pu‘uloa.”Schofield Barracks Military Reservation was established in 1909 on 14,000 acres (5,666 ha) in Wahiawā, O‘ahu, eventually becoming the biggest permanent United States Army post. The Barracks were named for President Andrew Johnson’s Secretary of War, Lieutenant General John M. Schofield (1831-1906). Fort DeRussy was constructed in 1915 to protect Pearl Harbor and Honolulu. Two battery locations within the fort held large cannons, which were later replaced with antiaircraft guns. The fort was disbanded on June 28, 1950. The guns were removed and the site was designated an Armed Forces Recreation Area. In the 1970s the fort’s Battery Randolph became home to the U.S. Army Museum of Hawai‘i. Camp McCarthy opened on the grounds of the old state capitol in 1917 as a state national guard camp. In 1917, Pearl Harbor (Ford Island) Military Reservation (Pearl Harbor Naval Base) was designed to protect Pearl Harbor, and the site included Battery Adair (1917-1925) and Battery Boyd (1917-1925). Pearl Harbor naval station was established in 1918. In 1919, an Army-Navy air facility opened at Luke Field on Ford Island. Barbers Point Military Reservation was established in 1921 at Barbers Point Beach. Battery Barbers Point was operational from 1937-1942. Wheeler Field, now known as Wheeler Air Force Base, was established in Wahiawā, O‘ahu near Schofield Barracks in 1922. The base was named after Sheldon H. Wheeler, an Air Force major who died in a plane crash in 1921. Kāne‘ohe Bay was dredged in 1939 by the Navy to create an air station, but the unit stationed there was decommissioned in 1949 and moved to Barbers Point Naval Air Station. The Kāne‘ohe Bay location was reopened in 1952 as Marine Corps Air Station Kāne‘ohe Bay. In 1993, a federal commission voted to close the Barbers Point site, also known by its Hawaiian name Kalaeloa, which was returned to the state in 1999. Note: Some less significant military sites/batteries are not included in this list.
The U.S. Military It wasn’t long after the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States in 1898 that the U.S. military began utilizing the Islands for military purposes. In 1903, U.S. warships carrying 3,000 men arrived in Honolulu Harbor to take on supplies. The warships included the cruisers New Orleans, Albany, Cincinnati, and Raleigh; battleships Wisconsin and Oregon; and the flagship Kentucky. On March 25, 1915, the Navy submarine Skate (F-4), one of four based in the Islands, exploded and sank 306 feet (93 m) to the bottom of Honolulu Harbor about ¾-mile (1.2 km) offshore, killing the 21-man crew. The incident was the first submarine disaster in American naval history. The wreck of the submarine was too deep for divers to reach, and five months passed before the submarine could be brought to the surface. On February 4, 1916 in Honolulu Harbor, the crews of seven interned steamships, including the German cruiser Geier, set their vessels on fire to prevent them from being used by the United States military. The U.S. was officially neutral in the conflict until declaring war with Germany on April 6, 1917. The Pearl Harbor barracks became the home of the U.S. Marine Corps in 1923. In 1927 the War Memorial Natatorium was built on the waterfront at the eastern end of Waikīkī as a memorial to the 179 men and women of the Hawaiian Islands that died as soldiers in World War I. (See War Memorial Natatorium.) Japanese bombers attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, entering the United States into World War II. (See Pearl Harbor.) On June 4, 1942, American fighter pilots and dive bombers sank four carriers of the Japanese naval fleet near Midway Atoll in the Battle of Midway, securing the strategic Navy base location for the duration of the war. On June 5, 1942, U.S. Admiral Nimitz (1885-1966), the commander of the Pacific Fleet, announced the victory over the Japanese Fleet at Midway. The Battle of Midway became a turning point of World War II. On February 1, 1943, the government announced the formation of the all-Nisei (second generation Japanese-American) 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team. About 10,000 Hawai‘i Nisei volunteered within days, though only 1,256 United States Mainland Nisei volunteered. The volunteers wanted to demonstrate their loyalty to the U.S. despite the harsh racism they experienced in the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack. (See The 442nd/100th.) On September 2, 1943, the all-Nisei 100th Infantry Battalion from Hawai‘i landed in Oran, North Africa, and then in June of 1944 they were joined by the 442nd Infantry Regiment. On February 13, 1944, the United States Navy submarine rescue vehicle U.S.S. Macaw, on a mission to retrieve the submarine U.S.S. Flier, ran aground at Midway Atoll due to bad weather. A crew manned the ship’s pumps until a March storm finished off the vessel. Between 1944 and 1946, five thousand Italian prisoners of war captured in 1943 by the British in North Africa were held at four locations on O‘ahu: Schofield, Kalihi Valley, Kāne‘ohe, and Sand Island. In all, approximately 50,000 Italian P.O.W.’s captured in North Africa were shipped to the United States. In June of 1945, about 250,000 U.S. Army troops and 250,000 Navy and Marine Corps members were stationed in the Hawaiian Islands. Millions of servicemen passed through the Islands on their way to combat areas in the Pacific. Victory in Japan Day (“V-J Day”) was declared on August 15, 1945 after the United States dropped nuclear bombs on Japan in Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9), leading to the imminent defeat of Japan. The forces of Japan officially surrendered on the deck of the U.S.S. Missouri battleship on September 2, 1945.
In 1948, sixteen of twenty crew members of a fully loaded Superfortress were killed in a fiery crash at Hickam field. North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950, beginning the Korean War. The United States sent troops to the war, including an estimated 17,000 Hawaiian residents, and 341 were killed with another 79 missing in action. The war ended on July 27, 1953. From November 27 to December 9, 1950, the United States First Marine Division, including the 32nd Infantry Regiment named “The Queen’s Own” by Queen Lili‘uokalani in 1916, engaged in a fighting withdrawal from the Chosin Reservoir in North Korea. Facing extremely low temperatures as well as huge numbers of Chinese troops, the United States forces inflicted heavy damage on ten Chinese infantry divisions. In 1957, the communist regime of North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam, beginning the Vietnam War. The conflict lasted until 1975, with 221 Hawaiian residents dying in the war, and an estimated 13,000 Hawaiian residents taking part, including many who were wounded and then treated at O‘ahu’s Tripler Army Medical Center. Four Air Force members were killed in 1957 when their six-jet B-47 bomber crashed into a Wai‘anae Range mountainside at 400 miles (644 km) per hour. In 1959, the Swordfish became the first nuclear submarine to homeport in Pearl Harbor. The Swordfish submarine was deactivated on November 19, 1987. On January 17, 1991, Operation Desert Storm began in the Persian Gulf in response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1989. The war eventually required the services of more than 7,000 troops based in Kāne‘ohe before Iraq accepted United Nations conditions and resolutions on April 7, 1990. Kaua‘i’s Pacific Missile Range Facility began conducting STARS missile tests in 1993. The Korean-Vietnam War Memorial was dedicated at Hawai‘i’s State Capitol in Honolulu in 1994. On March 9, 2003, the U.S.S. Cheyenne, a Pearl Harbor-based submarine, launched the first Tomahawk missile to begin the second Iraq War. The target was a bunker believed to be the location of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein. The biennial Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) naval exercises that took place in Hawaiian waters from June 29 to July 27, 2004 involved more than 35 ships, 90 aircraft, 7 submarines and 11,000 soldiers, airmen, sailors, Marines, and Coast Guard. The RIMPAC exercises also took place in 2000, 2002, and 2006.
Immigrant Laborers When the Masters and Servants Act passed Hawai‘i’s legislature in 1850, it established a contract labor system that began the mass importation of laborers to work on the sugar plantations. The Act allowed persons over twenty years of age to sign a contract binding them to an employer for up to five years. Under the Masters and Servants Act, workers could be punished for absenteeism or refusal to work, resulting in an extended term of service usually twice as long as the time of work missed. The first contract laborers to come to the Hawaiian Islands arrived in 1851 from China on the Thetis, with 195 men and 20 boys on board. Pay for the men was $3/month plus room and board. The Chinese workers were referred to as coolies. Houseboys earned $2/month. Workers from the South Sea Islands began arriving in 1859. The first mass emigration of Japanese workers coming to the Hawaiian Islands to work on sugar plantations included 142 men and six women who arrived aboard the Scioto in 1868. These initial migrants, mostly tradesmen and craftsmen, did not have contracts or government permission, and were called gannenmono (“first year men”), referring to the first year of Japan’s Meiji era. Portuguese workers arrived aboard the Priscilla from the Madeira Islands in 1878, beginning an influx of laborers from that region that totaled 20,000 by 1913. Most Portuguese came from the Madeira and Azores Islands. Being Europeans, the Portuguese were given land and citizenship (after 1898), and unlike Asian workers, the Portuguese were often hired as lunas (overseers), supervising Asian workers for Caucasian owners. The Portuguese workers were virtually all Catholics, thus strengthening the presence of the Catholic church in the Islands. More than 3,500 workers arrived from China in 1879, and Norwegian and German workers began arriving in 1881. King Kalākaua visited Japan in March of 1881 and asked Emperor Meiji to allow workers to come to the Hawaiian Islands where there was a shortage of laborers to work on the sugar plantations. The two leaders signed a treaty in 1885 permitting the large-scale immigration of laborers. The first official (government sponsored) Japanese contract workers—676 Japanese men and 158 Japanese women—arrived in Honolulu on the City of Tokio on February 8, 1885. The importation of Chinese laborers was halted in 1886 by the passage of the Hawaiian Kingdom Chinese Exclusion Act. Laborers employed on Hawaiian plantations totaled 25,881 in 1898. Also in 1898, the Hawaiian Islands were annexed to the United States via the Newlands Resolution, which stated, “There shall be no further immigration of Chinese into the Hawaiian Islands, except upon such conditions as are now or may hereafter be allowed by the laws of the United States; no Chinese, by reason of anything herein contained, shall be allowed to enter the United States from the Hawaiian Islands.” On June 14, 1900, the Organic Act went into effect and contract labor was no longer legal. Within one month 8,000 laborers went on strike demanding higher wages and better working conditions as well as the hiring of Japanese lunas (overseers). On December 23, 1900, the SS City of Rio de Janeiro arrived with 56 contract laborers who became the first Puerto Rican residents of the Hawaiian Islands, with more than 2,000 arriving during the next two decades. The SS China arrived in 1900 with the first Okinawan immigrant workers. By 1902, Japanese workers having arrived over the previous two decades totaled more than 31,000. The first Korean contract laborers arrived aboard the Gaelic on January 13, 1903, and by the end of 1905 more than 7,500 Korean workers had arrived. The first fifteen Filipino farm workers, known as sakada, arrived on the Doric on December 20, 1906. Spaniard workers arrived in 1907. On May 9, 1909, Japanese sugarcane plantation workers on O‘ahu’s ‘Aiea Plantation went on strike, followed by other plantation workers, totalling 7,000 strikers in less than one month. The island-wide strike lasted until August, 1909, costing the industry millions of dollars. Honolulu journalists and merchants formed the Higher Wages Association in 1909 and made pro-labor demands on the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association. The rejection of these demands led to a strike by sugar workers. By 1910, 75% of the annual sugar crop was controlled by Hawai‘i’s “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke. In the following decades, living conditions on plantations became exceedingly harsh for many plantation workers who had little recourse against extremely powerful plantation owners. Significant labor unrest on sugarcane plantations in the Hawaiian Islands led to many strikes and protests. By 1916, more than 18,000 Filipino workers had arrived, rising to 120,000 by 1931 as Filipinos replaced Japanese as the majority of plantation workers. Many more Filipinos arrived in the Hawaiian Islands after the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act allowed reunification of family members as well as professionals and skilled workers. The Filipino Labor Union was established in 1919 by Filipino labor leader Pablo Manlapit to improve working conditions and demand higher wages for Filipino laborers. Japanese comprised more than 40% of the total population of the Hawaiian Islands in 1920 when the Japanese Labor Federation was established to negotiate for better working conditions. The Filipino leader Manlapit along with Japanese labor leaders led the Higher Wages Movement, but the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association continued to reject their demands. Separate strikes by Japanese and Filipino workers in 1920 were unsuccessful, and more than 12,000 workers were evicted. In 1924, immigration from Japan was prohibited when the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Immigration Act. At the time, the total number of Japanese immigrants was about 200,000 since they began arriving in 1885. On September 9, 1924 on Kaua‘i, 16 Filipino sugarcane plantation workers and four Hanapēpē police officers died as a result of a brutal suppression of an eight-month strike. The event later becomes known as the Hanapēpē Massacre. The strike had begun months earlier, on April 1, 1924, when it was called for by Filipino labor leader Pablo Manlapit (a Tagalog). The Filipinos were protesting the fact that they earned only about $10 per day, which was only about half as much as Chinese and Japanese plantation workers. The striking Filipino plantation workers were primarily Visayans (from the northern Philippines). They sometimes had disagreements with other Filipino sugar plantation workers, including the Ilocanos (from the south-central Philippines). When two Ilocano boys rode their bikes from their camp at Makaweli to Hanapēpē on September 8, 1924 to buy shoes, they were confronted by about 100 Visayans who wanted them to join their strike. The two Ilocano workers resisted and were held by the Visayans in a former Japanese schoolhouse. The next day police arrived to rescue the two workers being held by the strikers. The police retrieved the two workers and were leaving the Japanese schoolhouse without any problems when the first shots were suddenly fired, which quickly led to a pitched battle lasting several hours, with police hunting down the fleeing workers including some who hid in the sugarcane fields. More than 100 workers are arrested and more than 50 are imprisoned up to four years for “rioting.” News reports of the incident reported that the first shots were fired by workers, but later accounts and interviews determined it was unclear who began the shooting, Some have blamed the incident on the lack of training among the sheriffs and armed police officers who were sent to retrieve the workers. These “special service” police officers were said to be predominantly local farmers and hunters (mostly Chinese, Portuguese, and Hawaiians) who were deputized as police officers, and were not prepared for such a tense and volatile situation. More than 200 National Guard soldiers arrived in the days after the incident to keep order. A “mass funeral” was held for 15 of the 16 workers, who were buried in rough wooden caskets in one large trench dug above Hanapēpē Bay, near a Chinese graveyard where one of the sheriff deputies was buried. By 1930, Filipinos comprised 70% of the plantation work force in the Hawaiian Islands, up from 19% in 1917. The Filipino Labor Federation was revitalized in 1932 by Pablo Manlapit and renamed Vibora Luviminda. In 1933, Manlapit formed the Hawai‘i Labor Association. A 1937 strike in Pu‘unēnē, Maui won Filipino workers significant benefits, but those responsible for organizing the strike were arrested. Labor leader Pablo Manlapit was permanently deported. (See Unions.)
Duke Kahanamoku—Surfer, Olympian, Movie Star, Sheriff
Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulihohola Kahanamoku was a muscular man, standing 6 feet, 1 inch tall. He was known for his humility and kindness as well as his soft-spoken demeanor.
Growing up near Kālia Beach in Waikīkī, Duke Kahanamoku surfed Waikīkī in 1905, beginning the rebirth of Hawaiian surfing, which had largely disappeared in the Hawaiian Islands after the arrival of New England missionaries in the early 1800s. Duke’s brother also surfed.
Duke’s 16-foot (4.9-m) surfboard was made of koa (Acacia koa) and weighed 114 pounds (52 kg).
In 1911, Duke and his friends organized Hui Nalu (Club of the Waves), a swimming, paddling, and surfing club. The main reason for the formation of Hui Nalu was to meet the United States’ requirement that swimmers had to belong to a recognized club if they wanted official sanction for any aquatic records. Also in 1911, Duke set three world records in freestyle swimming in HonoluluHarbor. [Photograph: Duke Kahanamoku]
On July 6, 1912, Duke Kahanamoku won a gold medal in swimming in the Stockholm, Sweden Olympics, completing the 100-meter freestyle event in a world record time of 63.4 seconds, and also winning a silver medal in the 4x200-meter freestyle relay.
In the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium, Duke won two more gold medals, breaking his own 100-meter freestyle world record. He also helped to set a world record in the freestyle relay, earning yet another gold medal. Hawaiian Pua Kealoha Warren Kealoha became the youngest male gold medallist in Olympic history when he won the 100-meter backstroke in the Antwerp Olympics.
At age 34, in the 1924Paris Olympics, Duke took the silver medal in the 100-meter freestyle, losing to Johnny Weissmuller, who later became famous as the actor who played Tarzan.
Other Hawaiians winning medals in the Paris Olympics included: Warren Kealoha (gold medal in the 100-meter backstroke); Sam Kahanamoku (bronze medal in the 100-meter freestyle); Marchen Wehselau (silver medal in the woman’s 100-meter freestyle); and a gold medal for the women’s relay team.
Duke Kahanamoku earned a total of six Olympic medals (three gold, two silver, one bronze) in four different Olympics. Other swimming victories for Duke Kahanamoku included 100-meter freestyle victories in the 1916, 1917, and 1920 American Athletic Union Outdoor Championships.
Duke was known for his use of the “flutter kick,” which he used instead of the common scissors kick. This became known as the Hawaiian crawl and eventually was called the American crawl.
Duke is also credited with saving many lives through brave ocean rescues, including using his surfboard to single-handedly save eight lives from a capsized boat in rough waters in Coronal del Mar, California on June 14, 1925.
He kanaka no kaulu hānai. A man from the top of the cliff. Praise of a hero.[50]
From 1922 to 1933, Duke had a career in Hollywood, appearing in more than 20 movies and playing opposite such stars as John Wayne. On August 2, 1940, Duke married Nadine Alexander. He also served as Sheriff of the City and County Honolulu for 26 years, from 1934 to 1960 (13 consecutive terms). Always known as a generous and caring person, Duke Kahanamoku was officially appointed as Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha” in 1960. Newspapers around the world showed pictures of Duke dancing hula with Britain’s Queen Elizabeth during her visit to the Islands. When President Kennedy visited the Hawaiian Islands, he also
In 1964 Duke was honored at the Word’s Fair as Sports Champion of the Century In 1965, Duke became the first person ever inducted into both the Surfing Hall of Fame and the Swimming Hall of Fame. Duke Kahanamoku passed away on January 22, 1968, at the age of 77. Thousands attended the “Beachboy” funeral ceremony, and Duke’s ashes were scattered in the waters off Waikīkī. In 1984, Duke was inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame. In 1999, Surfer Magazine declared Duke Kahanamoku the Surfer of the Century. A ceremony to dedicate the new United States postage stamp featuring Duke Kahanamoku took place on Saturday, August 24, 2002, which was the 112th anniversary of Duke’s birth.
A Hawaiian legend, Duke Kahanamoku was a first class Hawaiian waterman, an Olympic champion, a lifesaver, movie star, sheriff, and the quintessential representative of the Hawaiian spirit of aloha. Duke Kahanamoku will forever be remembered as a real-life folk hero for the people of the Hawaiian Islands.
“In Hawai‘i, we greet friends, loved ones or strangers with aloha, which means with love. Aloha is the key word to the universal spirit of real hospitality, which makes Hawai‘i renowned as the world’s center of understanding and fellowship. Try meeting or leaving people with Aloha. You’ll be surprised by their reaction. I believe it and it is my creed. Aloha to you.”
Plaque on the Duke Kahanamoku Statue in Waikīkī.
Duke Kahanamoku’s Olympic Medals OlympicsMedalEventComments 1912 (Stockholm, Sweden) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record Silver 4x200-Meter Freestyle Relay Anchored team 1920 (Antwerp, Belgium) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record Gold 4x200-meter Freestyle World Record Water Polo Team Fourth Place 1924 (Paris, France) Silver 100-Meter-Freestyle Duke’s Age: 34 1932 (Los Angeles, Cal.) Bronze Water Polo Team Duke’s Age: 42 [Photograph: Picture of Duke stamp; picture of Duke Kahanamoku in a movie scene]
Historic Waikīkī
Waikiki means “Spouting water,” a reminder that the region was once covered with wetlands and marshes. In ancient times, Waikīkī encompassed more than 2,000 acres of marshland. The entire area was a vast drainage basin for the Ko‘olau Mountain Range. Early Hawaiians settlers converted the marshland into loko i‘a (fishponds), lo‘i kalo (taro patches), and other agricultural uses. Fertile and productive, the lands of Waikīkī were fed by the waters of the Mānoa and Makiki Valleys. [Photograph: Old Waikīkī] Waikīkī was also the site of the 1795 landing of Kamehameha the Great’s war canoes during his last military conquest, which culminated in the Battle of Nu‘uanu. In the late 1800s, duck ponds replaced many areas of Waikīkī that were formerly taro patches and fishponds. Land converted into duck ponds included the area that is now the site of the Ala Moana Shopping Center. By the 1870s, Waikīkī was dominated by rice fields planted primarily by Chinese immigrants.
In 1893, the Sans Souci Hotel opened in Waikīkī along the shoreline of Kapi‘olani Park, and hosted Robert Louis Stevenson for a five week visit.[51] Stevenson sang its praises, as did many other influential tourists. [Photograph: Robert Louis Stevenson with Queen Lili‘uokalani.
On March 11, 1901, the Moana Hotel opened in Waikīkī, becoming the tallest building in the Hawaiian Islands. Designed by architect Oliver Green Traphagen for Matson Navigation Company, the 75-room hotel was known as the “First Lady of Waikīkī.”
Fifteen years later, the Moana Hotel added 100 more rooms as well as a seaside courtyard. King George V of the United Kingdom and Edward, Prince of Wales stayed at the hotel in 1920, garnering national attention.
In 1902, Waikīkī’s horse-driven tram cars were replaced by an electric trolley (tram line) connecting Waikīkī and downtown Honolulu. The tram line and hotel construction began the process of popularizing Waikīkī as a resort destination.
Waikīkī gradually became a place of quiet palm-lined beaches where the wealthy built their gingerbread-trimmed cottages. It was also home to Hawaiian royalty, and was considered a place of healing, peace, and hospitality.
Beginning in 1907, plans were made to develop tourism and commercial properties in Waikīkī, including street-widening and bridge building. The marshlands of Waikīkī were drained by the building of the AlaWaiCanal, constructed from 1919 to 1928 with funds provided by the Waikīkī Reclamation Project. The Wakīkī Reclamation Commission was formed by the Territorial Government in 1907.
The prominent waterway runs for 25 blocks and separates Waikīkī from Honolulu. Filling Waikīkī’s duck ponds, taro patches, rice paddies, and marshland with coral rubble created some of the most valuable real estate the Hawaiian Islands. [Photograph: Ala Wai Canal] On September 25, 1926, Aloha Tower opens on the waterfront at Honolulu Harbor, becoming the first skyscraper in the Hawaiian Islands and tallest building. Designed by architect Arthur Reynolds, the square-shaped tower stands 184 feet, 2 inches high with a domed cupola with balconied openings and topped with a 40-foot flagstaff and seven-ton clock. The clock in Aloha Tower was the biggest in the Territory of Hawai‘i and one of the biggest in the United States. Each side of the tower has a clock face and the word “Aloha.” On February 1, 1927, the Royal Hawaiian Hotel opened in Waikīkī with the Royal Hawaiian Band playing for 1,200 guests. An earlier Royal Hawaiian Hotel was located near ‘Iolani Palace at the site of the rehabilitated YMCA building. That first Royal Hawaiian was torn down when the new Royal Hawaiian was constructed. Nicknamed the “Pink Palace of the Pacific,” the Moorish-style hotel began the restructuring of Waikīkī’s coastline. The Royal Hawaiian Hotel cost $4 million and was designed by New York’s Warren and Wetmore, featuring elegant chandeliers, high ceilings, pink stucco walls, and pink turrets. Construction of the Royal Hawaiian utilized thousands of blocks of sandstone, about 35,000 barrels of cement, 50 tons (45 mtons) of stucco, and 75 miles (121 km) of wire. At least 9,000 gallons (34,100 liters) of paint were used. The Royal Hawaiian was leased to the Navy in 1942 to house more than 200,000 Marines and sailors during their 10-day leaves. On February 1, 1947 the hotel reopened to the public. The Royal Hawaiian was built and owned by the Matson Navigation Company, which also built a $7.5-million premier cruise ship, the Malolo, which held up to 650 passengers and provided luxurious transportation to the fine new hotel. The Matsonia began service between Honolulu and San Francisco in 1914. By the time of William Matson’s death in 1917, he ran a fleet of 14 large, modern ships, providing the fastest freight service in the Pacific. The opening of Aloha Tower and the Royal Hawaiian Hotel increased Waikīkī’s reputation as a playground for the rich and famous. Guests such as Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Ford II, Babe Ruth, and Charlie Chaplin enjoyed the Royal Hawaiian Hotel’s accommodations. Over the next several decades the hotel attracted a whole multitude of heirs, heiresses, and Hollywood stars such as Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. President Franklin D. Roosevelt stayed at the Royal Hawaiian Hotel during World War II. The Moana Hotel is now called the Moana Surfrider Hotel and is a National Historical Landmark, as is the Royal Hawaiian Hotel. [Photograph: Royal Hawaiian Hotel]
Island Emblems In 1923 the Territorial Legislature designated an emblem for each Hawaiian Island. The State of Hawai‘i also has its own emblem. These symbols are all flowers or plants, except for Ni‘ihau’s emblem, which is a seashell. Each Hawaiian Island is also represented by a color associated with its emblem. The State of Hawai‘i’s emblem is pua ma‘o hau hele, also known as the yellow hibiscus. When hibiscus was named the official flower of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1923, the Legislature didn’t specify any particular one of the many varieties of the hibiscus, and the various colors and types of hibiscus (including numerous introduced species) were said by some to represent the unique ethnic mix of the Hawaiian Islands. Eventually many considered the native red hibiscus or the red Chinese species to be the state flower. Hawai‘i’s State Legislature clarified the issue in 1988 when it named the endangered native yellow hibiscus, Hibiscus brackenridgei, to be the official state flower. Hibiscus brackenridgei is on the federal endangered species list. [Photograph: Pua ma‘o hau hele lei]
Hawai‘i Island The emblem of Hawai‘i Island (the Big Island) is pua lehua, the blossom of the native ‘ōhi‘a lehua tree (Metrosideros species). Lehua flowers are tufts of scarlet red, orange, yellow, or white (rarely). Beautiful lei are woven from the flowers, unopened buds and young silvery leaves (liko) of ‘ōhi‘a lehua. ‘Ōhi‘a lehua is also considered sacred to Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes.
Maui
Maui’s emblem is pua lokelani (Rosa species), the aromatic flower of the small pink damask rose.
Pua lokelani, also known as the “rose of heaven,” is a post-contact introduced species that is often used for lei and commonly mixed with other flowers as well as ferns.
Moloka‘i
Moloka‘i’s emblem is pua kukui, the flower of the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut), which is also the official tree of the State of Hawai‘i.
Kukui’s small white flowers have five petals, grow in clusters, and are covered with a silvery-gray down. The leaves and the flowers are strung into lei, as are the polished kukui nuts.
The oil from kukui nuts was traditionally used as a light source, and for various other purposes including numerous medicinal uses.
Lāna‘i
Lāna‘i’s emblem is kauna‘oa (Cuscuta sandwichiana), a rusty-orange vine that is also known as dodder. Kauna‘oa has tiny round fruits and pointed flowers. The stringy stems are often braided together into strands for lei.
Kaho‘olawe
Kaho‘olawe’s emblem is a perennial herb called hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum).
Hinahina grows on the beach above the high water line, and has hairy, silvery-green leaves and stems, and fragrant white flowers with yellow centers. The leaves and flowers of hinahina are twisted into open-ended garlands.
Today the non-native Spanish moss (also called Florida moss, gray beard, and hinahina) is often substituted for the native hinahina.
O‘ahu
O‘ahu’s emblem is pua ‘ilima, the flower of ‘ilima (Sida fallax). ‘Ilima is a small, thin hibiscus flower that is yellow to orange in color, and about one inch across with five petals. ‘Ilima is a popular lei flower in the Hawaiian Islands today, just as it was in ancient Hawai‘i. Honor and respect among dignitaries is often shown with a velvety rope of carefully strung, bright orange ‘ilima petals.
‘Ilima flowers are extremely thin, and a lei may take 700 to 1,000 of the blossoms. ‘Ilima flowers are sometimes interwoven with maile.
Kaua‘i
Kaua‘i’s emblem is the fruit of the mokihana plant (Pelea anisata), a member of the rue family. Mokihana’s yellowish-green to purplish seed capsules are about ½-inch (1.3 cm) in diameter.
A mokihana lei is made by stringing together the seed capsules after piercing them through their centers. Mokihana is often strung together with strands of maile.
Mokihana’s seed capsules are leathery to the touch, and have a very strong anise-like fragrance that becomes stronger as the seeds dry. Some people are sensitive to the oily substance from mokihana, which may cause blisters.
Traditional lei stringers are proud of the scars on their fingers from stringing mokihana lei.
Ni‘ihau
Ni‘ihau’s emblem is the prized Ni‘ihau shell, pūpū Ni‘ihau, which is actually a general term for three different varieties of shells collected on the island beaches and strung into beautiful lei.
The three primary types of shells used for the traditional Ni‘ihau shell lei are kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca), momi (Euplica varians) and laiki (Mitrella margarita). The colors of the shells range from deep brown to pearly white.
While these shells are also found on other Hawaiian Islands, they lack the rich luster of the prized Ni‘ihau shell lei. Pūpū Ni‘ihau show many variations caused by waves and sunlight as well as genetic differences. At least 30 different Hawaiian names describe the particular colors and patterns.
Lei Day—May 1 May Day is Lei Day in the Hawaiian Islands. On May 1, everyone is encouraged to make, give away, and wear lei. Lei Day became an official holiday of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1929.
Mainland visitor Don Blanding, a journalist and poet, helped popularize the concept of Lei Day. Some say the holiday has its origins in 1927 when, on May 1 in downtown Honolulu, some lei lovers gathered.
Others consider the beginning of the holiday to be in 1928 when Nina Bowman was chosen as the first Lei Day Queen. 1928 was also the year that Red Hawke penned the song, “May Day is Lei Day in Hawai‘i.” In 1934 the Honolulu city government began sponsoring a celebration of the holiday. Most schools celebrate Lei Day with festivals, and there are many events held throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu selects its Lei Day Queen on the first Saturday of March.
Island Flowers and Lei The lei is the very symbol of aloha. In ancient Hawai‘i, respect and honor was bestowed upon someone by placing a lei upon their head and shoulders, which are considered sacred parts of the body. The Hawaiian goddess associated with lei making is Kukuena, whose daughter Laka may take the form of ‘ilima. [Photograph: Person presenting another with a lei]
Ancient Hawaiians utilized various lei materials, including flowers, ferns, fern allies, vines, seeds, nuts, feathers, wood, shells, and teeth. The lei niho palaoa (whale tooth pendant) utilized the tooth of the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Also used in lei was human hair as well as bones, including human finger bones.
In ancient Hawai‘i, lei were often woven to pay paid tribute to gods, show reverence, and give thanks for all that was provided by the land and sea. Particular lei had ceremonial and medicinal uses. For example, a lei woven from hala fruitlets was worn during Makahiki, the ancient harvest festival, to symbolize the passing of the old year and the beginning of a new year.
A lei for the head is known as lei po‘o, while a lei worn around the neck is known as lei ‘ā‘ī. Lei made to be worn on the wrists or ankles are known as kūpe‘e. A lei worn around the neck should be worn not just hanging in the front, but more centered, so both the front and back are comfortably arranged.
To show appreciation to the giver of a lei, one may give a kiss and an embrace. It is said that if one makes a lei for another and thinks of that person as they make it, the lei will carry those feelings and expressions of love.
After Western contact was established in 1778, many introduced plant species were utilized for making lei. For example, the missionaries who came to convert natives to Christianity brought roses. The Chinese who came to work in the sugarcane fields brought pīkake (Arabian jasmine) and pakalana (Chinese violet). From Tahiti came plumeria, from Mexico came Bougainvillea, and from the Philippines came the jade vine, and all of these blossoms were fashioned into beautiful lei. Later many other flowers were introduced and lei gained even more popularity as a symbol of aloha.
E lei no au i ko aloha I will wear your love as a wreath I will cherish your love as a beautiful adornment.[52] Today the lei remains an important symbol of friendship, love, and aloha. The lei is a traditional welcome, and is used on many different occasions, including birthdays, dances, graduations, weddings, anniversaries, and of course Lei Day. Lei are also made and worn for lū‘au, the traditional Hawaiian feasts often involving large gatherings of ‘ohana (extended family).
Lei are commonly given on Secretary’s Day, Father’s Day, and Mother’s Day, and to anyone leaving or arriving in the Hawaiian Islands. Lei are also given to honor athletes at the end of a season or career. They are also placed on the bier at funerals, and on gravestones to pay respect to the departed.
[Photo: King Kamehameha Hula Competition] [Photo caption:]
The King Kamehameha Hula Competition celebrates the ancient practice of hula, and many spectacular lei are worn by the participants. Aloha Week and many local and statewide hula events also are celebrated with plenteous lei. In Island parades, pā‘ū riders on horses are adorned with extravagant displays of lei and greenery.
The King Kamehameha Floral Parade takes place in the summer and stretches out for nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) from downtown Honolulu to Waikīkī with colorful pā‘ū riders, floats and brass bands, including the Royal Hawaiian Band.
Beginning at ‘Iolani Palace, the parade passes by the statue of King Kamehameha and then takes Punchbowl Street to Ala Moana, then following Kalākaua Avenue to Kapi‘olani Park. [Photograph: Floral Parade]
Lei Making Methods
ØWili—Twisted.
ØHīpu‘u—Knotted.
ØHili—Braided.
ØHaku—Mounted.
ØHumupapa—Sewed onto backing.
ØKui—Strung with a needle.
ØMicronesian-style—Tied or woven flat.
The wili method (wili means “to twist or wind”) involves winding flowers, leaves, fruits, or ferns around a solid core. Traditionally this core was made from a coconut palm midrib, a kī (ti) leaf, a piece of a banana plant stalk, lau hala (leaves of hala), or more modern material (e.g., pipe cleaners). Wili also refers to the twisting of the material itself or to the process of twisting finished strands together. The hīpu‘u method (also called kīpu‘u) involves knotting stems or vines such as maile into a lei. The hili method involves braiding or plaiting material such as the pala‘ā fern. The hili (braided) method is also used for making kī (ti) and maile lei. The haku method is similar to the hili method, but with flowers or fruits added during the plaiting process, or sewn face out onto a wreath of greenery. The haku method is also used with various non-traditional flowers, such as zinnias, roses, chrysanthemums, and pansies. The traditional meaning of haku is “to arrange” or “to compose,” and involves incorporating the lei materials into a braid, securing the blossoms around a central core using a kī (ti) leaf or a piece of banana stalk, hau, raffia, or other material. The humupapa method (also known as kui papa) involves sewing flowers and plant materials onto a backing, traditionally kī (ti) leaves that have been folded and deboned, or dried fibers of mai‘a (banana stalk). Humupapa was also one of the methods used for feather lei. The kui method involves stringing flowers (e.g., ‘ilima) or fruits through their centers lengthwise (kui pololei); stringing the blossoms crosswise through the calyx or corolla tube, and arranging them around the string facing outwards (kui poepoe); or stringing the blossoms flat or crosswise through the calyx or stem, and arranging them alternately on each side of the string (kui lau method, also now called lei maunaloa). The Micronesian-style lei involves tying or weaving the stems and blossoms into a flat collar and securing them with bast or raffia. This plaiting may be done with two, three, or four strands. [Illustration: Lei constructed using wili, hīpu‘u, hili, kui, haku, humupapa and Micronesian-style methods]
Honolulu Hale Built in 1927, Honolulu Hale opened in 1929 to serve as Honolulu’s City Hall with offices for the mayor and city council. Located at 530 South King Street, the building was designed by architects Charles William Dickey, Hart Wood and others, and modeled after Florence, Italy’s 13th century Bargello Palace, featuring pillars and arches, decorative balconies, ceiling frescoes, and a tiled roof. Inside the front door of Honolulu Hale is a bell from the World War II ship U.S.S. Honolulu, with a commemorative plaque that states, “Launched August 26, 1937. Commissioned June 15, 1938.” The spacious lobby of the building is the site of art exhibits and other events, and the building’s central open-air courtyard is the site of musical performances and other events.
War Memorial Natatorium In 1927, the War Memorial Natatorium was built on the waterfront at the eastern end of Waikīkī as a memorial to the 179 men and women of the Hawaiian Islands that died as soldiers in World War I. The memorial includes a 20-foot (6.1-m) high Memorial Archway with a Beaux Arts facade and a 100-meter-long, tide-fed, saltwater pool. Champion swimmers such as Duke Kahanamoku and Johnny Weissmuller used the War Memorial Natatorium pool for training. The pool remains today as the largest saltwater pool in the United States, though it is in serious disrepair. A court order in 1999 allowed the City of Honolulu to proceed with an $11 million restoration project that disallowed work on the pool itself until state rules were met. In May of 2004, a section of the pool’s deck collapsed, and the rest of the structure was determined to be at risk of collapsing unless the sea walls and pool deck were shored up and stabilized. Scheduled restoration work was cancelled by Honolulu mayor Mufi Hannemann on January 3, 2005, his first day in office. (See War Memorial Natatorium.) [Photograph: War Memorial Natatorium]
Aviation Aviation in the Hawaiian Islands began on October 10, 1910 when Malcolm and Elbert Tuttle (ages 14 and 13) carried their home-made, 40-pound (18 kg) glider to the top of O‘ahu’s Kaimukī Crater where Malcolm flew the craft, which measured about 15 feet (4.6 m) long and 18 feet (5.5 m) across, for a distance of about 40 feet (12.2 m) at a height of about 10 feet (3 m) off the ground. On December 31, 1910, about seven years after the Wright brothers made their famous first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, the first airplane flight in the Hawaiian Islands took place at O‘ahu’s Moanalua Polo Field when J. C. “Bud” Mars flew a Curtiss P18 biplane, the Honolulu Skylark, to an altitude of 500 feet (152 m). Thousands of onlookers paid $1 each to watch the pioneering flight, and on a subsequent flight Mars reached 1,500 feet (457 m). Mars was with a group from New York’s Glenn Curtiss Aircraft Company who had brought two Curtiss P18 biplanes to the Hawaiian Islands. On June 10, 1911, Clarence Walker crashed his biplane into a hala tree in Hilo and lived. This was the first airplane crash in the Hawaiian Islands. Tom Gunn, a pioneer of Hawaiian aviation, completed the first passenger flight in the Hawaiian Islands on July 13, 1913 when he took two people (a theater worker and a tailor) for a flight over Schofield Barracks. The first interisland flight in the Hawaiian Islands was completed on March 15, 1918 by Army Major Harold M. Clark of the Fort Kamehameha Aero Squadron, who flew from Honolulu to Moloka‘i and back. Corporal Mark Grace, a member of the Sixth Aero Squadron, became the first aviation fatality in the Hawaiian Islands on November 19, 1918 when his plane went into a tailspin and crashed. Two Army seaplanes flew from Luke Field at Pearl Harbor to Hilo in 1919, carrying the first interisland mail. Wheeler Field (now known as Wheeler Air Force Base) was established in 1922 near Schofield Barracks in Wahiawā, O‘ahu. The base was named after Sheldon H. Wheeler, an Air Force major who died in a plane crash in 1921. On August 31, 1925, Commander John Rodgers and his four-man crew flew a two-engine PN-9 Navy seaplane from near San Francisco toward the Hawaiian Islands, attempting the first flight between the Hawaiian Islands and the United States Mainland. The plane ran out of gas 300 miles (483 km) from Maui, and the crew used improvised sails and tow assistance to reach Kaua‘i’s Ahukini Harbor on September 10, 1925. John Rodgers Airport, the first official civilian airfield in the Hawaiian Islands, was dedicated in Honolulu on March 21, 1927, and was later renamed Honolulu International Airport. Hilo Airport was dedicated in 1928. On June 28, 29, 1927, Albert Hegenberger and Lester Maitland, two lieutenants in the United States Army flew the Fokker C-2-3 Wright 220 tri-motor plane Bird of Paradise to complete the first non-stop flight to the Hawaiian Islands (Wheeler Field at Schofield Barracks, O‘ahu) from the United States Mainland (Oakland, California) in 25 hours and 50 minutes. At the time it was the longest all-water flight. On July 14, 1927, Emily Bronte and pilot Ernest Smith crash landed their 27-foot (8.2-m) monoplane named The City of Oakland on Moloka‘i, becoming the first civilians to fly to the Hawaiian Islands from the United States Mainland (Oakland, California), covering about 2,200 miles (3,541 km) in 26 hours and 36 minutes. On August 16, 1927, eight planes competed in the Dole Air Derby, leaving Oakland, California for the Hawaiian Islands in an attempt to win prizes of $25,000 and $10,000 offered by James Drummond Dole, president of Hawaiian Pineapple Company. This was the first race from the United States Mainland to the Hawaiian Islands. Two planes crashed on take-off, two planes encountered difficulties and had to turn back, and two planes disappeared over the Pacific Ocean. In all, ten lives were lost in what was billed as the first trans-oceanic flight race. The winner of the trans-oceanic race was Art Goebel (with navigator William Davis) in the monoplane Woolaroc, with just 4 gallons (15 liters) of fuel to spare. Taking second place was Martin Jensen (with navigator Paul Schluter) in the Aloha. On May 31, 1928, Charles Kingsford-Smith and a three-person crew flew the Fokker tri-motor plane, Southern Cross from Oakland, California to Australia via the Hawaiian Islands and Fiji, finishing the first complete crossing of the Pacific Ocean by air when they arrived in Sydney on June 10, 1928. Interisland airmail service was established on October 8, 1928. Hawaiian Airways, Ltd., the first interisland airline, began regular sightseeing trips between the Hawaiian Islands on November 9, 1929, but the company went out of business in the following year. Inter-Island Airways Ltd. (later renamed Hawaiian Airlines), was founded on November 11, 1929 by Stanley C. Kennedy (1890-1968), a resident of the Hawaiian Islands and a World War I Navy pilot. Kennedy soon began interisland commercial air service operations using a Bellanca monoplane and two Sikorsky S-38-C 7-passenger amphibious airplanes, launching a new era of aviation in the Hawaiian Islands. The planes initially made three weekly round trips between Honolulu’s John Rodgers Airport (now called Honolulu International Airport) and Hilo, with stops on Maui (the flight took about 3 hours and 15 minutes). Trips to Moloka‘i and Lāna‘i were made by prior arrangement. Outrigger canoes were used to ferry passengers from the water to the shore. Stanley C. Kennedy was the son of James Kennedy, an interisland shipping boss. After attending Punahou School and Stanford University, Stanley earned a Silver Star in World War I flying H-16 flying boats over the North Sea. He became head of Inter-Island Steam Navigation in 1932. In 1931, a 16½ hour Army glider plane flight taking off from the Kāne‘ohe experimental grounds was completed by Lieutenant John C. Crain in a glider designed by Lieutenant W. A. Cocke Jr.. In October of 1934, Charles Kingsford-Smith and Patrick Gordon Taylor flew the single-engine Lockheed Altair Lady Southern Cross from Brisbane, Australia to Oakland, California via Fiji and Honolulu, completing the first eastbound flight from the Hawaiian Islands to the United States Mainland, arriving in Oakland on November 3, 1934. Amelia Earhart completed the first solo flight from the Hawaiian Islands (Wheeler Field, O‘ahu) to the United States Mainland (Oakland, California) on January 11-12, 1935 in a single-engine Lockheed Vega monoplane. On July 2, 1937, Amelia Earhart’s plane disappeared en route to Howland Island from Papa New Guinea on the second leg of an attempted 27,000-mile (43,452-km) trip around the world, 7,000 miles (11,265 km) short of her goal of becoming the first woman to fly around the world. On April 17, 1935, the 19-ton, 32-passenger amphibian Pan American Clipper Ship made its pioneer flight from Alameda, California to the Hawaiian Islands with no passengers, landing at Pearl Harbor after a 19 hour and 48 minute flight (an average flight speed of about 140 miles per hour (225 kilometers per hour)). The pilot, Captain Edwin Musick, and his crew of five, were greeted by about 2,500 people including Governor Joseph B. Poindexter. In November of 1935, Pan American World Airways begin mail service across the Pacific Ocean. On October 21, 22, 1936, Pan American World Airways flew a Martin M-130 flying boat, the Hawaii Clipper, from San Francisco to Honolulu with seven customers who paid $360 each (one-way), for the 21 hour and 33 minute flight. The plane had a range of 3,200 miles (5,150 kilometers) and could carry 52 passengers. The plane’s cabin resembled a luxury hotel. Dinner was served on linen tablecloths with fine china. After dinner passengers played bridge and then slept in plush rooms. Pan American soon ran twelve flights daily in and out of Honolulu on their “luxury flying boats,” and also ran flights from San Francisco to Manila, via Honolulu. Inter-Island Airways Ltd. was renamed Hawaiian Airlines in 1941, and the company introduced a 24-passenger DC-3 airplane. After being interrupted by World War II, commercial airlines resumed service in 1945, and the first to begin was Pan American World Airways. On July 26, 1946, Honolulu publisher Rudy Tongg founded Trans-Pacific Airlines (later renamed Aloha Airlines). The first flight carried 21 passengers to Hilo from Honolulu in a war surplus DC-3. On October 26, 1948, Captain Paul Ramsey piloted the first jet aircraft flight in the Hawaiian Islands, flying the Lockheed TO-1 Shooting Star from Barbers Point Naval Air Station to Honolulu and back in 25 minutes. In 1952, the 44-passenger Convair 340 airplane provided the first pressurized and air-conditioned cabins in the Hawaiian Islands. Trans-Pacific Airlines was renamed Aloha Airlines in 1958 under company president Dr. Hung Wo Ching and his brother Hung Wai Ching, who served on the board. The company also used a new fleet of Jetprop F-27’s. Hawaiian Airlines purchased a four-engine DC-6 in 1958 for trans-Pacific military charters. On July 29, 1959, commercial jet service between the Hawaiian Islands, Australia, Nadi, and San Francisco was offered by Qantas Empire Airways, utilizing Boeing 707 aircraft, beginning with the arrival of the City of Sydney after its 4 hour and 49 minute flight from San Francisco. Greeting the plane was the Royal Hawaiian Band playing “Waltzing Matilda.” Pan American soon offered flights from Tokyo to the west coast of the United States, stopping at Honolulu and Wake Island. In 1966, Hawaiian Airlines introduced the first interisland jet, a 99-passenger McDonnell Douglas DC-9, reducing interisland travel time to one half hour or less. In 1969, Aloha Airlines replaced their fleet with Boeing 737-200s, and in 1970 Pan American began flying 362-passenger Boeing 747 jumbo jets to the Hawaiian Islands from Los Angeles and San Francisco. Maui resident and famous American aviator Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974) passed away at his home in Kīpahulu near Hāna, Maui in 1974, and he is buried at Palapala Ho‘omau Congregational Church. His wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh passed away in 2001, and is also buried there. Charles Lindbergh was known affectionately as the “Lone Eagle” for his completion of the first solo flight across the Atlantic. The inscription on his granite headstone is taken from the Bible’s Psalm 139, and reads, “If I take the wings of morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea...” On November 12, 1986, a British Airways Concorde became the first supersonic transport (SST) flight to come to the Hawaiian Islands, flying from Oakland to Honolulu in a record two hours and fifteen minutes. In September of 2002, Hawaiian Airlines and Aloha Airlines received federal approval of an antitrust exemption allowing the two airlines to coordinate capacity on interisland flights. Both airlines later declared bankruptcy (Hawaiian Airlines in 2003; Aloha Airlines in 2004).
The Massie Trial
On September 12, 1931, Thalia Massie, the 20-year-old wife of United States Navy lieutenant Thomas H. Massie, attended a party at Honolulu’s Ala Wai Inn (a Honolulu nightclub formerly on the site of the present location of the Hawai‘i Convention Center), and was later found beaten and assaulted with her jaw broken in two places.
Thalia Massie told authorities that she had been forced into a car and taken to AlaMoanaPark where she was raped. Five Hawaiian and Japanese plantation workers who allegedly raped Thalia Massie (a Caucasian) were detained that night and taken to her hospital room, where she apparently identified the driver of the car, though later evidence claimed she only identified the attackers as “Hawaiian.”
Despite evidence pointing to the innocence of the detained men, they were assumed guilty by the national press, which ran stories about the brute locals preying on white women. The accused men were later set free due to lack of evidence, with a deadlocked jury that had taken 97 ballots in more than 100 hours of deliberation.
The first trial of the accused men ended in a deadlock, and a mistrial was declared. The release of the accused men fueled racial tensions and violence in Honolulu, including animosity between the military and local residents. The story garnered national attention.
A few days after the mistrial was declared, one of the defendants, 20-year-old Joseph Kahāhāwai, who was said to have been the leader of the “School Street gang,” was kidnapped by Thalia Massie’s husband and mother and two sailors, and then shot and killed.
They placed the slain Kahāhāwai’s in the trunk of their car and drove toward the rocky coastline near Koko Crater where they planned to dump the body. During the drive they were stopped by police and Kahāhāwai’s body was discovered in the back of the car.
All four—Lt. Thomas H. Massie, Mrs. Granville Fortescue, E. J. Lord, and Albert O. Jones—were indicted for second degree murder. Thomas H. Massie took responsibility for shooting Kahāhāwai, but his lawyer, the renowned Clarence Darrow, told the court his client was temporarily insane.
The four were convicted only of manslaughter by Judge Charles S. Davis, and they were sentenced to ten years hard labor at O‘ahu Prison. Governor Lawrence Judd immediately commuted the sentence to one hour, to be served in his office.
The attack on Thalia Massie, as well as the subsequent vigilante action and controversial court decisions contributed to racial tensions in the Islands for years to come. Thalia Massie later lived in Florida where she committed suicide in 1963.
Communication The first electric telegraph in Honolulu was put into operation on October 19, 1872. Charles H. Dickey installed the first commercial telegraph system in the Hawaiian Islands in 1877 between his stores in Ha‘ikū and Makawao on Maui, and the system was soon connected to Wailuku and Lahaina. The first telephone line in the Hawaiian Islands was installed between Wailuku, Maui and Kahului in 1878 by the East Maui Telegraph Company under the direction of Charles H. Dickey. The Hawaiian Bell Telephone Company, organized by Charles O. Berger, was incorporated on December 30, 1880. In 1889, the first interisland undersea cable connected Moloka‘i and Maui. The first interisland radio message was sent in November of 1900 from Kaimukī, Honolulu to Moloka‘i, via a kite flying at Wai‘alae, Maui. Commercial radio service was established on March 2, 1901, allowing communication between the Islands. The Hawaiian Islands were linked to the United States on December 28, 1902 by a Commercial Pacific Cable Company telegraph cable beneath the Pacific Ocean. The submarine cable, laid by the cable ship Silvertown, was more than 2,000 miles (3,219 km) long, extending from Ocean Beach in San Francisco to Waikīkī’s San Souci Beach. The first message across the new undersea cable was sent to San Francisco from Waikīkī on January 1, 1903. The westward extension of the undersea cable to Midway, Guam, and the Philippines was completed on July 4, 1903, allowing the first round-the-world message. President Theodore Roosevelt sent a message to the United States and all of its properties and territories, wishing all a happy Independence Day. The first wireless message between the United States and Japan was relayed from Tokyo through Kahuku, O‘ahu to New York on July 27, 1915. The first radio broadcast to California from the Hawaiian Islands took place in 1930 when KGMB transmitted a ten-minute Christmas program. Honolulu and London were connected by commercial radio service in 1932. On November 2, 1933, the Mutual Telephone Company established interisland radio telephone service. The Hawaii Calls radio series began on July 3, 1935. Webley Edwards produced and directed the show from beachside at Waikīkī’s Royal Hawaiian Hotel and later the Moana Hotel (now the Sheraton Moana Surfrider). Hawaii Calls featured top Hawaiian music, including live performances by many top Hawaiian artists. The show was broadcast on hundreds of radio stations all around the world and ran until 1975, making it the longest running radio program ever. The first scheduled television show in the Hawaiian Islands was broadcast by station KGMB-TV on December 1, 1952. The programming began with a series of live interviews that were followed by a Gene Autry movie. On May 5, 1957, the first color television program in the Hawaiian Islands was broadcast, though only about 50 residents of O‘ahu owned color televisions at the time. The program was shown by station KHVH-TV and included color slides and a Bugs Bunny cartoon. The first message sent via an undersea telephone cable connecting the United States and the Hawaiian Islands was sent to New York on October 8, 1957. In 1964, an $84 million undersea cable linked Tokyo and the Hawaiian Islands. On October 26, 1966, a small, drum-shaped communication satellite, officially known as Intelsat II and affectionately known as the “Lani Bird,” broadcasted the Islands’ first live television show from the United States Mainland.
Pearl Harbor On Dec. 7, 1941, more than 350 Japanese bomber planes attacked Pearl Harbor and other O‘ahu military sites. The first planes to arrive struck the Mōkapu Peninsula’s Pacific Naval Air Base, killing or wounding 84 Americans and damaging 36 seaplanes. Seven minutes later, at 7:55 a.m., the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor began, entering the United States into World War II. Newly installed United States Army radar equipment at ‘Ōpana had picked up a large blip, but assumed it was from incoming American B-17’s, and ignored the danger. Deaths of United States military personnel at Pearl Harbor totaled 2,323, with 60 civilians also killed in the attack. Another 1,178 people were wounded. Eight huge American battleships were sunk or damaged, along with three light cruisers, three destroyers, and four smaller ships. In all, 21 United States ships were damaged (19 sunk) and 347 planes were destroyed in the Pearl Harbor attack, including planes on Ford Island and at Wheeler Airfield. (Note: At the time of the attack, Pearl Harbor held 145 vessels, including 96 warships.)[53] The United States suffered a total of 3,566 naval and military casualties in the attack along the deaths of 48 O‘ahu residents. 1,177 men perished in the fiery sinking of the U.S.S. Arizona, which was at its moorings on Battleship Row, and sunk just nine minutes after being hit by a 1,760-pound (798-kg) armor-piercing bomb. The bodies of 945 of the crew members of the Arizona were never recovered, and remain entombed in the sunken vessel; 334 of the crew members survived. The U.S.S. Oklahoma was struck by several torpedoes, trapping 400 men in the ship as it rolled completely over. United States anti-aircraft guns responded to the attack 15 minutes after the start of the bombing and destroyed 29 Japanese planes and sunk five midget submarines. The first shot of December 7, 1941 came from the destroyer USS Ward, which sank a 78-foot (24-m) Japanese miniature submarine outside Pearl Harbor more than an hour before the aerial attack by the Japanese planes began. A 4-inch (10-cm) shell pierced the submarine’s conning tower, depth charges were dropped, and the submarine sank. (Note: The Japanese miniature submarine was located on August 28, 2002 by the deep-diving submersibles of the Hawai‘i Undersea Research Laboratory of the University of Hawai‘i.) One Japanese pilot crash landed on Ni‘ihau after the Pearl Harbor attack. Ni‘ihau resident Benehakaka Kanahele’s confrontation with the downed pilot was the only combat in the Islands against an armed enemy during World War II. Other sites on O‘ahu that were hit included Hickam, Wheeler, Bellows, and Kāne‘ohe airfields as well as ‘Ewa Marine Corp Air Station and Schofield Barracks. In all, fifty-five Japanese airmen and 9 submariners were killed along with one man captured. On December 30, 1941, Japanese submarines shelled the ports of Kahului on Maui, Nāwiliwili on Kaua‘i, and Hilo on Hawai‘i Island. On January 28, 1942, a Japanese submarine torpedoed the Army transport ship Royal T. Frank in Hawaiian waters, killing 21 people. A lone Japanese plane bombed Honolulu on March 2, 1942, and throughout the Islands there was a general fear of being attacked by Japan. On September 2, 1945, the forces of Japan officially surrendered on the deck of the U.S.S. Missouri battleship, now berthed at Pearl Harbor’s Battleship Row. Victory in Japan Day (“V-J Day”) was declared on August 15, 1945 after the United States dropped nuclear bombs on Japan in Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945), leading to the imminent defeat of Japan.
Martial Law In response to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Martial Law was declared in the Hawaiian Islands at 4:30 p.m. on December 7, 1941 by Territorial governor Joseph B. Poindexter, in consultation with United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, suspending the writ of habeas corpus and stripping Poindexter of his administrative powers. With the imposition of Martial Law, Governor Poindexter turned civilian duties over to Lieutenant General Walter Short, who became military governor of the Islands. All residents of the Hawaiian Islands were subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and the Territorial constitution was suspended, as was the authority of the Supreme Court and the Legislature. Civilian courts were replaced with military judges. Honolulu’s ‘Iolani Palace was barricaded and trenches were dug around the building for security. The building was used by a military governor, Major General Thomas H. Greene, appointed from the United States Judge Advocate General’s Corps. Martial Law imposed many restrictions on residents of the Hawaiian Islands, including enforced blackouts from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. Curfews were imposed and blackout wardens patrolled neighborhoods. All residents over the age of six were fingerprinted, and the media was censored along with all mail (questionable letters were confiscated). Civilians were required to turn over all communication devices as well as all cameras and weapons. Food and gas were rationed, saloons were closed, alcohol was prohibited, and business hours were restricted. Japanese-owned property was confiscated including stores, schools, and banks. The United States military was allowed to take whatever land it needed, and the Army eventually controlled about one-third of O‘ahu, including the campus of Punahou School, which was taken over by the Corps of Engineers. All civilian residents in the Islands were fingerprinted and given personal identification cards that had to be in their possession at all times. Laws imposed by the military governor were known as General Orders, and any transgressions were dealt with by military tribunals—there were no appeals. Many Japanese were arrested and interned under suspicion of espionage or sabotage, though none were ever found guilty. (See The 442nd/100th.) In 1943, the Territorial Government regained control of most civilian functions, but Martial Law would remain in effect until October of 1944, into the term of governor Ingram M. Stainback. Curfews, censorship and gas rationing ended in 1945. In 1946, the declaration of Martial Law in the Hawaiian Islands was determined to be unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court.
The 442nd/100th—Hawai‘i’s Nisei Soldiers After the 1941 attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government discharged 5,000 Japanese-American soldiers and declared Japanese-Americans “4-C,” non-draftable enemy aliens. The Japanese and Japanese-American population of the Hawaiian Islands at this time was about 100,000, including 35,000 first generation Japanese. Many of the most influential Japanese in the Hawaiian Islands were detained, including community leaders, ministers, Buddhist priests, and principals of Japanese schools. Initially these Japanese and Japanese-Americans detainees were taken to Sand Island, which began its use as an internment camp on December 8, 1941. In all, about 1,500 residents of the Hawaiian Islands were part of about 115,000 Americans of Japanese ancestry interned in ten internment camps on the United States Mainland. (Note: The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 provided restitution for the internment, allocating $1.6 billion to 82,000 people in 1999.) Despite the United States government’s suspicions about Japanese residents of the Hawaiian Islands, and the harsh and often racist treatment Japanese-Americans received after the Pearl Harbor attack, many wished to show their loyalty and join the war effort. Initial plans called for 1,500 volunteer soldiers from the Hawaiian Islands—more than 10,000 volunteered. Recruiting was not as successful on the United States Mainland where recruiters hoped for 3,000 soldiers but only 1,200 volunteered. Nisei soldiers formed a civilian workforce called the Varsity Victory Volunteers to help build roads, construct barracks, and dig ditches. The War Department appreciated these efforts, and in 1943 created an all-Nisei combat unit. In the summer of 1942, approximately 1,300 Americans of Japanese ancestry from the Hawaiian Islands traveled to Wisconsin’s Camp McCoy for training, and then formed the 100th Infantry Battalion. On February 1, 1943, the government announced the formation of the 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team, initially consisting of Nisei (second generation Japanese-American) volunteers from the Hawaiian Islands and the United States Mainland who wanted to demonstrate their loyalty to the United States. In June of 1944 in Italy, the 100th Infantry Battalion joined ranks with the 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team. The 442nd/100th, which was comprised mostly of Hawai‘i’s Nisei soldiers, fought in Italy before participating in the invasion in southern France. For their heroic efforts despite heavy losses in Italy, France, and Germany, the 442nd became known as the “Purple Heart Battalion.” The motto of the 442nd was “Go For Broke,” a Hawaiian slang term referring to risking everything. In October of 1944 they broke through German forces and liberated the French town of Bruyeres from the Nazis, and then rescued 211 members of the “Lost Battalion,” a Texas Battalion (1st Battalion, 141st Infantry Battalion, 36th Infantry Division), in Biffontaine, losing more than half of their own soldiers in the process—800 soldiers in a one month period. The “Lost Battalion,” known as the “Alamo Regiment” was trapped behind enemy lines for five days, surrounded by Germans and out of food and ammunition. The rescue of the “Lost Battalion” was considered a pivotal battle in the war, and one of the most famous battles of military history. The 442nd/100th, which eventually became the most decorated unit in United States history, earning more than 18,000 total awards for their stellar war performance record, and their valorous fighting in numerous battles despite suffering high casualty rates. Awards given to the 442nd included 9,486 Purple Hearts, 52 Distinguished Service Crosses, 8 Distinguished Unit Citations, and 21 Congressional Medals of Honor.
Tsunamis One of the first recorded tsunamis in the Hawaiian Islands was generated near Chile and hit Kahului, Maui on November 7, 1837. At least 15 people were killed as livestock, canoes, and the village’s 26 grass houses were swept inland and deposited in a small lake. In Hilo, 100 houses were destroyed. Nearly every European-style home in the Ka‘ū district of Hawai‘i Island was destroyed on April 2, 1868 when an earthquake measuring 8.0 on the Richter scale caused a mudslide and localized tsunami. The mud flow buried a village of 31 people along with about 50 animals, killing 40 people in all. The tsunami killed 48 people when water surged ashore up to 60 feet (18 m) high, sweeping away the ancient village of ‘Āpua in Puna. On May 9, 1877, a large earthquake occurred near Peru, resulting in a tsunami that arrived in Hilo before dawn killing 45 people and destroying 37 houses. An 8.0 earthquake on the Tonga Trench in 1901 generated a 4-foot (1.2-m) high tsunami that hit Kailua-Kona, causing minor damage. A 5-foot (1.5-m) high tsunami arrived in Hilo in 1918, doing little damage. An earthquake in the Aleutian Islands on February 23, 1923 generated a tsunami that caused waves more than 20 feet (6 m) high to hit the Waiākea area of Hilo, and also caused significant damage in Kahului, Maui. On April 1, 1946, an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generated a tsunami that killed 159 people in Hilo and Laupāhoehoe on Hawai‘i Island, and also hit Maui and Kaua‘i. The tsunami destroyed 500 buildings in Hilo and damaged about 1,000 other structures, killing 96 people. The third tsunami wave was reportedly the biggest of some 15 waves that swept inland, killing people and destroying property. Water surged as high as 56 feet (17 m) above sea level in some places, and more than 33 feet (10 m) above sea level in Hilo. The tsunami caused an estimated $26 million damage in all, including railroads, bridges, piers and ships. Other affected coastal areas on Hawai‘i Island included Laupāhoehoe, where 24 people were killed. The 1946 tsunami also hit other Hawaiian Islands, killing 17 people on Kaua‘i, 13 on Maui, and six on O‘ahu, including one at Makapu‘u, two at Kahuku, and three at Kahana. On March 9, 1957, an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generated a tsunami that destroyed 75 homes on Kaua‘i’s northern shore. On May 22, 1960, a large earthquake generated near Chile about 6,600 miles (10,600 km) from the Hawaiian Islands moved a piece of land the size of California 30 feet (9 m) in just minutes. About 15 hours later, on the morning of May 23, Hilo was hit by at least seven significant tsunami waves over a two-hour period. The third wave was the most destructive, creating a bore in Hilo Bay that rushed ashore over a 4-mile (6.4 km) section of the Hilo waterfront at a speed reported to be more than 37 miles per hour (60 km./hr.), surging water as high as 36 feet (11 m) above sea level. The tsunami killed 61 people and also destroyed 229 homes and 308 public buildings and businesses. One of North America’s largest earthquakes ever recorded occurred in Alaska in 1964, registering a magnitude of 8.4 on the Richter scale and generating tsunami waves that caused flooding in Kahului, Maui, and Hilo. On November 29, 1975, two strong earthquakes shook the southeast region of Hawai‘i Island, causing a small eruption of Kīlauea Volcano and generating a localized tsunami that came ashore near the site of an old Hawaiian village that is now a campground area called Halapē. One of the 1975 earthquakes registered at least 7.2 on the Richter scale. The ground in the area sank some 12 feet (3.7 m) and rocks fell from the cliffs above. The tsunami wave swept campers onto a rugged lava field and washed some of them into a huge crack in the lava, killing two people and injuring many more. A tsunami warning in Honolulu in 1986 caused massive traffic jams, but turned out to be a false alarm.
Mimiki ke kai, ahuwale ka papa leho. When the sea draws out in the tidal wave, the rocks where the cowries hide are exposed. Secrets will out on the day of wrath.[liv]
Earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions all may cause tsunamis, which have killed more people in the Hawaiian Islands than all other natural disasters combined. A typical tsunami has a wavelength of 50 to 300 miles (80 to 483 km), with some wavelengths exceeding 465 miles (748 km). A tsunami may travel across the ocean at about 475 miles/hour (764 km./hr.)—the deeper the ocean, the faster the tsunami travels. The time it takes one complete wave to pass a given point is known as the wave’s period, and a typical tsunami may have a period from 9 to 30 minutes. When traveling across the open ocean, a tsunami is typically only several feet high. This low wave height is due to the fact that a tsunami’s wavelength reaches all the way to the seafloor, which may be more than 20,000 feet (6,100 m) from the ocean’s surface. Often the full terror of a tsunami becomes apparent only when the wave finally reaches shallow waters. [Photograph: Tsunami]
Kaha aku la ka nalu o ku‘u ‘āina. The surf of my land has swept everything away.[lv]
Nēnē—The Hawaiian Goose
Many thousands of years ago, some Canadian geese were blown off course or perhaps caught in a storm, and ended up in the Hawaiian Islands. Their descendents evolved into an endemic (unique) Hawaiian goose species that is now Hawai‘i’s official state bird. The nēnē (Branta sandvicensis) is about two feet long, which is a typical size for a goose. The nēnē’s head, face, and the back of its neck (the nape) are black, and the cheeks and the sides of the neck are a light tan color, with a buffy striped pattern (distinct horizontal bands). The nēnē’s lower body has this same light brown color and is striped, but the top of the body is a darker gray or brown. The nēnē’s bill is black, as are its legs and feet. The webbing between the toes on the nēnē’s feet is much reduced compared to the fuller webbing on the feet of its ancestor, the Canadian goose. This adaptation is better for walking on high, dry lava flows and other nēnē habitats. When nēnē fly they make a “ney ney” sound, but on the ground nēnē sometimes make a different noise, slightly similar to a cow’s moo. Nēnē aren’t very shy, and sometimes approach humans.
Nēnē eat grasses, seeds, buds, flowers, berries and leaves, and are especially fond of native plants such as berries of naupaka, ‘ōhelo, kūkaenēnē, pūkiawe and ‘ulei (Hawaiian hawthorn). Nēnē prefer high, dry areas like old lava flows as well as wetlands and forest uplands. The nēnē builds its nest on the ground and lines it with feathers. One reason the nēnē became so endangered is due to ground predators including mongooses, pigs, rats, and domestic animals.
By the age of two, nēnē begin laying eggs. They nest between October and March, and one nēnē may lay from two to five (usually four or five) creamy, white eggs. They sit on the eggs for about 30 days while the eggs incubate. Sometimes the mother leaves the nest during this time and when she does, she covers the eggs with the downy feathers that are part of the nest lining. During nesting, the adults go through a four to six week process called molting, at which time the adult birds cannot fly. The infant chick is able to run around just as soon as the chick’s downy feathers dry. The parents provide food for the baby until the hatchling is about 10 to 12 weeks old, when the gosling learns to fly. Predatory animals, habitat destruction, hunting, and egg collecting decimated nēnē populations of all the Hawaiian Islands. By 1951, there were only about 30 nēnē left in the wild as well as some captive nēnē in European and American zoos. Beginning in 1949, scientists began raising nēnē in captivity. More than 1,600 birds were raised at Pōhakuloa on Hawai‘i Island. Beginning in 1951, nēnē were also raised at England’s Slimbridge Wildfowl Trust. In all, more than 2,000 nēnē were raised in captivity between 1960 and 1990 and released on three of the Hawaiian Islands (Kaua‘i, Maui, and Hawai‘i). Today the wild nēnē population has increased to more than 2,000 birds statewide. Kaua‘i is considered the ideal place for nēnē because there are no mongooses, as there are on the other main Hawaiian Islands. On Kaua‘i the population of nēnē has rapidly grown, and they are seen in various low elevation habitats (e.g., lower Hanalei Valley) as well as higher elevations (e.g., Kōke‘e State Park). On other Hawaiian Islands, however, nēnē populations are generally restricted to higher elevations. [Photograph: Nēnē]
Unions In 1935, the U.S. Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act, opening the way for the systematic organization of unions that would have profound impacts on business and industry in the Hawaiian Islands. That same year, the first union newspaper—Voice of Labor—was published, and a local branch of the ILA, an international longshore union, instigated a dockworker’s strike in Hilo that led to the reinstatement of some workers. The International Longshoremen’s & Warehousemen’s Union (ILWU) eventually became a major political and labor influence. On August 1, 1938, the Hilo Longshoremen’s Association went on strike against the Inter-Island Steamship Navigation Company. After marching down Kūhiō Road, about 250 workers and their supporters staged a peaceful sit-in at the Hilo wharf where the Inter-Island Steamship Company vessel Waialeale was arriving from Honolulu with armed strikebreakers on board. When the ship arrived, police and strikebreakers attacked the striking workers with bayonets, tear gas and fire hoses, and guns, and fired buck shot and bird shot injuring 51 people. The event came to be known as the “Hilo Massacre” and “Bloody Monday.” The incident spurred a period of strikes and violence that spanned over the next two years and led to the shutdown of the docks of the Inter-Island Steamship Company. On the 50th anniversary of the event, a monument was placed at the Hilo dock. In 1940, a strike by longshore plantation workers at Kaua‘i’s Ahukini port lasted 298 days, the longest to date. By this time the ILWU had become a formidable union under the leadership of regional director Jack Hall. Passage of the Hawai‘i Employment Relations Act in 1945 empowered agricultural workers and allowed the ILWU to begin organizing workers on pineapple and sugar plantations. On September 1, 1946, 28,000 workers from 33 sugar plantations went on a statewide strike against the Hawai‘i Employers Council. The ILWU represented the strikers in this action, which became known as the Great Hawai‘i Sugar Strike and lasted 79 days. The union was victorious, and ILWU national chief Harry Bridges stated that Hawai‘i was no longer a feudal colony. On May 1, 1949, the ILWU led by Jack Hall went on strike against Hawai‘i’s “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke. The strike shut down the docks as the union demanded wage parity with workers on the United States Mainland. The ILWU strike lasted 157 days and became known as the Great Hawaiian Dock Strike, crippling the flow of goods to the Islands, which were almost totally dependent upon shipping. The strike resulted in statewide food shortages and caused the bankruptcy of many small businesses. Labor organizers were accused of participation in a Communist plot (this was during the McCarthy era). On April 1, 1950, the House Un-American Activities Committee held hearings at ‘Iolani Palace in Honolulu to investigate alleged Communist infiltration of the labor movement, issuing subpoenas to 70 people including Honolulu ILWU leader Jack Kawano. When Kawano and 38 others refused to testify, the “Reluctant 39” were charged with contempt of Congress. The U.S. Supreme Court later threw out the charges. On August 28, 1951, seven union organizers, including Jack Hall, the ILWU’s regional director in the Hawaiian Islands, were indicted for violating the Smith Act (advocating the use of force or violence to overthrow the U.S. government). The seven were convicted after a seven-month trial in 1952-53, with one of the men sentenced to three years in prison and six of the men given five year terms. The verdict led to an all-Islands walkout of union members. Jack Hall served no time while the six others served just one week before being bailed out. In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged into one union. After repeated appeals, and then a 1957 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that the teaching of Communism is not illegal, the “Hawai‘i Seven” verdict was overturned in 1958 by the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. A strike by sugar plantation laborers in 1958 lasted 128 days, with a settlement reached on June 9, 1958, resulting in the return to work of 13,000 workers who received significant wage gains and a three year contract. Governor William F. Quinn presented the proposal that led to the resolution of the strike. The Honolulu Advertiser and the Honolulu Star-Bulletin were shut down by a 44-day strike in 1963. Transit workers of the Honolulu Rapid Transit company (a private company) began a 67-day strike on March 1, 1967, the longest transit workers strike in the Hawaiian Islands. Teamsters Local 996 represented the workers. Hawai‘i Democrats established the nation’s first right-to-strike law for public-employee unions in 1968, strengthening a powerful union lobby that began to significantly influence political change. In 1970, the Hawai‘i Public Employment Relations Act was passed, allowing County and State workers to join unions, file grievances, and bargain for contracts with better wages and working conditions. On October 9, 1970, two thousand hotel workers represented by the ILWU went on strike in what became the largest hotel worker’s strike the Hawaiian Islands, lasting 75 days. On January 1, 1971, transit workers represented by Hawai‘i Teamsters Local 996 went on strike against the Honolulu Rapid Transit, a private company owned by Harry Weinberg. The strike lasted for two months, inconveniencing some 70,000 commuters and leading to the creation of a city transportation system negotiated by Mayor Frank Fasi. A strike by dockworkers on the West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands began on July 1, 1971, with about 15,000 members stopping work until October of 1971 when President Nixon halted the strike for 90 days. The strike resumed the day after Christmas and continued until February, lasting 134 days in all. A strike by United Airlines pilots and flight attendants in 1985 lasted four weeks, costing the State of Hawai‘i an estimated $100 million in lost revenue. Public education in the state was shut down on April 5, 2001 by two major strikes involving 3,000 University of Hawai‘i faculty and 10,000 public school teachers, the state’s first combined upper and lower education strike. University of Hawai‘i faculty were represented by the UHPA, and the public school teachers were represented by the HSTA. Major unions in the Hawaiian Islands today include: International Brotherhood of Carpenters & Joiners, Hawai‘i Carpenters Union; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Brotherhood of Teamsters; Hawai‘i Government Employees Association (HGEA/AFSCME); Hawai‘i State Teacher’s Association (HSTA-NEA); Hotel Employees & Restaurant Employees (HERE); International Longshoremen’s & Warehousemen’s Union; and United Public Workers (UPW/AFSCME).
The Democratic Revolution During the first half of the 1900s, Caucasian, Republican interests connected to the sugar plantation economy dominated politics in the Hawaiian Islands, which was controlled by Hawai‘i’s “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke. Largely excluded from political power were native Hawaiians as well as the many ethnic groups that came to the Hawaiian Islands as contract laborers—Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Filipinos, Puerto Ricans, Okinawans, Spanish, Koreans, and others. The political landscape of the Hawaiian Islands changed rapidly in the mid-1950s when returning World War II veterans, many of whom were distinguished members of the renowned 442nd Infantry Regiment, began to assert their political power. Japanese-Americans led the new political movement and formed alliances with other ethnic groups, including Filipinos. These increasingly powerful ethnic groups were supported by landowners and business leaders who helped them win important election victories in what became known as the Democratic Revolution of 1954 (six Democrats (Nisei) had been elected to the Territorial Legislature in 1946). Favoring statehood, liberal labor benefits, land reform, and equality in education, the Democrats gained a majority in the Territorial House of Representatives and two years later won both Houses. In 1954, Democrats won 55 of the 76 election contests, gaining control of five of the six branches of the Territorial government. In 1962, former Honolulu police captain and U.S. Representative John Burns was elected governor of the State of Hawai‘i, and for the first time Democrats controlled both the executive and legislative branches of the state’s government. John Burns served as the governor of the State of Hawai‘i until 1974, and he is considered the founder of a Democratic political dynasty in the State of Hawai‘i that lasted until the election of Linda Lingle in 2002.
Daniel Inouye Born in Honolulu on September 7, 1924, Daniel Inouye was the first of four children of Hyotaro and Kame Inouye. As a child, Inouye attended McKinley High School in Honolulu and worked at various jobs, including parking cars at Honolulu Stadium. In 1943 at the age of 18, Inouye enlisted in the Army, and from 1944 to 1947 he served in the United States Army’s renowned 442nd Infantry Regiment. Designated a Sergeant, Inouye fought in the Italian campaign where he became a combat platoon leader. Fighting in the French Vosges Mountains in the fall of 1944, Inouye won a Bronze Star when he helped rescue “The Lost Battalion,” a Texas Battalion (141st Regiment, 36th Infantry Division) that was surrounded by German forces. Inouye also became a Second Lieutenant. During an attack on a well-defended hill in Italy, a bullet tore through Inouye’s abdomen and came out his back, just missing his spine. As platoon leader, he alone continued to advance, and threw two hand grenades at the machine gun position that had pinned down his men. As Inouye advanced, a German rifle grenade hit him from close range and tore up his right arm. With his left hand, he threw his last grenade and then fired his submachine gun before finally being stopped when he was hit yet again, this time by a bullet in the leg. Twenty-five Germans were killed and eight captured in the attack led by Inouye. After nearly two years in the hospital, Inouye returned home in 1947 with the second highest award for military valor, the Distinguished Service Cross. This award was later upgraded to a Medal of Honor (the highest award), which was presented to Inouye by the President of the United States on June 21, 2000. Twenty-two other former 442nd members also received the Medal of Honor. Inouye also earned a Purple Heart with cluster and a Bronze Star, along with a dozen other citations and medals. After attending the University of Hawai‘i (1950) and George Washington University Law School (1952), Inouye became Honolulu’s Deputy Public Prosecutor in 1954. Inouye’s involvement in politics began during the era of McCarthyism, which was particularly directed against those supporting unions in the Hawaiian Islands. When Inouye and other Democrats were accused of being Communists, Inouye responded: “We bitterly resent having our loyalty and patriotism questioned. I gave this arm to fight Fascists,” he said, shaking his empty right sleeve, adding, “...If my country wants the other one to fight Communists, it can have it.” Inouye was elected to the House of Representatives of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1954, re-elected in 1956, then elected to the Territorial Senate in 1958. When Inouye was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1959 after Hawai‘i became the 50th state, he became the State of Hawai‘i’s first Congressman and the first Japanese-American in the United States House or Congress. At Inouye’s swearing in the Speaker stated “Raise your right hand and repeat after me.” Inouye proudly raised his left hand and stated the oath of office. Inouye was re-elected to the House in 1960, elected to the U.S. Senate in 1962, and then repeatedly re-elected to the Senate. In 1968, he served as the Keynote Speaker at the Democratic National Convention and gained fame during the nationally televised Watergate hearings in the 1970s and later as chairman of the Senate Iran-Contra hearings. In 1993, Inouye helped arrange the return of the island of Kaho‘olawe to the State of Hawai‘i. Inouye received 76% of the votes when he won his 7th term in 1998. He is now serving his eighth consecutive term and is the Senate’s third most senior member. Inouye has been involved in many defense-related issues and serves on the Senate Defense Appropriations Committee, and he continues to lobby for legislation that creates job for residents of the Hawaiian Islands. Inouye’s extensive political influence has helped to allocate hundreds of millions of federal dollars to programs in the State of Hawai‘i. [Photograph: Daniel Inouye]
Ala Moana The Ala Moana Shopping Center opened on August 3, 1959, the same year Hawai‘i was admitted as the 50th state. The shopping center sits on an area that was marshland in the early 1900s. Much of the land was more than three feet (1 m) underwater and covered with duck farms. The Hawaiian Dredging Company, led by Walter F. Dillingham, purchased 50 acres (20 ha) of the swamp land in 1912 and brought coral there from nearby dredging projects. Plans for a shopping center were begun in 1848 by Walter Dillingham’s son, Lowell, who was president of Hawaiian Land Company (a Hawaiian Dredging Company affiliate). In 1931, the City and County of Honolulu acted to clean up the region, which had also been the site of a refuse dump. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt dedicated Moana Park in 1934, and it was renamed Ala Moana in 1947. Eventually sand was brought to the beachfront area, and the two-story Ala Moana Shopping Center was built on an adjacent 50 acres (20 ha) of land using coral fill dredged from the offshore reef. Construction on the shopping center began in 1957. At the initial opening of the $28 million, two-level shopping center on August 13, 1959, there were 87 stores, totalling 680 square feet (63 sq.m.) of space), and 5,000 parking stalls. Some of the stores at Ala Moana were Woolworth, Longs, Sears, McInerney’s, Hartfields, Carousel, Chandler’s, Foodland, Shirokiya, and Uyehara’s Service Station. The second phase of Ala Moana opened in 1966, increasing the shopping center’s area to 1.35 million square feet (.12 million sq. m) with a total of 155 stores, including Liberty House as well as J.C. Penney, which expanded to the fourth level in 1976. The center’s total area increased to 1.5 million square feet (.14 million sq.m.) by 1980 when Liberty House added a fourth level. In 1982 the Ala Moana shopping center and two nearby office buildings were sold for $300 million to Daiea, Inc. (a Japanese retail company) and Equitable (an insurance company). Daiea bought Equitable’s 40% stake for $410 million in 1995. A boom in Japanese tourism fueled the mall’s fourth major expansion in 1990. A third level was added in the mall’s center where high-end fashion merchandise was sold. In 1996, construction began on a 160,000 square foot (14,864 sq.m.) Neiman Marcus store (opening in 1998), and another 160,000 square feet (14,900 sq.m.) of space on the third level (opening in 1999) to house 30 more stores and restaurants.
Statehood A general election plebiscite on November 5, 1940 favored statehood by a 2 to 1 margin. After World War II ended in 1945, the Hawaiian statehood movement grew, and control economic, political and social life in the Hawaiian Islands was increasingly dominated by Caucasian and Republican corporate interests that were strengthened by the dominant trading and sugar firms, including the powerful “Big Five”: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke. A constitutional convention convened on April 4, 1950 to create a state constitution to present to the United States Congress. The convention produced a draft document in October of 1950 that was approved by the Legislature. On November 7, 1950 the measure was put the voters in a general election and ratified by a 3-1 margin. On Honolulu’s Bishop Street in 1954, proponents of statehood gathered 150,000 signatures on a petition about 3 miles (5 km) long, written on a roll of blank newsprint. Hawai‘i’s delegates to Congress—John Burns, Joseph Farrington, and Elizabeth Farrington—pushed for statehood. When Alaska became a state in 1958, it removed some significant political obstacles to the Hawaiian Islands becoming a state, and made statehood virtually imminent. The United States Senate passed a measure on March 11, 1959, followed by the U.S. House of Representatives on March 12, 1959. United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Act into law on March 18, 1959, though it required a plebiscite of Hawaiian residents for approval. This occurred on June 27, 1959 when residents of the Hawaiian Islands voted in favor of statehood, and the plebiscite passed 17 to 1, with only Ni‘ihau opposing it. The first general election was held on July 28, 1959 and William F. Quinn was elected governor of the State of Hawai‘i. Oren E. Long and Hiram L. Fong were elected to be Hawai‘i’s first senators. Daniel K. Inouye was elected to the United States House of Representatives, becoming the first American congressman of Japanese descent to serve in the House of Representatives. On August 21, 1959, President Eisenhower signed the Statehood Proclamation and Hawai‘i was officially admitted as the 50th state. The State of Hawai‘i’s population at this time was about 622,000 people, with more than 240,000 annual visitors. On July 4, 1960, a 50th star was added to the flag of the United States, and Hawai‘i’s state flag was formally accepted. As a result of statehood, 1.8 million acres (.73 million ha) of ceded lands were transferred to the State of Hawai‘i by the United States government to be held in trust for five purposes: public education; public use; public improvements; farm and home ownership; and the betterment of Native Hawaiians.
The U.S.S. Arizona Memorial The U.S.S. Arizona Memorial in Pearl Harbor honors those who died in the Dec. 7, 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, an event that entered the United States into World War II. The Memorial is an open structure that is 184 feet (56 m) long, and positioned directly over the wreck of the U.S.S. Arizona where 1,177 died and 900 remain entombed. The architect of the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial was an Austrian named Alfred Preis who fled the Nazis in 1939 and later moved to the Hawaiian Islands. President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved the creation of the Memorial in 1958, and it was officially dedicated on Memorial Day, May 31, 1962. An Elvis Presley benefit concert at Honolulu’s Bloch Arena raised about $64,000 toward the $500,000 cost of the shrine. Designated as a National Historical Landmark in 1989, the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial is now one of the most visited attractions in the Hawaiian Islands. About 1.5 million people tour the Memorial each year.
Mormons in the Hawaiian Islands—The Polynesian Cultural Center On December 12, 1850, ten Mormons arrived from the California gold camps and became the first Mormon missionaries in the Hawaiian Islands. One of these men was George Q. Cannon, a leader in the effort to translate the Book of Mormon into the Hawaiian language. On August 8, 1851 at Kealakou, Maui, the first branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was established. In 1855 Cannon published the Hawaiian translation of the Book of Mormon, titled Ka Buke a Moramona. On July 4, 1861 Walter Murray Gibson (1822-1888) arrived after becoming a Mormon missionary. With the approval of Brigham Young to convert Pacific Islanders, Gibson became the leader of a colony of Mormons on Lāna‘i whose leader had returned to Utah three years earlier due to the Mormon War. Mormon church elders later found out that Gibson had used church funds to purchase about half of Lāna‘i and put it in his own name. He was excommunicated in 1864. In 1865, the Mormons from Lāna‘i purchased 6,000 acres (2,428 ha) and in the Lā‘ie region at the base of O‘ahu’s Ko‘olau Mountains. Gibson moved to Hawai‘i Island in 1872, and was appointed as King Kalākaua’s minister of foreign affairs in 1882. Gibson was forced out of the position during the 1887 revolution that led to the Bayonet Constitution. In 1919, the Mormons used volcanic rocks and crushed coral to build a smaller version of the Mormon temple located in Salt Lake City, Utah. Costing $500,000, the temple was dedicated on November 27, 1919 and became the first Mormon temple built outside of the continental United States. In 1955, Mormons established the Latter Day Saints Church College of Hawai‘i in Lā‘ie, and Mormon President David O. McKay dedicated the College in 1958. By 1971, Church College had about 1,300 students, many of whom came from various Pacific Islands. In 1974 the school became a branch campus of Provo, Utah’s Brigham Young University, a four-year college with an enrollment of about 2,000 undergraduates. The Mormon temple is considered the “cornerstone” of the college. The success of Polynesian shows put on by the college in the 1950s led to the construction of the Polynesian Cultural Center, which opened on October 12, 1963. Founded by the Mormon Church, the Polynesian Cultural Center is run by the college and staffed by students. A significant expansion in 1975 made the Lā‘ie site a major O‘ahu attraction. Today the Polynesian Cultural Center encompasses 42 acres (17 ha), including seven theme villages arranged around lagoons. The villages represent various cultures of Polynesia, including the Marquesas, Samoa, Fiji, New Zealand, Tahiti, Tonga, and the Hawaiian Islands, each with its own unique music, dances, and crafts, which include coconut cracking, tree climbing, and fire starting as well as participatory activities such as lei making and rope making. A daily highlight at the Polynesian Cultural Center is the 90-minute post-dinner show with erupting volcanoes and other special effects. About 900,000 people visit the Polynesian Cultural Center each year, making it O‘ahu’s second most visited attraction after the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial.
The Merrie Monarch Festival Premiering in 1964 as part of the Hilo Festival, the Merrie Monarch Festival became an organized hula competition in 1971. Television coverage of the event began in 1981, and today the Merrie Monarch is the premier hula event in the state, and also the largest. The Merrie Monarch Festival is named in honor of King David La‘amea Kalākaua, who reigned from 1874 to 1891 and was known as the Merrie Monarch for his revival of hula and other Hawaiian customs. When King Kalākaua held a coronation ceremony for himself in February of 1883 at the newly built ‘Iolani Palace in Honolulu, Hawaiian men chanted and pounded on pā ipu (gourd drums) and women in traditional dress performed hula. King Kalākaua encouraged the traditional Hawaiian activities despite the protests of the era’s missionaries and other influential families of the day (beginning in 1820, the missionaries had exerted a steady influence on the native Hawaiians, discouraging traditional cultural and religious beliefs and practices, including hula). Kalākaua was attacked in the newspapers for allowing “paganism.” Starting each year on Easter Sunday, the Merrie Monarch Festival hula competition is a prominent showcase of the living Hawaiian culture of hula and mele. The Merrie Monarch Festival has long been planned and organized under the leadership of “Auntie Dottie,” a.k.a. Dorothy Thompson. Stringent guidelines require Merrie Monarch contestants to present the judges with fact sheets detailing their research and the rationale for their performance. Costumes are also required to fit the time portrayed in the chant or dance. The Merrie Monarch is just one of numerous annual gatherings, festivals, and competitions held throughout the Hawaiian Islands.
Hula and Mele According to legend, the first hula occurred when Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes, wanted her sisters to entertain her with song and dance. Only Pele’s youngest sister, Hi‘iaka, would comply, and she performed gracefully and powerfully for Pele to the amazement of all. Today hula is a beautiful art form and culturally significant practice that embraces and perpetuates Hawaiian history, legends, and culture. Kuhi no ka lima, hele no ka maka. Where the hands move, there let the eyes follow. A rule in hula.[lvi]
With no written language, the ancient Hawaiians recorded their histories, genealogies, legends, and the phenomena of their gods through the creation and memorization of chants known as oli and dances called hula. An oli is a chant that traditionally was not accompanied by dance. Often long phrases are chanted in a single breath, with each phrase ending with an ‘i‘i (trill). Mele is a more general word that refers to any type of song or chant. A hula master, or kumu hula, trains the hula dancers in a school called a hālau. The dancers are trained not only in the dance movements but also in the philosophy of the hula. In ancient Hawai‘i, one who trained from childhood in the art of chanting was known as haku mele, a prestigious accomplishment that gave the person a high ranking status in the society. Committed to memory, the long oli (chants) were passed down through generations. Chants were often accompanied by dancers performing the sacred art of hula. Wreathed with the woven ferns of the forest, the ancient Hawaiians chanted and danced to give thanks for what they had, preserving the stories that deeply enriched their island existence. Considered a narrative movement, hula embraces the meanings of the chants while releasing the grace and spirit of the dancer. The essence of hula is to go inward, to touch one’s center. Dancers are especially aware of their feet touching the earth, and of the earth itself, which is felt to be the source of the power of the dance.
The two main forms of hula are ‘auana (also spelled ‘auwana) and kahiko. ‘Auana is the more modern style of hula, which is characterized by undulating movements and is usually accompanied by a Hawaiian band. Kahiko (which means “ancient”), is the older and more traditional form of hula. In kahiko, an invocation precedes each dance, and the women often wear knee-length skirts made from flat green kī (ti) leaves. They may wear a necklace made from the polished nuts of the kukui (candlenut tree), or lei ‘ā‘ī (draping vines or flowers). Bracelets of ferns around their wrists and ankles are known as kūpe‘e. The lei po‘o encircles the dancer’s head, which is traditionally graced with long, dark flowing hair.
Hula and mele chants are the ancient way that Hawaiians tell their stories, pay reverence to nature, and celebrate the beauty of the heart of the Hawaiian people, their love and aloha. Traditionally, hula and mele help Hawaiians recount their origins and give thanks for all of the many natural wonders that enrich their world, including the animals, birds, fish, flowers, trees, mountains, streams, ocean, wind, and sky. There are tales of migrations, genealogies, myths, customs, and traditions. There are stories of longing for loved ones, grief over deaths, heroic explorations, and love. There is acknowledgement of the ‘āina (land) and the history of the Hawaiian culture, a culture sustained by an oral tradition captured in the lyrics of the chants.
Chants are enhanced by hula, and both are integral parts of Hawaiian spirituality that carry on the ancient legends and history of the Hawaiian people. Hula brings forth the meanings of the chants, similar to how the form of poetry may give life to a poem. Performed by those trained in the art, hula and mele are infused with all the power and history of the Hawaiian people.
With their spoken words, the ancient Hawaiians passed on their own history and beliefs, recounting the complex genealogies of their ancestors and carrying on their oral traditions. The chants and dances also perpetuated an extensive knowledge of their natural world including species of the land, air, and water as well as the currents of the ocean and winds, the migrating patterns of birds, the movements of the stars and the phases of the moon through the months and seasons.
Preparing for the Dance
On the morning before performing hula, dancers traditionally walk up the mountain trails into the rainforest. There, with humility and reverence for the ‘āina (land), they take into their hands the verdant leaves and gently begin to weave and braid them into the strands of lei that will soon encircle their heads, necks, and arms. The dancers may gather the lacy pala‘ā fern, and most frequently the palapalai fern, and in post-contact times the hardier laua‘e fern. The forest plants they use are symbolic—the palapalai fern is a representation of the hula goddess Laka; pala‘ā is an incarnation of Pele’s sister, Hi‘iaka; blossoms of ‘a‘ali‘i symbolize strength. Offerings to gods were also made with numerous other native plants. Lama, ‘ie‘ie, and maile were considered sacred to the hula goddess Laka. A small koa tree might be placed on Laka’s hula altar to bring strength and fearlessness to the dancer.
Hula students also learn about the ‘āina and how to respect and care for the ferns and flowers, conserving plants for future generations. The dancers give thanks to the source of the plants, the fragrant maile and leaves of ki (ti) and woodland ferns, and ask permission for their use, paying reverence to Laka, the goddess of the forest and hula, as well as other ancient (kahiko) Hawaiian gods. Today many hālau also thank the god of Christianity.
Traditional instruments that accompany hula include the pahu hula, a drum made from the trunk of a niu (coconut palm) or ‘uala (breadfruit tree), with a sharkskin drumhead. Drumming sticks are called lā‘au ho‘okani pahu. Also used are pū‘ili (split bamboo rattles) and the ‘ulī‘ulī, a gourd rattle that contains seeds and is adorned at the top with colorful feathers. [Photograph: Hula and Mele; Traditional Instruments]
The Spirit of Aloha
At its core, the ancient Hawaiian culture embodies the concept of aloha, emphasizing giving without the expectation of return, and a spirit of loving, sharing and caring for all the ‘ohana (extended family). This spirit of aloha was such an integral part of ancient Hawaiian life that it continues strongly today despite the vast changes that have come over the land and people.
Ua hilo ‘ia i ke aho a ke aloha. Braided with the cords of love. Held in the bond of affection.[lvii] [Photograph: Hula dancing at Merrie Monarch Festival (2005 photo)]
The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe—Rediscovering the Past In the 1970s, members of the Polynesian Voyaging Society constructed a voyaging canoe called the Hōkūle‘a (hōkū means “star” and le‘a means “happiness,” or “joy”). The Hōkūle‘a was built to show that migrating Polynesians could have sailed east against the prevailing winds. Launched on March 8, 1975, the Hōkūle‘a completed its first voyage to Tahiti in 1976. The Hōkūle‘a has two 62-foot long kuamo‘o (hulls), eight ‘iako (crossbeams) joining the two hulls, two kia (masts), and pola (decking). Weighing about eight tons, the canoe reaches speeds up to twelve knots and can carry more than five tons, including a typical crew of twelve to sixteen people with supplies.
When Nainoa Thompson led the crew that sailed the Hōkūle‘a to Tahiti and back in 1980, he became the first Hawaiian to navigate a voyaging canoe in centuries. Many more Hōkūle‘a voyages have now been completed, including a voyage to the Marquesas and back in 1995.
The Hōkūle‘a crew sailed around the Hawaiian Islands in 1996-1997, allowing thousands of school children to visit or sail on the vessel. There was also a 1999 journey to Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Voyagers have now sailed the canoe well over 110,000 nautical miles, including six major continental and Pan-Pacific voyages. A complete restoration of the Hōkūle‘a was finished in January of 2003 after nearly a year of work that included replacing approximately 5 miles (8 km) of ropes and cordage that holds the canoe together. In September of that year the Hōkūle‘a sailed 150 miles (241 km) northwest of Kaua‘i to Nihoa, which was inhabited by Hawaiians in ancient times (but not inhabited when Captain Cook first arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778). In 2004, the Hōkūle‘a sailed to Kaua‘i’s Hanalei Bay before again sailing to Nihoa and then completing a 1,200-mile (1,900-km) round trip through the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands to Kure Atoll and back. The Hōkūle‘a also sailed to Kaho‘olawe to celebrate the end of military bombing on that island and its return to Hawaiians as a place to relearn old traditions.
Hele ‘e ka wa‘a. The speed of a canoe. Said of a fast traveler.[lviii] [Photograph: Hōkūle‘a]
Kaho‘olawe Returned
In 1920, the United States military began using the island of Kaho‘olawe as a bombing range for ships and aircraft. In 1939, the Territory of Hawai‘i leased the southern tip of Kaho‘olawe to the United States Army for use as an artillery range.
After the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor the U.S. Navy gained exclusive use of Kaho‘olawe for bombing practice and gunnery training. On February 20, 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order placing Kaho‘olawe under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy.
On January 4, 1976, nine people led the first protest occupation of Kaho‘olawe in an effort to stop the use of the island as a military bombing target. Seven of the protesters—Kimo Aluli, Ian Lind, Ellen Miles, Stephen Morse, Gail Kawaipuna Prejean, Walter Ritte and Karla Villalba—were arrested within hours.
Two of the protesters, Walter Ritte Jr. and Emmett Aluli, were able to get inland from the shore without being caught. Ritte and Aluli remained on the island for nearly three days before surrendering.
Following the occupation, the stories told by Ritte and Aluli of what they saw—widespread destruction, and desecration that included bombed heiau (ancient sacred sites)—inspired activists and fueled a passionate protest movement that sought to stop the bombing of Kaho‘olawe.
After the initial occupation, Ritte and Aluli returned to Kaho‘olawe with Ritte’s sister and wife, and again they evaded the military for days. In all, there were at least twelve occupations of Kaho‘olawe after the initial landing by the “Kaho‘olawe Nine”.
In the weeks after the initial protest, the county councils of Kaua‘i and Hawai‘i Island urged an end to the use of Kaho‘olawe as bombing target. Native Hawaiians organized a grass-roots protest movement known as Protect Kaho‘olawe ‘Ohana and filed a lawsuit in federal court attempting to halt the bombing.
In March of 1977 James “Kimo” Mitchell and his cousin George Jarrett Helm Jr., the leader of Protect Kaho‘olawe ‘Ohana while paddling their surfboards to Kaho‘olawe during another attempt to reclaim the island for native Hawaiians.
In 1980, Protect Kaho‘olawe ‘Ohana entered into an agreement with the United States Navy. The consent decree authorized an archeological survey as well as goat eradication. Clearance of weapons materials from the island’s surface began even though military training on Kaho‘olawe continued.
On March 18, 1981, Kaho‘olawe was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. On October 22, 1990, U.S. President George Bush ended the use of Kaho‘olawe for bombing practice, and created a congressional commission to work out a return of the island to Hawaiians.
In 1993, the United States Navy received a $400 million authorization from the U.S. Congress to clean ordnance from Kaho‘olawe during the following decade. In 1994, under a congressional appropriations act and presidential order, the island of Kaho‘olawe was returned to the State of Hawai‘i.
In July of 1997, Parsons-UXB Joint Venture was given a contract to clear ordnance, and employed archaeologists, surveyors, environmental specialists, heavy equipment operators, and others to complete the work.
On November 11, 2003 the Navy transferred control of access to Kaho‘olawe to the State of Hawai‘i. By the end of 2003, the cleanup efforts had succeeded in clearing more than 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) of the island’s surface to 4 feet (1.2 m) deep. More than 90,000 pieces of ordnance were disposed of, including 2000-pound (907 kg) bombs. More than 8.5 million pounds (3.9 million kg.) of weapon fragments were gathered.
Also retrieved during the Kaho‘olawe cleanup were about 12,000 tires that had been used to mark targets. A $3 million rain catchment tank was installed at the Kaho‘olawe’s summit to provide water for newly planted native species, including more than 20,000 plants in the crater of Lua Makika volcano.
In 2004 the voyaging canoes Makali‘i, Hōkūle‘a, and Hōkūalaka‘i sailed to Kaho‘olawe to celebrate its return to Hawaiians and begin its use as a place to relearn old traditions. Meeting the voyaging canoes at Kaho‘olawe was Mau Piailug, the renowned Micronesian master navigator who helped train Hawaiian navigators and revive the ancient art of non-instrument wayfinding.
Eddie Would Go In 1978, the Hōkūle‘a voyaging canoe capsized off Moloka‘i. Crew member Eddie Aikau, a respected lifeguard, surfer, and Hawaiian waterman, paddled a surfboard toward land to get help, but was never seen again. The rest of the crew was eventually rescued. (See The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe.) Eddie was the son of Solomon “Pops” Aikau and his wife Henrietta, and the third of six children. Born May 4, 1946 in Kahului, Maui, Edward Ryan Aikau was a full-blooded Hawaiian. Eddie’s father took the family surfing frequently during Eddie’s childhood, allowing him to improve his surfing skills with a classic 75-pound (34-kg) surfboard. In 1967, Eddie surfed 15-foot (4.6-m) Sunset Beach waves, and on November 19 of that year he startled Hawai‘i’s top surfers by taking off on an estimated 40-foot (12-m) set wave at Waimea Bay. Also in 1967, Eddie took sixth place in his first major surf contest, the Duke Kahanamoku Classic. In 1968, Eddie became Waimea Bay’s first lifeguard, and went on to save the lives of many people who otherwise might have drowned in the rough ocean waters of the Hawaiian Islands. Eddie was a North Shore lifeguard during the 1960s and 1970s, and was voted Lifeguard of the Year in 1971. He later appeared in surf movies. A talented musician, Eddie also wrote songs and was proficient at slack-key guitar. In 1978, Eddie was chosen to be one of the 16-member crew invited to sail on the Hōkūle‘a, a 62-foot (18.9-m) Polynesian voyaging canoe to Tahiti. The Hōkūle‘a had no modern navigation or communication equipment, and was built to reenact the ancient voyages of the Polynesians who first settled the Hawaiian Islands. On the night of March 16, 1978 the Hōkūle‘a capsized in large swells and gale-force winds about 12 miles (19 km) off the island of Lāna‘i in the Kaiwi Channel, forcing the 15 crew members to cling to the voyaging canoe’s overturned hull. Eddie Aikau volunteered to paddle his twelve-foot tandem surfboard toward Lāna‘i for help. As Eddie stroked away from the capsized Hōkūle‘a, he stopped and tossed off his life preserver, which was hampering his paddling. Then as he rose to the peak of a swell, Eddie turned and gave the crew a final wave goodbye and paddled into the distance. Eddie Aikau was never seen again. A Hawaiian Airlines plane later saw a flare shot up by the Hōkūle‘a, and soon a Coast Guard helicopter arrived and tossed a metal cage down to the stranded crew. An intensive air-sea search and rescue effort was launched to find Eddie, but after five days the search was called off. In 1987, a surf contest was initiated in honor of Eddie Aikau. The In Memory of Eddie Aikau Big Wave Invitational is known locally as “The Eddie,” and matches the world’s best big wave surfers against each other in the biggest of waves. The surfing contest only commences if the waves reach the heights considered worthy of the Aikau name, which is at least 40 foot (12 m) faces, locally referred to as at least 20 to 30 foot (6 to 9 m) waves, measuring by the back of the waves. The first Eddie was won on February 21, 1987 by Clyde Aikau, the brother of Eddie Aikau. Other past winners of the Eddie include: Keone Downing (January 21, 1990); Noah Johnson (January 1, 1999); Ross Clarke-Jones (January 14, 2001); Kelly Slater (January 7, 2002); and Bruce Irons (Dec. 15, 2005). Eddie Aikau was known for his humility, and for never seeking thanks or praise for his many heroic deeds. Today the saying “Eddie Would Go” recalls Eddie Aikau’s selflessness and bravery, and the phrase is frequently seen on local bumper stickers and heard throughout the Islands.
Pu‘uwai hao kila. Heart of steel. Fearless[lix] [Photograph: Eddie Aikau]
Recent Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano The most recent activity on Kīlauea Volcano is a flank eruption on the East Rift Zone. It began on January 3, 1983 at Nāpau Crater with 250-foot fountains of lava. In June of 1983, the activity moved to Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Vent with lava shooting up to 1,400 feet (427 m) high and eventually reaching the Royal Gardens subdivision about 4 miles (6.4 km) from Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. In 1983 and 1984, 16 homes were buried and/or burned. In 1984 at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō, explosions of fountaining lava reached heights of more than 1,500 feet (457 m). Eruptive activity moved to Kupaianaha Vent in July, 1986, and soon the lava was flowing through the community of Kapa‘ahu and across the coastal highway. Later in 1986, 14 houses in the community of Kalapana were destroyed. In the spring and summer of 1990, numerous homes in and around Kalapana Gardens were destroyed along with the county store and the Mauna Kea Congregational Church. The destruction totaled 181 homes by the end of 1990. The black sand beach on crescent-shaped Kaimū Bay was filled with lava. In 1992 the eruptions moved from Kupaianaha Vent back to Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. In 1997, amidst a swarm of earthquakes, Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater erupted and collapsed, sending abrasive red cinder dust (fine-grained lithic tephra) over dozens of square miles of Kīlauea’s eastern flank. The iron in the volcanic rock oxidized as it was ejected, creating red dust-sized particles that were a kind of volcanic rust. The floor of Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater fell nearly 500 feet (152 m). About 3 miles (4.8 km) up the East Rift Zone from Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater, and 9 miles (14.5 km) east of Kīlauea’s summit, curtains of fiery lava up to 100 feet (30 m) tall shot from fissures in the Earth. Two miles west, at Nāpau Crater, a 24-hour eruption occurred.
In May of 2001, the Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Vent flow covered almost a mile of an unpaved access road, blocking nearly 1,500 people from the lots they owned. A significant increase in lava flows from Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō began on May 12, 2002, the same date that Mauna Loa showed volcanic activity.
Kīlauea’s May 12, 2002 outbreak of lava first reached the ocean along the Puna coast on July 19, 2002. As many as 4,000 visitors per day flocked to the area to see the increased activity, including streams of lava cascading up to 45 feet (14 m) off the seacliffs into the ocean. Since May of 2002, the lava flows of Kīlauea Volcano have added more than 10 acres (4 ha) of land to Hawai‘i Island, and created new black sand beaches along the island’s southeast shore. The eruptions have also sparked bush fires that have burned thousands of acres. In 2004 and 2005, spectacular lava flows into the ocean drew a record numbers of visitors. Updates on volcanic activity may be seen at the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park website (www.nps.gov/havo) and the United States Geological Service (USGS) Hawaiian Volcano Observatory website (http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov). [Photograph: Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater collapse; lava destruction]
‘Onipa‘a Centennial Observance From January 13th to January 18th of 1993, the ‘Onipa‘a Centennial Observance of the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy took place in downtown Honolulu. On January 17, the day of the anniversary of the overthrow, a procession of pro-sovereignty marchers estimated to exceed 10,000 people marched from Aloha Tower to ‘Iolani Palace. As part of the Centennial, Governor John Waihee ordered the American flag lowered and the Hawaiian flag raised on government buildings in the area of the Capitol District, though this was discouraged by other officials, including Senators Akaka and Inouye, and Representative Patsy Mink. Native Hawaiians and their supporters called for the restoration of Hawaiian sovereignty, declaring the overthrow of the monarchy an illegal act, and demanding the shutdown of military bases and return of stolen lands. ‘Onipa‘a means “Stand firm,” or “Steadfast,” and was the motto of Queen Lili‘uokalani.
Historic Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano Kīlauea Volcano extends over an area of about 600 square miles (1,554 sq.km.) of the southcentral region of Hawai‘i Island, and the summit caldera is up to 2½ miles (4 km) across and 400 feet (122 m) deep. Kīlauea Volcano is currently the most continuously active volcano on Earth, having covered more than 500 square miles (1,300 sq.km.) with lava in the last 1,100 years, and erupting almost continuously since 1983. Kīlauea Volcano has erupted at least 20 times since 1959. In 1960, a Kīlauea lava flow destroyed the town of Kapoho (“The depression”[lx]). In 1969, a lava flow from the ‘Ālo‘i and ‘Alae craters near Kīlauea Crater approached ‘Apua, Hawai‘i. A 1971 eruption from Kīlauea’s Mauna Ulu (“Growing Mountain”[lxi]) vent poured into the sea near Kealakomo (“The entrance path”[lxii]), and added 97 acres (39 ha) of new land to Hawai‘i Island. A flank eruption on the East Rift Zone of Kīlauea Volcano began in 1983 and has continued almost uninterrupted to the present day, releasing more than 67 billion cubic feet (1.9 billion cubic meters) of lava covering at least 40.7 square miles (105 square kilometers), and increasing the island’s size by more than 535 acres (217 ha). From January 3, 1983 to 1986, Kīlauea (“Much spreading”[lxiii]) erupted spectacular fountains of lava. The aptly named Chain of Craters Road in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park descends 3,700 feet (1,128 m) from the summit of Kīlauea Volcano to the sea. In 1986, lava flows block a section of the road, which was eventually reopened and then later closed again by lava flows. Since 1986, more than 9 miles (14.5 km) of the original road have been covered. Volcanic activity increased on May 12, 2002, once again sending lava flows over Chain of Craters Road. Within Kīlauea Caldera at the volcano’s summit is Halema‘uma‘u Crater, which is about 3,000 feet (914 m) across. Halema‘uma‘u Crater was about 1,200 feet (366 m) deep in 1924, but eruptions as recently as 1974 and 1982 poured lava onto the crater floor and filled it to its present depth, about 280 feet (85 m). Halema‘uma‘u was a lava lake during a century of continuous volcanic activity until 1924 when a violent steam eruption occurred and the lava lake drained out. Since then approximately 40 more eruptions have occurred in the area of the summit and rift zones that run down the volcano’s flanks. Today pungent sulfur fumes continue to steam up from mineral-encrusted cracks on Halema‘uma‘u’s black-rock floor. Kīlauea Iki (“Little Kīlauea”), a smaller crater in the summit area, last displayed a stunning fire show in 1959 when fountains of lava erupted to heights of 1,900 feet (579 m), the highest ever recorded in the Islands. On September 13, 1977, Kīlauea Volcano began erupting intermittently, and this continued until September 28, 1977. Since that time Kīlauea’s summit area has seen only two eruption events, and each lasted less than one day.
Ka ‘ohu kāku o Kīlauea. The draping mists of Kīlauea. The mists in the crater of Kīlauea look like drapery along its cliffs.[lxiv]
Historic Eruptions of Mauna Kea and Hualālai Volcanoes The towering Mauna Kea Volcano last erupted about 4,500 years ago. Mauna Kea rises up more than 6 miles (10 km) from the ocean bottom, and 13,796 feet (4,205 m) above sea level. Measured from base to summit, Mauna Kea is more than 1,000 feet (305 m) taller than Mount Everest, which is the tallest mountain on Earth measured from sea level. Historic eruptions of Hualālai Volcano include three eruptions between 800 and 1100, an eruption around 1300. Hualālai erupted again in 1800-1801 above Ka‘ūpūlehu at an elevation of about 5,750 feet (1,753 m), sending lava flows to the ocean. Both Mauna Kea Volcano and Hualālai Volcano are considered dormant but not extinct.
Historic Eruptions of Mauna Loa Volcano Mauna Loa Volcano is the most massive mountain on Earth, rising 13,677 feet (4,169 m) above sea level, and descending another 18,000 feet (5,486 m) below the sea. Mauna Loa’s total size is about 10,000 cubic miles (, making it more than 100 times as large as Washington’s Mount Rainier. In the last 1,100 years, Mauna Loa’s eruptions have poured lava over some 1,000 square miles (2,590 sq. km.), which is about half of the volcano’s total land area. Mauna Loa has erupted 37 times since 1832, and 14 times in the last 100 years. Moku‘āweoweo, the summit caldera of Mauna Loa, is about three miles long, 1½ miles (2.4 km) wide, and 600 feet (183 m) deep, having filled in somewhat from its depth of more than 985 feet (300 m) in 1794. In 1852, a Mauna Loa lava flow came within seven miles of Hilo. An 1868 lava flow from Mauna Loa Volcano entered the Pacific Ocean to the west of South Point in Kā‘ū. The volcanic activity also formed the 240-foot (73-m) high littoral cone known as Pu‘uhou (“New hill”[lxv]). In 1877 lava from Mauna Loa’s summit crater flowed through the Kona district and into the sea near Ka‘awaloa.
Lava flows from Mauna Loa eruptions have repeatedly threatened the town of Hilo. When it happened in 1880, the flowing lava took 280 days to reach the edge of Hilo, causing great concern. King Kamehameha’s granddaughter, Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani, traveled to the area and offered chants and gifts. This is said to have supplicated the wrath of the volcano goddess Pele, and the lava flows stopped just on the edge of town.
In 1887, strong earthquakes shook the Ka‘ū district and lava flowed from the summit of Mauna Loa through Kahuku in Ka‘ū and then into the ocean.
When lava flows again threatened Hilo (including defense facilities) in 1930 and 1942, the Army Air Corps attempted unsuccessfully to divert or disperse the flows by dropping bombs. Lava flows from a Mauna Loa eruption reached the South Kona area in 1950, and it only took about three hours for the flowing lava to reach the ocean.
The 1950 event lasted for 23 days, destroying many homes and ranches. A 1975 Mauna Loa summit eruption lasted for several days and blocked a road near the summit.
A 22-day eruption of Mauna Loa in 1984 sent lava flowing for 16 miles (26 km) down to the 3,200-foot (975-m) level of the mountain, and covered more than 18 square miles (47 sq. km). The flow came close enough to Hilo to make many people very nervous.
On May 12, 2002, Mauna Loa’s summit caldera, Moku‘āweoweo, gradually began swelling, and outward spreading began along a northeast rift (facing Puna and Hilo) at an elevation on the volcano between about 10,000 and 13,000 feet (3,000 and 4,000 m).
Though the swelling decreased in early 2003, researchers remain cautious, as the pattern of swelling was similar to what occurred previous to the 1975 and 1984 eruptions, and the rate of swelling was actually higher in 2002 than it was before the 1975 and 1984 eruptions.
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory volcanologists continue to monitor geophysical data from Mauna Loa using tiltmeters and global positioning system instruments on the volcano. A Mauna Loa eruption could threaten Hilo (to the east) as well as Kona and its Gold Coast resorts (to the west). Subdivisions above South Point, near Mauna Loa’s southwest rift zone, are considered the most likely to be inundated by a Mauna Loa eruption.
Mary Kawena Pūku‘i (1895-1986)
As the author or co-author of more than 50 books, Mary Kawena Pūku‘i is perhaps the most influential Hawaiian scholar of modern times. Several of her books are now the primary reference tools used by Hawaiian scholars.
Pūku‘i was born in 1985 in Ka‘ū and grew up on Hawai‘i Island. The lineage of her mother, a native Hawaiian, contained respected medical kāhuna, and her grandfather (on her father’s side) was a 17th century poet.
Pūku‘i was raised by her maternal grandmother and studied hula, chants, and legends while speaking only Hawaiian. After the death of her grandmother she lived with her parents speaking English as well as Hawaiian.
Pūku‘i grew up during a time when the mass immigration of sugar plantation laborers threatened to overwhelm the Hawaiian culture. Pūku‘i collected Hawaiian stories to preserve that which was being lost to the influx of foreigners.
In 1957, Mary Kawena Pūku‘i and Samuel H. Elbert published the first edition of the Hawaiian-English Dictionary,[lxvi]and then in 1986 a revised and enlarged edition was completed. Containing more than 26,000 Hawaiian word, the Pūku‘i and Elbert dictionary is considered the definitive source for Hawaiian word spellings (e.g., diacritical marks), meanings, and pronunciation.
The Hawaiian-English Dictionary[lxvii] fueled the Hawaiian language movement that was an integral part of the Hawaiian Renaissance. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1963.) Two other prominent works by Mary Kawena Pūku‘i are Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition,[lxviii]published in 1974, and ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings,[lxix]published in 1983. A widely-respected kumu hula, Pūku‘i composed more than 150 chants and songs, and her early works included three papers on hula. Pūku‘i joined the staff of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in 1837, where she became an associate emeritus in Hawaiian culture and worked there for more than a quarter century. Mary Kawena Pūku‘i, one of Hawai‘i’s most revered scholars of Hawaiian culture, literature, and language, died in 1986 at the age of 91 in Honolulu. Her legacy is the continuing and pervasive use by modern scholars of the comprehensive resources she developed during her prolific lifetime.
Senator Daniel Akaka The first United States House member and the first United States Senator of Native Hawaiian ancestry, Daniel Kahikina Akaka was elected as a Congressman in 1976 and served in that capacity from 1977 to 1990, winning seven consecutive elections. Akaka was born in Honolulu on September 11, 1924, the youngest of seven children. He graduated from Kamehameha School in 1942, and he served in World War II in the United States Army Corps of Engineers from 1945-47. In 1948, Akaka married Mary Mildred “Millie” Chong and they had five children. Akaka graduated from the University of Hawai‘i in 1952 and worked as a teacher from 1953-60. He was a vice-principal from 1960-63 and a principal from 1963-68, receiving his masters in 1966. At the urging of Governor George Ariyoshi, Akaka ran for the U.S. House in 1976 and won. He served in that position until April of 1960 when he was appointed to the United States Senate after the death of Spark M. Matsunaga. Akaka then won a special election to complete Matsunaga’s unexpired four-year term. In 1994, Akaka was elected to a six-year term and then re-elected in 2000 with more than 70% of the vote. Akaka is currently the only Chinese-American Senator. Akaka now serves on numerous Senate committees including the Armed Services Committee, and the Energy and Natural Resources Committee. Akaka is also concerned with reconciling the relationship between Native Hawaiians and the Federal Government, and chairs the Hawai‘i Congressional Task Force on Native Hawaiian Issues. Akaka also authored Public Law 103-150 (the Apology Bill), an apology to native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i in 1893, acknowledging the 100th anniversary of the overthrow. The bill was written as a Joint Resolution of Congress and signed by President Clinton on November 23, 1993. (See The U.S. Apology to the Native Hawaiians, Chapter 12.) More recently, Akaka sponsored the Native Hawaiian Reorganization Act (Akaka Bill), which sought to protect Hawaiian entitlements and provide federal recognition to native Hawaiians. The Akaka Bill was passed by the United States House in 2000 but then refused a vote in the Senate. The bill was blocked by the Senate again in 2002, and then approved by the Senate Indian Affairs Committee in 2003 before being blocked by Republicans. In 2004, the House Resources Committee passed the Akaka Bill. Then it was dropped in exchange for a promise that it would be put to a floor vote of the Senate the following year. In 2005, however, a vote on the bill was blocked by a group of Republican senators. The Akaka Bill apparently met its final demise in 2006, although new approaches are being developed to deal with a variety of issues affecting native Hawaiians. On June 23, 2006 the Office of Hawaiian Affairs approved a plan of action called Ho‘oulu Lāhui Aloha (“To Raise a Beloved Nation”) to develop a Native Hawaiian registry known as Kau Inoa, which will serve as the voting base in forming a new entity that will seek self-government rights, including the right to form a “nation-within-a-nation,” Hawaiians-only government, that will then attempt to negotiate with the state and federal governments over money, land, and other assets. As of July, 2006 more than 50,000 were registered. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 2006, June 23.) [Photograph: Daniel Akaka]
Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine began on Maui in August of 1991 when twelve master Island chefs formed an association to develop a world-class cuisine that has now won major international culinary awards. The twelve chefs that conceptualized “Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine” are Sam Choy, Mark Ellman, Roger Dikon, Beverly Gannon, Jean-Marie Josselin, Amy Ferguson Ota, George Mavrothalassitis, Philippe Padovani, Peter Merriman, Gary Strehl, Roy Yamaguchi, and Alan Wong. The cuisine centers around fresh local fish and vegetables as well as exotic Island fruits, and utilizes a blend of culinary techniques from both the Eastern and Western traditions. The multicultural techniques of Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine derive from the rich history of immigration in the Hawaiian Islands, when waves of foreigners from many different countries—Asia, Europe, and South America—arrived to work on the sugar plantations. Elements of Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine are taken from the various ethnic dishes brought by immigrants: char siu, tofu, and soybeans from the Chinese; sashimi and wasabi from the Japanese; sweet breads, malasadas and sausage from the Portuguese; and bagoong (fish sauce), jicama, and marungary from the Filipinos. Many dishes of the new cuisine are a blend of these and other cultural elements—including Hawaiian, Samoan, Spanish, and Korean—such as might have developed in the community cookhouses of the plantation villages in the Hawaiian Islands from the end of the 1800s through the first half of the 1900s. Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine has now become a movement, a modern cuisine that emphasizes creative uses of ingredients such as soy, ginger, and garlic to create tasty and aromatic dishes that are increasingly popular with residents as well as visitors. The new cuisine differs from local-style food such as one might find at a lū‘au, or traditional Hawaiian feast, which usually centers around kālua pig cooked in an imu (underground earthen oven), and traditionally includes poi (mashed taro root) and such fare as lomi salmon, ‘opihi, squid, and chicken long rice. The uniqueness of Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine is largely due to the use of fresh Island products, such as coffee and lobsters from Kona, fern shoots from Waipi‘o Valley, basil and asparagus from Maui, mint grown in Waimea, goat cheese from Puna, fiddlehead fern shoots picked in the mountains, and guava-smoked lamb from Hawaiian ranches. Other distinctive Island ingredients include breadfruit, palm hearts, macadamia nuts and Hawaiian Vintage chocolate. Coconut milk is used in traditional dishes such as haupia (coconut pudding) as well as for creative new uses, such as Island-style coconut milk curry sauce and other flavorful fare. Fresh Island fish comes in many types, from the standard favorite of ‘ahi (tuna), to opah (moonfish), ‘ōpakapaka (snapper), and shutome (swordfish). Other seafood utilized in Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine includes scallops and prawns, prepared with a variety of innovative sauces. Freshly caught ‘ahi may be seared and served with liliko‘i shrimp butter, or cut into poke, seared, and then served with shoots of pīpīnola (native Hawaiian squash root). Dessert might include such tropical treats as liliko‘i chiffon pie. Island chefs will continue to develop new culinary experiences, and Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine will continue to delight the discerning palettes of diners in the Islands and beyond.
Mauna Kea Astronomy [Illustration: Overview of observatories atop Mauna Kea] The 13,796-foot summit of Mauna Kea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island is above 40% of Earth’s atmosphere and well above the tropical inversion cloud layer, isolating the peak from moist sea-level air and making it the best site on Earth for astronomy. Thirteen major observatories atop the summit are operated by 11 countries. These telescopes comprise the world’s largest cluster of astronomical observatories.
Mauna Kea, kuahiwi ku ha‘o i ka mālie. Mauna Kea, standing alone in the calm.[lxx]
The most prominent telescopes atop Mauna Kea are the twin Keck Telescopes, which became operable in 1992 and 1996 and are the largest optical-infrared telescopes in the world. Each Keck dome cost $70 million, measures 111 feet tall, and contains more than 700,000 cubic feet of volume. The segmented mirror of each Keck Telescope is a perfect parabolic reflecting surface 32.8 feet in diameter. Each mirror is made up of 36 smaller hexagonal (six-sided) mirrors, each six feet across. Computers individually control these smaller mirrors so they all work in concert as if they are one giant mirror. To counteract gravity’s effects on the mirrors, computer-controlled precision pistons and sensors adjust the mirror segments individually (twice every second), to an accuracy of four nanometers, which is about 1/1000th the diameter of a human hair. The Keck II telescope uses a new adaptive optics system in which deformable mirrors may change shape 670 times per second to cancel out atmospheric distortion. This produces images ten times sharper than previous images. Using an instrument called an interferometer, engineers and scientists succeeded in combining the light-gathering powers of the two 10-meter Keck telescopes in March of 2001. The interferometer manipulates light waves so that their peaks match, creating a much higher peak—this is called constructive interference, and it creates a stronger signal that allows scientists to produce images with a greater level of detail.
A series of small outrigger telescopes as well as a series of underground tunnels combine the light from the two giant Kecks, forming the world’s largest optical interferometer. In 2002, the scientists break the record for sighting the most distant objects ever seen by viewing a galaxy estimated to be 15.5 billion light years away. One light year is the distance light travels in one year, which is about 5.9 trillion miles. The Keck telescopes and other Mauna Kea observatories are used to conduct research on the evolution of galaxies, planetary and star-forming nebulae, supernova remnants, star clusters, double stars, quasars, and intergalactic gases as well as red, white and brown dwarfs. Red dwarfs are the lowest mass stars, while brown dwarfs are bigger than planets yet smaller than stars, and lack the internal energy (core nuclear reactions) of stars. An international team of astronomers with the University of Hawai‘i was able to view the distant galaxy by using a galaxy cluster about six billion light years away to magnify the light in a process known as gravitational lensing. The dual Keck telescopes were used in 2003 to obtain the best view to date of the universe’s most primordial objects, including an ancient galaxy where stars began forming when the universe was only about two billion years old.
Other Telescopes atop Mauna Kea:
University of Hawai‘i .6-meter optical telescope #1, and #2 (1968, 1969).
University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter optical/infrared telescope (1970).
NASA IRTF 3-meter infrared telescope (1979).
United Kingdom 3.8-meter infrared telescope (1979).
Hurricane ‘Iniki Devastates Kaua‘i On September 11, 1992, Hurricane ‘Iniki made a direct hit on the island of Kaua‘i, causing more than $3 billion in property damage. Kaua‘i residents endured ferocious winds as they huddled in shelters throughout the island. Airborne debris crashed violently into buildings and smashed windows. Whole roofs detached and broke apart as they lifted upward and disappearing into the vortices of wind. Entire houses were blown off their foundations.
Then suddenly the wind stopped, and some people went outside. It was still cloudy all around, but straight above there was pure blue sky, which was a welcome sight amidst all the destruction. The hurricane had not passed, however, but instead was actually directly overhead! They were right in the middle of the hurricane’s eye!
Within minutes, as the hurricane’s eye moved past, the full force of the hurricane was again felt, this time all at once as the devastating winds easily exceeded 100 miles per hour. Because the wind was now going in the opposite direction, structures that had been weakened to the point of collapse by the first half of the hurricane were now quickly finished off as the destruction continued. As Hurricane ‘Iniki proceeded over the island of Kaua‘i, one ferocious gust of wind within the hurricane was clocked at 227 miles per hour, a digital measurement that was taken by wind gauging equipment at the Navy’s Mākaha Ridge radar station just before the equipment was blown off the mountain! Hurricane ‘Iniki damaged more than 70% of Kaua‘i’s homes. In all, about 14,000 homes and apartments were damaged, including 1,421 that were completely destroyed. The north shore community of Princeville topped the list with 279 homes destroyed. At the time of the hurricane there were 8,200 hotel, condo, and bed and breakfast rooms on Kaua‘i, and ‘Iniki shut down 90% of them. [Photograph: Hurricane]
Hurricanes The recorded history of Hawaiian hurricanes began in 1850 when an unnamed storm thought to be a hurricane hit Lahaina, Maui on February 15th and 16th of that year and destroyed an estimated 100 homes. The palace of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) was left in ruins and at least five people were killed aboard the ship Sophia. On August 9, 1871, an unnamed hurricane hit Maui, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i Island causing an estimated $10,000 in damage and destroying about 150 houses in Kohala. Hurricane Hiki hit Kaua‘i on August 15-17, 1950, bringing winds that reached 68 miles per hour. Extensive flooding occurred at Waimea where more than 52 inches fell in four days, causing $200,000 damage. Winds from Hurricane Hiki also reached 50 mph in Ni‘ihau and 48 mph on Lāna‘i. A farmer in Kohala was killed when he touched wires blown down by strong winds. Hurricane Dot passed over Kaua‘i on August 6, 1959, bringing winds well over 100 miles/hour and causing $20 million in damage. On November 3, 1982, Hurricane ‘Iwa passed between Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, bringing gusts of wind with speeds of more than 100 miles/hour and causing damages totaling $239 million. Hurricane Estelle caused $2 million damage on Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and O‘ahu on July 23, 1986. Hurricane ‘Iniki hits Kaua‘i on September 11, 1992, causing $3 billion in damage. (See Hurricane ‘Iniki Devastates Kaua‘i.)
The U.S. Apology to the Native Hawaiians On November 23, 1993, United States President William J. Clinton signed Public Law 103-150, an apology to native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i in 1893. Acknowledging the 100th anniversary of the overthrow, the apology was written as a Joint Resolution of Congress. The law reads (in part) as follows: “Whereas, prior to the arrival of the first Europeans in 1778, the Native Hawaiian people lived in a highly organized, self-sufficient, subsistent social system based on communal land tenure with a sophisticated language, culture, and religion; Whereas a unified monarchical government of the Hawaiian Islands was established in 1810 under Kamehameha I, the first King of Hawaii; Whereas, from 1826 until 1893, the United States recognized the independence of the Kingdom of Hawaii, extended full and complete diplomatic recognition to the Hawaiian Government, and entered into treaties and conventions with the Hawaiian monarchs to govern commerce and navigation in 1826, 1842, 1849, 1875, and 1887; Whereas the Congregational Church (now known as the United Church of Christ), through its American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, sponsored and sent more than 100 missionaries to the Kingdom of Hawaii between 1820 and 1850; Whereas, on January 14, 1893, John L. Stevens (hereafter referred to in this Resolution as the “United States Minister”), the United States Minister assigned to the sovereign and independent Kingdom of Hawaii conspired with a small group of non-Hawaiian residents of the Kingdom of Hawaii, including citizens of the United States, to overthrow the indigenous and lawful Government of Hawaii; Whereas, in pursuance of the conspiracy to overthrow the Government of Hawaii, the United States Minister and the naval representatives of the United States caused armed naval forces of the United States to invade the sovereign Hawaiian nation on January 16, 1893, and to position themselves near the Hawaiian Government buildings and the Iolani Palace to intimidate Queen Liliuokalani and her Government; Whereas, on the afternoon of January 17, 1893, a Committee of Safety that represented the American and European sugar planters, descendents of the missionaries, and financiers deposed the Hawaiian monarchy and proclaimed the establishment of a Provisional Government; Whereas the United States Minister thereupon extended diplomatic recognition to the Provisional Government that was formed by the conspirators without the consent of the Native Hawaiian people or the lawful Government of Hawaii and in violation of treaties between the two nations and of international law; Whereas, soon thereafter, when informed of the risk of bloodshed with resistance, Queen Liliuokalani issued the following statement yielding her authority to the United States Government rather than to the Provisional Government: “I Liliuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom. “That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government. “Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.” Done at Honolulu this 17th day of January, A.D. 1893; Whereas the indigenous Hawaiian people never directly relinquished their claims to their inherent sovereignty as a people or over their national lands to the United States, either through their monarchy or through a plebiscite or referendum; Whereas the health and well-being of the native Hawaiian people is intrinsically tied to their deep feelings and attachment to the land; Whereas, the long-range economic and social changes in Hawaii over the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have been devastating to the population and to the health and well-being of the Hawaiian people; Whereas the Native Hawaiian people are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territory, and their cultural identity in accordance with their own spiritual and traditional beliefs, customs, practices, language, and social institutions; The Congress- “...apologizes to the Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893, with the participation of agents and citizens of the United States, and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination,” and “expresses its commitment to acknowledge the ramifications of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, in order to provide a proper foundation for reconciliation between the United States and the Native Hawaiian people; and...urges the President of the United States to also acknowledge the ramifications of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and to support reconciliation efforts between the United States and the Native Hawaiian people.”[lxxi]
The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe
Launched in 1993, the Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is 57 feet (17 m)long, and was the first of the voyaging canoes to be built almost entirely out of traditional materials. The Hawai‘iloa was modified and launched again in 1994, making its first voyage in 1995.
With no navigational instruments, the crew sailed the boat more than 6,000 miles (9,656 km), from the Hawaiian Islands to Tahiti and the Marquesas and then back to the Hawaiian Islands.
The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is named after an ancient voyager who, according to legend, was the first discoverer of the Hawaiian Islands. For the ship’s two hulls, old growth Sitka spruce trees were acquired from southeast Alaska because there were no longer any large Hawaiian koa trees available. The use of Sitka spruce may be considered traditional, since ancient Hawaiians sometimes used drift logs to make canoes, and those driftlogs may have come from Alaska.
Traditional tools used to construct voyaging canoes and their various parts included the stone adze and the bone gouge. Coral files were also used, as well as sharkskin for sanding. Though modern tools were used in the construction of the Hawai‘iloa, traditional materials were used whenever possible. Every attempt was made to build an accurate replica of a traditional voyaging canoe, and many different native trees were used to create the various components of the canoe.
Nakaka ka pua‘a, nahā ka wa‘a; aukāhi ka pua‘a mānalo ka wa‘a. The pig cracks, the canoe breaks; perfect the pig, safe the canoe. Whenever a new canoe was launched, a pig was baked as an offering to the gods. If the skin of the roasted pig cracked, misfortune would come to the canoe; but if it cooked to perfection the canoe would last a long time.[lxxii] [Photographs: Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe; stone adze; bone gouge; coral file.]
Lō‘ihi Seamount—The Next Hawaiian Island Lō‘ihi Seamount is an undersea volcano about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of Hawai‘i Island. More than ½-mile (.8 km) below the surface of the Pacific Ocean, Lō‘ihi’s summit is currently more than 9,000 feet (2,743 km) tall. The erupting summit of Lō‘ihi should rise above the water in about 50,000 to 200,000 years from now to become the next Hawaiian Island. The University of Hawai‘i research boat Ka‘imikai O Kanaloa carries a deep-diving manned submersible called Pisces V that has been used to explore Lō‘ihi’s volcanic activity and the life forms that grow near the summit. Strange undersea colonies of volcanic life thrive near Lō‘ihi’s sulfurous hot water vents, and in the 1,200-foot (366-km) deep pit craters in Lō‘ihi’s summit caldera. Superheated sulfur-yellow water was seen shooting out in big plumes in an area of Lō‘ihi’s summit that the scientists named Pele’s Vents. They also recently discovered a new species of shrimp there - it is orange and just a few inches long, and blends in with the orange rocks. The summit area later collapsed into what they named Pele’s Pit, a 1,000-foot deep crater that is 800 feet (244 m) across and filled with an estimated 300 million tons (272 mtons) of rock. Water emitting from Lō‘ihi’s vents contains about 20,000 times as much carbon dioxide as the surrounding seawater. This helps bacteria live near the hydrothermal vents and creates massive iron deposits. Near the hydrothermal vents everything is orange because it is carpeted with three-foot-thick iron deposits created by these unique bacteria that oxidize iron. When the Pisces V research boat touched down on Lō‘ihi’s summit, it instantly caused a bacterial snowstorm of iron deposits that puffed up all around the submersible. On July 17, 1996, more than 4,000 earthquakes were recorded in a three week period near the summit of Lō‘ihi Seamount.
Nei ka honua, he ōla‘i ia. When the earth trembles, it is an earthquake. We know what it is by what it does.[lxxiii]
All of the life forms near the hydrothermal vents on Lō‘ihi’s summit are very rare, surviving under immense pressure with no connection to sunlight or photosynthesis. Instead they exist by a process known as chemosynthesis, which utilizes only heat and chemicals (such as sulfur), to produce a whole variety of rare luminescent creatures, including microbes loaded with heavy metals and toxic compounds. Researchers theorize that the lava of Lō‘ihi is coming from extremely deep in the Earth (near the very core), and that its chemical composition holds clues to Earth’s origins. This chemical composition is analyzed by comparing helium isotope ratios, and through other analytical methods. The unique biological communities thriving on Lō‘ihi’s summit continue to provide scientists with new insights into deep-sea life and chemical processes. [Photograph: Hydrothermal vent]
Bruddah Iz (1959-1997) A pure-blooded Hawaiian, Israel Ka‘ano‘i Kamakawiwo‘ole was born on May 20, 1959 and lived in O‘ahu’s Pālolo Valley until the age of ten when his family moved to Mākaha. The next year Israel and his brother Skippy began playing music, and a few years later they joined with Louis “Moon” Kauakahi, Sam Gray, and Jerome Koko to form the Mākaha Sons of Ni‘ihau. During the next 15 years. The Mākaha Sons released ten albums, toured the United States, and won numerous Nā Hōkū Hanohano awards. They also hosted an annual Mākaha Bash on Memorial Day at the Waikīkī Shell. Israel’s brother Skippy Kamakawiwo‘ole passed away in 1982, the same year Israel married his childhood sweetheart, Marlene Ku‘upua Ah Lo. They gave birth to a daughter, Ceslieanne Wehekealake‘alekupuna “Wehi” Kamakawiwo‘ole. Israel’s uncle, Moe Keale (1939-2002), was a well-known Hawaiian musician and actor. Iz began his solo career in 1993 with the album Facing Future, and quickly became the most popular entertainer and singer in the Hawaiian Islands. The album N DIS LIFE was released in 1997 and won four Nā Hōkū Hanohano awards: Male Vocalist; Island Contemporary; Album Graphics; and Favorite Entertainer of the Year. Israel passed away at age 38 on June 26, 1997 of respiratory failure. The renown Hawaiian musician was memorialized by thousands of people at the State Capitol Rotunda, and his ashes were scattered off Mākua Beach. Though he was famous worldwide, Israel was said to be the ali‘i (royalty) of the common people of the Hawaiian Islands. In 2001 a new CD, Alone in IZ World, was released and immediately became a top seller.
The Bishop Estate Scandal
On August 9, 1997, the Honolulu Star-Bulletin published an article titled “Broken Trust,” written by a former Kamehameha Schools principal and three other prominent community members calling for reform. Three days later, the governor asked State Attorney General Margery Bronster to investigate the matter.
In 1998, Bronster called for the removal of three of the trustees, Richard Wong, Lokelani Lindsey, and Henry Peters.
On May 6, 1999, Circuit Judge Bambi Weil removed Lokelani Lindsey from her position as a Trustee of Bishop Estate due to “poor judgment, “creation of a climate of fear,” “misappropriation of trust assets to her own benefit” and “breaches of loyalty and trust.” The decision was a result of a lawsuit filed by fellow trustees Oswald Stender and Gerard Jervis.
On May 7, 1999, Judge Kevin Chang removed four of the five trustees: Richard Wong, Lokelani Lindsey, Henry Peters, and Gerard Jervis, and accepted the resignation of the fifth trustee, Oswald Stender (this was the Bishop Estate’s first board comprised completely of members with Hawaiian ancestry).[lxxiv]
Today the Bishop Estate, officially renamed Kamehameha Schools, continues to operate Kamehameha Schools, including the 600-acre (243-ha) Kapālama campus in Honolulu as well as smaller campuses on Maui and Hawai‘i Island. The Estate has vast land holdings and investments worth nearly $7 billion, and educates more than 51,000 students annually on three campuses as well as through charter schools, community outreach programs, and in 28 preschools.
Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn—Queen of Mākaha
Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn (1950-1998) excelled not only at surfing, but also at bodysurfing, outrigger canoe paddling, and spearfishing. She was also a kumu hula and a black belt in martial arts.
As a youth, Rell honed her surfing skills at MākahaBeach, which was just two minutes from her home. She won the Hawaiian Junior Championships, and in 1966 she competed in the World Contest (the world championship of surfing at the time) in San Diego. Seven times during the following years Rell was in the top eight in the world, twice placing third. She earned a degree in cultural anthropology from the University of Hawai‘i.
Truly an all around waterwoman, Rell was an expert diver and was the first female lifeguard in the Hawaiian Islands. She was also an international surfing champion and a founder of the Women’s Professional Surfing Association.
Rell was a tireless advocate of children’s surfing, and founded the Rell Sunn Menehune Championships at Mākaha in 1976. The event recently marked its 30th year. Rell also took kids to Europe for surfing expeditions.
In 1982, Rell was the top ranked longboard champion. The following year she was diagnosed with cancer and battled the disease for the next 15 years. In 1988 she went into a coma but came out of it and then in 1991 the doctor told her she had just six months to live, but she lived for seven more years.
Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn passed away on January 2, 1998 at the age of 47. Rell was loved and respected by many, and her funeral at Mākaha was attended by thousands of people.
Rell’s middle name, Kapolioka‘ehukai, was given to her by her grandmother, and means “Heart of the sea.” She was affectionately known as the Queen of Mākaha.
June Jones and the University of Hawai‘i Warriors
In 1998, June Jones became coach of the University of Hawai‘i Warriors football team, which he played for in 1974. The season before the University of Hawai‘i hired Jones, the Warriors record was 0-12. During Jones first season at UH, in 1999, the team earned a 9-4 record, the biggest turnaround in NCAA football history, including a victory at the Christmas Day O‘ahu Bowl. Jones was also named college coach of the year by three national organizations.
After Jones played football for the University of Hawai‘i he played in the National Football League (Atlanta Falcons, 1977-1981) and then the Canadian Football League. He then worked as the quarterbacks coach for UH in 1983 before coaching in the U.S. Football League and the NFL, first in Atlanta and Detroit, then becoming the Atlanta Falcons head coach (1994-1996). Jones was the San Diego Chargers head coach in 1998 when he took the UH Warriors coaching job. Jones sustained major injuries in a car accident on February 22, 2001 nearly killed June Jones, but amazingly he was able to recover in time for the start of the 2001 season. Jones became the highest paid state employee in 2003 when he was given a new $800,000 per year contract.
U.S.S. Missouri Battleship and U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine World War II ended when the forces of Japan officially surrendered on September 2, 1945 on the deck of the U.S.S. Missouri battleship, now known as “Mighty Mo.” Originally launched in 1944, the U.S.S. Missouri was permanently decommissioned on March 31, 1992. On Jan. 29, 1999, the U.S.S. Missouri battleship opened as a tourist attraction at Pearl Harbor. The 58,000-ton ship is docked at Pearl Harbor’s Battleship Row, just a few hundred yards from the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial. The U.S.S. Missouri had a 50-year career serving in World War II (in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa), Korea, and Operation Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf. In July of 2004, theU.S.S. Missouri welcomed its two-millionth visitor since opening as a visitor attraction in 1999.[lxxv] Also located at Pearl Harbor is the U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine, which was first launched one year after the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor and is one of just 15 remaining submarines from the World War II era. The submarine was known as the “Pearl Harbor Avenger,” carrying a crew of 80 and sinking 44 ships in the Pacific Ocean. The submarine/museum tour includes boarding the U.S.S. Bowfin. Visitors may view the Japanese suicide torpedo called the Kaiten and look through the submarine’s periscopes.[lxxvi] A Memorial honors the 3,500 submariners who were lost during the war along with 52 U.S. submarines, paying tribute to their important role in defense of the United States. [Photographs: U.S.S. Missouri; U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine]
Humpback Whales Humpback whales are known for their spectacular breaches, a common sight in Hawaiian waters in winter. Seeing the 40-ton animal leap out of the water and come crashing down onto the ocean’s surface is the highlight of any whale-watching trip.
Hawai‘i’s humpback whales spend the summer months in Alaskan waters feeding and then migrate to Hawaiian waters for the winter where they mate and give birth. The whales begin arriving in Island waters around November.
The first humpbacks to come to the Hawaiian Islands each year are the whales that gave birth the previous year along with their yearling calves. The last humpback whales to arrive are the pregnant mothers who stay in northern waters as long as possible so they are well fed before heading south.
Adult humpback whales may be 45 feet (14 m) long and weigh more than 40 tons. Calves are about 12 feet (3.7 m) long at birth and feed on more than 100 gallons (379 liters) of their mother’s milk each day.
Humpbacks are baleen whales, and do not have teeth to grab prey. Instead they filter their food from the water using the frayed and intertwined strips of baleen that hang from their upper jaw. Before plastic was invented, baleen was used for women’s corsets, hoop skirts, umbrellas, and a variety of other products that required strong, flexible material. In northern waters, humpbacks feast on the tiny shrimp-like creatures known as krill, as well as small fish such as herring. They sometimes use a technique known as bubblenet feeding, circling around a school of fish and releasing air, which confuses the fish and traps them within the curtain of bubbles. The whale then swims below the school, opens its huge mouth, and scoops up a nice meal by coming right up through the chaotic frenzy of fish. Humpbacks also sing long, complex songs. Generally only the males sing, and only in their winter mating waters (e.g., Hawaiian waters). Male humpback singing is thought to be related to the courtship of females, and may be a sort of love song to attract a mate. One song lasts about 20 minutes, and may be repeated over and over again, often for many hours in a row. All of the humpback whales in the Hawaiian Islands are basically singing the same song, perhaps imitating the mating song of the most successful whale, and this song changes gradually over time. The humpback whale is the only animal known to have such an evolving song, and to have an actual rhythm in its complex songs. Humpbacks have no functional vocal cords, yet no other land or sea creature has such a broad acoustic range as the humpback whale. From their lowest to their highest notes, their acoustic range exceeds all other animals, and includes the highest and lowest frequencies humans can hear as well as tones beyond the range of human hearing. By 1966, there were fewer than 1,000 humpbacks left from a pre-whaling population of about 200,000 whales. Today the North Pacific humpback whale population has increased to about 10,000 (growing about 7% per year), and more than half of them migrate to the Hawaiian Islands each year to mate and give birth. [Photograph/Illustration: Breaching whale]
Humpback Behaviors
ØBreaching—Leaping from the water, spinning around, and landing on its back.
ØPec Slap—Slapping a pectoral fin down onto the surface.
ØFluking—Lifting its tail fluke up out of the water in preparation for diving down.
ØTail Slap—Slapping just the tail fluke down onto the surface.
ØPeduncle Slap—Lifting the back half of the body out of the water and slapping it down onto the surface.
ØHead Slap—Slapping the lower jaw onto the water’s surface.
ØSpy Hop—Rising up from the water head first, as if to look around.
ØSpouting—Sending up sprays of mist (from the blowholes) while breathing at the water’s surface.
ØRound Out—Arching above the surface and then raising the tail fluke and diving below.
ØSinging—Emitting patterned sounds.
[Illustrations: Small sketch of each behavior]
The Eternal Flame In front of Honolulu Hale is a small memorial burning an eternal flame in honor of the victims of the attack on the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. The plaque’s inscription reads: “Let this eternal flame unite our country in memory of those who lost their lives on September 11, 2001 and honor the brave men and women who put themselves in Harm’s Way to save others. The love and spirit of our grateful nation and the hearts and prayers of our people will always be with them. Dedicated on November 11, 2001 by the people of the City and County of Honolulu.”
Representative Patsy Mink
In 1964, Patsy Mink became the first Asian-American woman elected to the U.S. Congress. Born in Pā‘ia, Maui on Dec. 6, 1927, Patsy Mink was the granddaughter of immigrant sugar plantation laborers who came to the Hawaiian Islands from Japan in the late 1800s. Patsy Mink was the valedictorian of her high school class in 1944, and then attended the University of Hawai‘i before transferring to the University of Nebraska where she successfully helped to end their policy of segregated housing.
Returning to University of Hawai‘i, Mink earned degrees in both chemistry and geology. Though she wanted to study medicine, and applied to twenty schools, none accepted women. Enrolling in law school at the University of Chicago, she was considered a “foreign student” because school officials were apparently unaware that Hawai‘i was an American territory. Mink earned her Doctor of Jurisprudence degree in 1951 and in 1953 became the first Asian-American woman to practice law in the Hawaiian Islands.
Patsy Mink was the first Asian-American woman elected to the Legislature, serving in the Territorial House of Representatives from 1956 to 1958. She was a member of the Hawai‘i State Senate in 1963 and 1964, and then was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where she served from 1965 to 1976 as the first Asian-American woman elected to the U.S. Congress. In 1972, Patsy Mink was instrumental in the passage of the Women’s Educational Equity Act (Title IX) prohibiting gender discrimination in academics or athletics by institutions receiving federal funds.
Patsy Mink was again elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1990, and served until September 29, 2002 when she passed away at the age of 74 due to viral pneumonia.
Senator Hiram Fong In 1959, Hiram Fong became the first elected Asian-American U.S. Senator. Born on Oct. 15, 1906 to immigrants from Kwangtang Province in China, Hiram was the seventh of eleven children. Fong’s birth name was Yau Leong Fong, and as a youth in Kalihi, O‘ahu he shined shoes, delivered poi, and caught and sold fish. Fong graduated from McKinley High School in 1924, the University of Hawai‘i in 1930, and Harvard Law School in 1935, then worked as a Honolulu deputy attorney. Beginning in 1938, Fong served 14 years in the legislature of the Territory of Hawai‘i including four years as vice speaker (1944-1948) and six years as speaker (1948-1954). After serving in World War II, Fong founded a law firm, and then became a founding member of Finance Factors Ltd. in 1952. Fong was elected to the U.S. Senate on July 28, 1959 and then was re-elected in 1964 and 1970. Known as a champion of civil rights and workers’ rights, he was instrumental in the passage of a measure favoring agricultural workers in 1945, and co-authored the Immigration Reform Act of 1965. Fong retired in 1977 and concentrated on his many business interests, including the well-maintained 725-acre Senator Fong’s Plantation Gardens, which offers narrated 45-minute long tram rides through five separate valleys with more than 100 varieties of nut and fruit trees.[lxxvii] Hiram Fong passed away on August 18, 2004 at the age of 97.
Modern Waikīkī
Today Waikīkī is a cosmopolitan melting pot of hotels, parks, gourmet restaurants, fast food outlets, lively dance clubs, nightlife, and countless shopping opportunities. Just ½-mile wide by 1½-miles long, Waikīkī’s population includes more than 25,000 residents as well as about 70,000 visiting tourists, along with about 500 restaurants, more than 1,000 shops, more than 190 hotels and vacation condominiums, and hundreds of entertainment venues—all in an area of only about 681 acres!
Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Relatively few species were able to reach the Hawaiian archipelago before humans arrived, but those original colonizing species evolved into an incredible array of uniquely adapted species that gradually transformed the barren and rocky volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands into lush tropical islands full of life.
The extreme isolation of the Hawaiian Islands, more than 2,400 miles (3,862 km) from the nearest continental land mass, led to the evolution of thousands of endemic (unique) species of flowering plants, ferns, insects, birds, and marine life.
Native species of the Hawaiian Islands are divided into two categories: indigenous and endemic. Indigenous species are native to the Hawaiian Islands and also native to some other location. Without the aid of humans, they arrived in the Hawaiian Islands by “wind, wave, or wing”—in other words, they were carried by winds, the ocean, or birds. Endemic speciesevolved in the Hawaiian Islands from an indigenous (native) species already established in the Islands. Endemic species are native to the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else. Thus, all native Hawaiian species either came from somewhere else (indigenous), or evolved from species already established in the Hawaiian Islands (endemic). The extreme isolation and rich diversity of habitats in the Hawaiian Islands led to an extremely high rate of endemic species. Overall, about half of the native species of the Hawaiian Islands are endemic. A total of 23,680 Hawaiian species have been documented, including 18,607 native Hawaiian species (9,151 indigenous species and 9,456 endemic species), and 5,073 human-introduced (non-native) species.[lxxviii] The endemic, indigenous, and introduced species of the Hawaiian Islands include plants, trees, mollusks (e.g., snails), invertebrates (e.g., insects), fish, birds, reptiles (e.g., sea turtles), mammals (e.g., bats, monk seals, whales and dolphins), fungi, lichens, protists (including algae and human parasitic protists), and helminths. Viruses and bacteria were not included in the species count. Bishop Museum scientists have done extensive studies to determine the total number of species found in the Hawaiian Islands, and have assembled a comprehensive tabulation of scientifically documented species, published by Bishop Museum and updated annually, including the Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000, (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.) The Hawaii Biological Survey is a Bishop Museum program that was established in 1992 by Hawai‘i’s State Legislature to maintain an ongoing inventory of the natural history of the Hawaiian Islands, including non-native as well as native species The documented native Hawaiian species include: 1,163 flowering plants (918 endemic); 719 other native plants (241 endemic), 178 ferns (124 endemic), and 22 fern allies (7 endemic); 1,243 mollusks (962 endemic); 1,143 fish species (149 endemic); 4 reptiles (sea turtles, none endemic); 241 bird species (63 endemic); and 25 mammals (2 endemic). These mammals include the endemic ‘ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua (Hawaiian monk seal) and ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Hawaiian hoary bat), as well as 23 indigenous marine mammal species. 1,995 protist species (82 endemic); 2,088 fungi and lichen species (240 endemic);[lxxix] and 9,270 native invertebrates (7,239 endemic). These native Hawaiian invertebrates include 6,284 arthropods, along with 1,743 other invertebrates (449 endemic). The arthropods include 5,818 insect species (5,462 endemic) and 466 other arthropods (366 endemic).
Native Plants Before Western contact began to drastically change the landscape of the Hawaiian Islands, there were more than 1,700 known native Hawaiian plant species, including more than 1,000 native flowering plant species that had evolved from less than 300 original immigrants. At least 178 native ferns evolved from about 135 colonizing species. The 1999 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition (Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999) formally recognized 956 species of native Hawaiian flowering plants, including 850 species that are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Many more native Hawaiian plant species have since been discovered, and are documented in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i (Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002)as well as the Records of theHawaii Biological Survey (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002) with a current total of at least 1,882 documented native Hawaiian plant species (1,159 endemic), including 1,163 native flowering plant species (918 endemic). The extremely high rate of flowering plant endemism (79% endemic) in the Hawaiian Islands is primarily attributed to the geographical isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, thousands of miles from any continent. The Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands also brought at least 24 species of plants to Hawai’i, and may have brought as many as 30 plant species or more. (See Polynesian-Introduced Plants.) About 79% of native flowering plant species in the Hawaiian Islands are endemic along with about 70% of native ferns and 26% of native birds, though nearly all native Hawaiian land bird species are endemic. About 94% of native Hawaiian insect species are endemic, as are 77% of native mollusks, 78% of native invertebrates, and 13% of native fish, including 25% of native reef fish species.
Fish Of the 24,000 known species of fish in the world, about 1,143 are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including 149 endemic fish species. About 536 of these fish species are inshore fishes found near reefs and other nearshore areas to a depth of about 200 feet (61 m). About 25% of these 536 inshore species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. The overall rate of endemism for native Hawaiian fish is about 13% (149 endemic species and 994 indigenous species). Native Hawaiian fish also include five freshwater species, known as ‘o‘opu, which spend part of their lives in the ocean. The endemic āholehole fish (Kuhlia sandvicensis, young stage of āhole, Hawaiian flagtail) sometimes enters lower stream areas, as do pua ‘ama‘ama (Mugil cephalus, young stage of ‘ama‘ama, mullet). ‘Ama‘ama were the main fish raised in ancient Hawaiian loko i‘a (fishponds). Also raised in fishponds were awa (Chanos chanos, milkfish), which reach a length of 6 feet (1.8 m). At least 41 known species of sharks may be seen in Hawaiian waters (and are thus considered native to the Hawaiian Islands), and 20 of these shark species inhabit deep waters. This includes the viper shark (Trigonognathus kabeyai) reported in: Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. (Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.) Six shark species are relatively common around the Hawaiian Islands. Five ray species are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including a manta ray, an eagle ray, and three stingray species. There are at least 38 native Hawaiian species of moray eel (Muraenidae), along with 16 native species of snake eels (Ophichthidae) and three native species of conger and garden eels (Congridae).
Reptiles and Amphibians No terrestrial reptiles or amphibians are considered native to the Hawaiian Islands, though there remains a possibility that some lizard species arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on their own. Marine reptiles native to the Hawaiian Islands include five sea turtle species, some seen only rarely in Hawaiian waters. The two sea turtle species that come onto Hawaiian shores to lay their eggs are honu (Chelonia mydas, green sea turtle) and honu‘ea (Eretmochelys imbricata, hawksbill sea turtle). Another marine reptile occasionally seen in Hawaiian waters (and thus considered native) is the yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus), a venomous yellow and black reptile that is about 29 inches long. A distant relative of the cobra, the yellow-bellied sea snake is the only truly pelagic (open-ocean) sea snake of 55 known sea snake species.
Three skink species and four gecko species were established in the Hawaiian Islands before Western contact. These species likely came as stowaways aboard the voyaging canoes of the Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands, though it is possible some of these lizards may have reached the Hawaiian Islands on their own (e.g., by rafting on a log or on other ocean debris).
As of 2004 at least 21 lizard species have been found in the wild in the Hawaiian Islands (and thus are assumed to have established breeding populations). These lizards include geckos, skinks, anolis lizards, chameleons, horned lizards, and iguanas.
Some of these lizard species are found throughout the Hawaiian Islands, while others are only found in very small areas on particular islands. Three of the lizard species are (presumably) no longer found in the wild in the Hawaiian Islands. No terrestrial snakes are native to the Hawaiian Islands, but there is one introduced snake species, called the Island blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus), which arrived in the Hawaiian Islands sometime around the 1930s in the soil in potted palm trees imported from the Philippines for landscaping. Now well established in the Hawaiian Islands, the Island blind snake is a burrowing snake that is about 6½ inches (17 cm) long, feeds on insects and small invertebrates, and spends most of its life underground.
Mammals There are 78 species of cetaceans worldwide, including all whales, dolphins, and porpoises. At least 22 cetacean species are considered native to the waters surrounding the Hawaiian Islands, though some are only occasionally seen near the Hawaiian Islands. The 22 native Hawaiian cetacean species include: the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae); fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus); Bryde’s Whale (Balaenoptera edeni); sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus); right whale (Eubalaena glacialis); pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus); orca, or killer whale (Ornicus orca); false killer whale (Pseudorca crassiden); pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata); melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra); pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps); dwarf sperm whale (Kogia simus); minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata); bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus); Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris); and the Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris). Aside from these cetacean species, the only native Hawaiian sea mammal is the ‘ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua (Monachus schauinslandi, Hawaiian monk seal, which often feeds near shore and then rests during the day on beaches around the Hawaiian Islands. The only native Hawaiian land mammal is the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus, Hawaiian hoary bat), a furry insect-eating bat that weighs in at about 6 ounces (170 gm) with a wingspan up to 14 inches. (36 cm)
Gastropods
The Bishop Museum’s Hawai‘i Biological Survey has documented at least 781 terrestrial gastropods (759 endemic), and 7 Hawaiian freshwater gastropods (all endemic).
Endemic Hawaiian tree snails (terrestrial gastropods) provide another astounding example of adaptive radiation in the Hawaiian Islands, with more than 750 endemic species having evolved from just a few pioneers that reached the Islands several million years ago, probably in the feathers of migratory birds, or in mud on the birds’ feet. The snails are known by the Hawaiian name pūpū kani oe (“shell that sounds long”), referring to the belief that the snails sing.
Endemic Hawaiian land and freshwater snails evolved from about 25 colonizing species. These extremely adaptable snails had no natural predators, and were once found in a wide variety of habitats where they fed on the fungi that grow on leaves and forest debris (making the snails an important component of native ecosystems).
The snails were known to vary considerably from valley to valley, and exhibited many shapes and colors, from gold tints to cream-colored with brown stripes.
Unfortunately, these native terrestrial snails have a very slow reproductive cycle as well as a low birthrate, and populations were significantly diminished by collectors and other causes.
The snails are extremely vulnerable to non-native predators, particularly rats (Rattus exulans; R.. rattus;R. norvegicus); introduced snails (e.g., Euglandina rosea, the “cannibal snail,”); and the New Guinea flatworm (Platydemis manokwari), which was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the 1990s and now threatens the last, high-elevation habitats of the native snails. (Hadfield, Michael G. Hawaiian Tree Snails, in the Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Edited by Sonia P. Juvik and James O. Juvik. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.)
There were once more than 300 native Hawaiian snail species in the family Amastridae, but only about 12 or fewer of these species survive today. Recent research studying genetic mutation rates has shown that dozens of tree snail species in the subfamily achatinellinae originated from a single ancestor that likely lived in O‘ahu’s Ko‘olau mountain range about three million years ago.
The last remaining habitat of native Hawaiian terrestrial snails is at high elevations on Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, and O‘ahu, as well as some middle elevation areas on the islands of Hawai‘i and Maui.
Three brackish/freshwater snail species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Two of these species, hapawai (Neritina vespertina) and pīpīwai (Theodoxus cariosus), prefer brackish waters, while a third species, hīhīwai (Neritina granosa) lives in freshwater stream areas.
There are four native species of lymnaeid snails (pond snails) that live in streams and ponds as well as lo‘i kalo (taro patches). (Yamamoto, Mike N., and Tagawa, Annette W. Hawai‘i’s Native & Exotic Freshwater Animals. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2000.)
Overall, at least 1,243 native Hawaiian mollusks have been documented, and about 80% of these mollusk species are snails, sea slugs, and related species. Native Hawaiian mollusks are invertebrates that evolved from about 25 original immigrant species. There are also thousands of other native Hawaiian species of invertebrates (animals without backbones), including crabs, shrimp, and sea urchins. Two native Hawaiian shrimp species, ‘ōpaekala‘ole (Atyoida bisulcata) and ‘ōpae ‘oeha‘a (Macrobrachium grandimanus), live in streams, while a third, ‘ōpae ‘ula (Halocaridina rubra) prefers anchialine ponds that are connected to the sea only by the percolations of saltwater and freshwater through lava rock. Heteromyenia baileyi is a native (indigenous) freshwater sponge that sometimes attains a bright green color.
Algae and Coral More than 860 marine and freshwater algae species are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including at least 80 endemic algae species. Of the more than 340 known native Hawaiian species of red limu, at least 67 are endemic and most are edible. There are at least 150 different native Hawaiian coral species (approximately 20 to 30 percent are endemic), including 47 hard stony corals and more than 100 species of sea fan and other soft corals.
Arthropods Arthropods are invertebrates (animals without backbones), and have a rigid external skeleton as well as segmented body parts and segmented legs (arthropod means “jointed feet”). At least 6,284 native Hawaiian arthropods have been documented. About 95% of Hawaiian arthropods are insects, while the other 5% are closely related species that are not true insects, including centipedes, millipedes, spiders, and many others. More than 94% of the 5,818 known native Hawaiian insect species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. These 5,462 endemic insect species evolved over a period of at least 30 million years, inhabiting the ancient islands of the Hawaiian archipelago. At least 23 species and subspecies of damselflies are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands along with five endemic dragonfly species. Many more introduced damselfly and dragonfly species are now established in the Hawaiian Islands. Two butterfly species are native to the Hawaiian Islands, along with about 13 more introduced butterfly species. More than 60 cave species (living in caves), are native to the Hawaiian Islands, and many of these are endemic to particular islands.
Pomace flies, (Drosophilidae and Scaptomyza), are a renowned example of adaptive radiation among insect fauna of the Hawaiian Islands, with at least 860 documented species of Drosophilidae (in five genera), and perhaps many more yet to be described. All of these flies apparently evolved from a common pair of ancestors that lived in the Hawaiian Islands about 10 million years ago.
For thousands of generations (over millions of years) the flies reproduced, and island-hopped from one volcano to the next as the islands eroded away at the northwest end of the chain and emerged at the southeast end of the chain. Currently there are at least 2,161 known beetle species native to the Hawaiian Islands, and at least 1,416 of these beetle species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. There are more species of beetles than any other organism in the Hawaiian Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands also have the world’s highest proportion of beetles to other living things. Thousands of species of native Hawaiian insects have yet to be scientifically described. It is estimated that the total number of native Hawaiian insects could exceed 10,000 species, evolved from less than 500original colonizing species. (Howarth, F.G., and Mull, W.P. Hawaiian Insects and their Kin. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1992.) Also now established in the Hawaiian Islands are more than 550 introduced terrestrial arthropods and more than 2,700 non-native (introduced) insect species.
Hawaii Biological Survey F.R. Warshauer, in The Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition (1998), and relying in part on the Bishop Museum’s Hawaii Biological Survey, reported 142 native bird species (including extinct species); 7,800 described arthropods (out of an estimated 10,000 to 12,000 native Hawaiian arthropods); 1,300 vascular plants; 1,600 lower plants; 788 mollusks, 166 other invertebrates; and one mammal (not counting marine mammals), totaling about 15,000 native species in those categories. (Warshauer, F.R. Alien Species and Threats to Native Ecology, in the Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Edited by Sonia P. Juvik and James O. Juvik. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.) Counts of indigenous and endemic Hawaiian species are constantly changing as researchers discover new species, analyze relationships between species (and subspecies) and further refine scientific classifications.
Initial Colonizing Species—Adaptive Radiation Indigenous species inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands arrived by a variety of methods. Birds came to the Hawaiian Islands on their natural migration tracks or arrived after being blown off course by a storm. Seeds floated to the Hawaiian Islands on the ocean, were carried in the wing feathers and digestive tracts of birds, or in mud on the birds’ feet. Also likely embedded in the mud were tiny snails, insects, and other species. Logs or rafts of debris floating on the Pacific Ocean washed up on the shores of the Hawaiian Islands perhaps carrying species such as geckos and skinks. Winds lifted tiny insects and spiders high into the jetstream, more than eight miles up, where they were carried out over the Pacific Ocean at more than 120 miles per hour and then set down on the Hawaiian Islands, there to remain and multiply. Overall, about 39% of native Hawaiian plant species arrived in the stomachs of birds; about 13% arrived in mud on birds’ feet; about 23% arrived after being stuck to the feathers of birds; about 9% arrived on rafts of seaweed or debris on the ocean; and about 1.4% came by floating through the air to the Hawaiian Islands.[lxxx] There are no native Hawaiian amphibians, terrestrial reptiles, ants, or gymnosperms (e.g., pine trees). Species assumed to be Polynesian-introduced, but possibly arriving on their own, include the Indo-Pacific gecko (Hemidactylus garnotii); mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris); stump-toed gecko (Gehyra mutilata); tree gecko (Hemiphyllodactylus typus); azure-tailed skink (Emoia impar); moth skink (Lipinia noctua noctua); and snake-eyed skink (Cryptoblepharus poecilopleurus). Many non-native gymnosperms, amphibians, reptiles and ants are now well-established in the Hawaiian Islands. The evolutionary process whereby one species evolves into many new species is known as adaptive radiation. The Hawaiian Islands are renowned for their historical record of adaptive radiation, particularly regarding bird and insect species. Populations of original colonizing species often became divided, with each separated sub-population adapting to different habitats and food sources, and eventually evolving into completely new species. Adaptive radiation, or evolutionary divergence, allowed the relatively few colonizers of the Hawaiian Islands to develop into the amazingly diverse native flora and fauna in the Hawaiian Islands. For example, just one finch bird species that established itself in the Hawaiian Islands millions of years ago evolved into at least 50 species and subspecies of Hawaiian honeycreepers. Less than 300 original colonizing flowering plant species evolved into more than 1,100 documented native Hawaiian flowering plant species. Just 29 of these original colonizing plant species evolved into more than half of today’s native Hawaiian flowering plant species. The geographic isolation and diversity of habitats and food sources in the Hawaiian Islands led to the evolution of many new (endemic) species from the relatively few colonizing species that were able to make it to the Hawaiian Islands and reproduce. This resulted in extremely high rates of endemism for various categories of species (e.g., 94% of native Hawaiian insects are endemic). The extremely high speciation rate in the Hawaiian Islands is typical of extremely isolated locations. Over hundreds of generations, many plant, animal, and insect species evolved adaptations to the unique conditions found in particular ecosystems, from the shorelines to the peaks of each of the Hawaiian Islands. Specific adaptations distinguished separate populations that eventually evolved into new species or subspecies endemic (unique) to each particular island. For example, the fragrant mokihana plant and the tiny pink-legged puaiohi bird are found only in the uplands of Kaua‘i. Some native Hawaiian species are endemic to very small areas, such as the endangered koki‘o ke‘oke‘o (white hibiscus) found only in a few northwest Kaua‘i valleys. Koki‘o ke‘oke‘o (white hibiscus) if sound in the valleys of Limahuli and Hanakāpī‘ai.
Birds Species in the Hawaiian Islands A total of 495 bird species have been documented in the Hawaiian Islands,[lxxxi] including: 60 endemic resident species;[lxxxii] 168 breeding and non-breeding migratory species (some seen only rarely); at least 51 extinct species. At least 35 native Hawaiian birds species became extinct before Cook arrived in 1778, including 32 described from subfossils, and another 16 species that became extinct since 1778. More than 150 non-native birds that have been seen in the Hawaiian Islands but have not established breeding populations; and at least 46 established non-native species. This total number of birds documented had been 475 before the addition of 20 new species in the Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000 (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.), which documented 10 new indigenous species (3 endemic and 7 introduced species), increasing the total number of bird species now established in the Hawaiian Islands to 294 species, including 241 native species (178 indigenous, 63 endemic) and 53 introduced species. At least 22 species of marine birds are native to the Hawaiian Islands, with a total population of more than twelve million birds. More than 60% of the total population of native Hawaiian marine birds are noddies and terns. At least 33 species of geese and ducks (many migratory) are native to the Hawaiian Islands, along with five species of waterbirds (all endangered). The five waterbirds are: Hawaiian black-necked stilt (ae‘o); Hawaiian coot (‘alae ke‘oke‘o); koloa (koloa maoli, Hawaiian duck); Hawaiian moorhen (‘alae ‘ula); and black-crowned night-heron (‘auku‘u).
When Captain Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, there were about 80 species of endemic (unique) Hawaiian landbirds, along with at least 24 species and subspecies of native Hawaiian seabirds (4 endemic) and 34 species and two subspecies of waterbirds (29 endemic).
Worldwide there are about 9,700 bird species, but only about 2% of these bird species are native to the Hawaiian Islands. More than 35 endemic Hawaiian landbirds had already gone extinct by the time of Cook’s arrival.
Species that went extinct prior to Cook’s arrival met their demise from a variety of causes, including hunting of the birds for food and for feathers. Sometimes the birds were released unharmed after some of the feathers were collected.
Pua‘a (pigs) and ‘īlio (dogs) brought by the Polynesians also had an effect on island bird populations, as did the ‘iole (Polynesian black rats) that hitched a ride on the voyaging canoes.
Polynesian-introduced pigs, dogs, and rats were particularly detrimental to native Hawaiian ground-nesting birds, including flightless ducks, geese, ibises, and rails, which were also the most likely birds to be hunted by humans for food.
About 23 of the bird species that became extinct prior to Western contact were ground-nesting birds. Now known only from subfossil discoveries, these species included flightless ducks (four species); flightless ibises (three species); flightless rails (at least 10 species); and flightless geese (six species). Some of the flightless geese species were more than 3 feet (1 m) tall.
Other species that went extinct prior to Western contact included at least four long-legged owl species, one shearwater, one bald eagle, two crow species, one petrel, and a harrier along with more than 21 honeycreeper species and one honeyeater species.
It is possible that some of these bird species may have become extinct prior to Polynesian settlement in the Hawaiian Islands, but most (if not all) of these bird species probably became extinct after the Polynesians arrived in the Hawaiian Islands, but before Cook arrived in 1778 establishing Western contact.
Aia a pohā ka leo o ka ‘a‘o, kāpule ke momona o ka ‘uwa‘u i ka puapua. When the ‘a‘o birds’ voices are distinctly heard, the ‘uwa‘u birds are fat even to the very tails. The ‘a‘o bird was not heard during the nesting season. When the fledglings emerged and their cries were heard, the season had come when young ‘uwa‘u were best for eating, and the people went to snare them.[lxxxiii]
Since 1778, at least 24 more native Hawaiian land bird species or subspecies have become extinct,[lxxxiv] including the native kioea (Chaetoptila angustipluma), last seen in 1859, the Greater koa finch (Rhodacanthis palmeri), last seen in 1896, and the Laysan rail (Porzana palmeri), last seen in 1944. The Hawai‘i ‘ō‘ō (Moho nobilis), a bird long sought after for its beautiful feathers used in Hawaiian featherwork, hasn’t been seen since 1934.[lxxxv]
At least 59 endemic Hawaiian bird species and subspecies are now extinct, and another 30 are currently considered rare or endangered (six may already be extinct). At least 30 species and subspecies of Hawaiian birds are federally listed as endangered, along with one subspecies listed as threatened.[lxxxvi] [Photograph: Hawai‘i ‘ō‘ō (Moho nobilis)]
Plant and Animal Extinctions Just as the Hawaiian Islands are known as the world capital of endemic species, it may also be considered the capital of extinct species. About 10% of native Hawaiian flowering plants (more than 100 species) have gone extinct in the last century, along with more than 40 Hawaiian insect species. Also extinct are 72 taxa (species and subspecies) of snails and 74 taxa of insects.[lxxxvii] Insects presumed extinct include: 15 species of Coleoptera (beetles); five species of Diptera (flies, gnats, and mosquitoes); 15 species of Homoptera (leafhoppers, planthoppers, mealybugs, and scales); 38 species of Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies); one species of Odonata (damselflies and dragonflies); two species of Orthoptera (crickets and grasshoppers); and one species of Hemiptera (true bugs).[lxxxviii] More than one third of the plants and animals federally listed as endangered are Hawaiian. In all, more than 360 Hawaiian species and subspecies are listed as either threatened or endangered under the federal and state Endangered Species Acts. The federally listed Endangered Species include more than 275 species and subspecies of plants and more than 35 vertebrate species, with at least another 40 invertebrate species listed as threatened. About 38% of Hawaiian plants are considered extinct or threatened, 10% presumed extinct, 12% endangered, 4% vulnerable, and 12% rare. Note: The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service endangered species program (in regards to Hawaiian species) does not count subspecies separately, resulting in different totals and percents in the stated categories. The Hawaiian Islands are just two tenths of one percent of the size of the United States, but accounts for nearly 70% of the United States’ historically documented plant and animal extinctions. More than 30% of federally listed endangered species are Hawaiian, along with more than 40% of the listed birds. More than half of endemic Hawaiian plants are now threatened, endangered, or extinct, and about half of the original endemic Hawaiian bird species are already extinct. This is documented in the Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002. Twenty-seven species that were presumed to be extinct in the 1990 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i were subsequently rediscovered, and documented as such in the 1999 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition. (Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999.) In the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i (Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R.) Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002. at least 32 new species and two new subspecies discoveries are documented, along with one new endemic genus. The Electronic Supplement also lists numerous name (nomenclatural) changes, “resurrections from synonymy,” and corrections of past misidentifications. Many of these changes have further increased the total number of documented native Hawaiian species and subspecies. In addition, many more species that were presumed extinct were rediscovered (in addition to the 27 rediscoveries between 1990 and 1999.
Threats to Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Ø The destruction of native habitat by non-native hoofed animals (e.g., cattle, sheep, pigs, and goats). In the decades after Captain Cook’s first visit to the Hawaiian Islands, the landscape of the Hawaiian Islands began to be drastically altered by increasing numbers of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs. The pigs brought by Westerners were significantly larger than those brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the first Polynesian settlers.
Ø Predation on native species by non-native (introduced) rats, including the Polynesian black rat (Rattus exulans) that first came to the Hawaiian Islands as stowaways on the Hawaiian voyaging canoes, and then two other rat species (Rattus rattus and Rattus norvegicus) brought by early European ships.
Ø Predation by the small Indian mongoose (Herpestesauropunctatus), which feeds on the eggs of ground-nesting native birds. Mongoose are now found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Kaua‘i.
Ø Predation by non-native domestic and feral animals such as cats (Felis domesticus) and dogs (Canis familiaris). Destruction of native habitat by other non-native species with established breeding populations in the Hawaiian Islands, including axis deer, black-tailed deer, donkeys, wallabies, and Mouflon sheep. Since Captain Cook established Western contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, thousands of species have been introduced to the Hawaiian Islands accidentally or intentionally, and for various purposes, including pest control and ornamental landscaping. Many escaped pets, such as cats (Felis domesticus), have also established significant wild populations in some Hawaiian forests. Various non-native lizards have become established in some areas, including skinks, chameleons, geckos, anoles, and iguanas. Sheep, goats, pigs, deer (axis and black-tailed), donkeys, and wallabies run wild in certain areas of the Hawaiian Islands. The wild donkeys are found on Hawai‘i Island in the region north of the Kona airport near the Kona Village Resort and Four Seasons Hotel. The wild donkeys, known as the Kona Nightingales, are the remnants of a herd that was used to carry coffee from the uplands to the ocean until the end of World War II, when military jeeps were used to carry the coffee and many of the donkeys were released on Hualālai Volcano. Axis deer are found on Moloka‘i, Maui, and Lāna‘i. Black-tailed deer are found in northwestern Kaua‘i, and feral donkeys are found on Hawai‘i Island. Goats and pigs are now found on all of the Hawaiian Islands with the exception of Lāna‘i. Two species of sheep may be found on the upper elevations of Mauna Kea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island. One of these species, the Mouflon sheep, is also found on Lāna‘i. Recently, both sheep species have been nearly eliminated in an effort to protect native species. Thousands of axis deer roam wild on the island of Maui, mostly from Hāna to Kapalua. These deer are the descendants of five deer that were introduced to Maui by State of Hawai‘i officials in 1959, and four more deer brought to Maui in 1960. The deer were initially brought to the Islands to create new hunting opportunities. Maui’s axis deer population has increased rapidly over the last several decades (approximately doubling about every four years), with significant negative effects on native Hawaiian species and ecosystems. In 2002, the State of Hawai‘i signed a ten-year agreement to continue the availability of Mouflon sheep and axis deer hunting programs on Lāna‘i, where hunters take about 600 sheep and 700 deer each year. All of the above mentioned non-native feral ungulate species have had significant negative effects on native Hawaiian ecosystems and the native Hawaiian species they support.
Ø An estimated 40 to 250 rock wallabies live in O‘ahu’s Kalihi Valley. Three of the miniature, kangaroo-like marsupials were brought to the Hawaiian Islands from Australia in 1916 to add to the collection of a private zoo. Two of the wallabies escaped, and today’s wild population in Kalihi Valley are their descendants.
Ø Hunting of birds (by humans) for food, feathers, and for other reasons. Early Hawaiian settlers hunted birds for food (e.g., flightless geese, shearwaters and petrels) as well as for feathers (e.g., ‘ō‘ō (Moho species); mamo (Drepanis pacifica); and numerous other species). The bird feathers were prized for use in ‘ahu ‘ula (royal capes and cloaks), mahiole (feather-crested helmets), kāhili (royal feather standards) and other items of Hawaiian featherwork. After 1778, hunting by foreigners brought new pressures on many native birds, such as various species of albatross whose eggs and feathers were extensively collected, and the ‘alalā (Corvus hawaiiensis, Hawaiian crows), which were systematically shot by farmers protecting their poultry yards and feed pens.
Ø Predation on young, native waterbirds by various introduced species, including cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) and bullfrogs (Rana catesbeiana).
Ø Competition from aggressive non-native plant and animal species, such as the Banana Poka vine (Passiflora mollissima) that blankets large areas of native forest and strangles native trees. Native Hawaiian plants compete with more than 1,000 introduced plant species.
Ø Competition from non-native bird species, such as the barn owl (Tyto alba), that compete with native bird species for habitat.
Ø Parasites and foreign diseases spread by non-native species, such as mosquitoes that spread avian malaria and avian pox, which continue to devastate native forest bird populations, and an introduced moth that devastated native kou trees (Cordia subcordata). Kou (Cordia subcordata) was long thought to be a Polynesian introduction (and not native to the Hawaiian Islands), but was recently determined to be native.[lxxxix]
Ø The high demand for fine native woods, such as sandalwood (Santalum species) and koa (Acacia koa), leading to the illegal harvesting of native trees. The Chinese market for sandalwood (Santalum species) led to deforestation, particularly from 1810 to 1840, the peak years of the sandalwood trade. Increasing demands for wood and pasture eventually cleared huge areas of the Hawaiian landscape. The loss of native forest habitat decimated many of the endemic Hawaiian bird species.[xc]
Ø Loss of native habitat to new homes, commercial developments, and agricultural enterprises including sugarcane, rice, pineapple, and coffee.
Population and Visitor Statistics Hawaiian Kingdom, Republic, Territory, and State of Hawai‘i 1778—Captain Cook’s crew estimates the population of the Hawaiian Islands at about 400,000. Later estimates vary from less than 300,000 to more than 700,000. 1805—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 264,160. 1831—The first archipelago census gives a population of 130,313. 1850—The native Hawaiian population is about 82,000 people. 1853—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is 73,134, including 2,119 foreigners. The native Hawaiian population continues to decline from an estimated 300,000 people living in the Hawaiian Islands at the time of first Western contact (see Chapter 11, Timeline: 1778, Jan. 18). 1872—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 56,897 people. 1876—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is 53,900 people. After this date, the overall population stops decreasing and begins to increase, though the native population continues to decline. 1884—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is reported to be more than 80,000 people, which is an increase of 24,000 people from just twelve years earlier, though the native population continues to decline. 1890—It is estimated that less than 40,000 native Hawaiians remain, down from the estimated population of more than 300,000 people in the Hawaiian Islands at the time of Western Contact (see Chapter 11, Timeline:1778, Jan. 18). The main cause of the decline of the native Hawaiian population is the introduction of foreign diseases including measles, smallpox, Asiatic cholera, whooping cough, scarlet fever, diphtheria, influenza, syphilis, gonorrhea, bubonic plague, dysentery, and numerous other maladies. The clash of cultures as well as the loss of land, religion, rituals, and language also has devastating negative affects on the native population. 1900-1920—The population of the Hawaiian Islands in 1900 is documented at 154,001 people, including about 25% Hawaiian or part-Hawaiian; 40% Japanese; 16% Chinese; 12% Portuguese; and about 5% Caucasian. The first two decades of the 1900s see a mass migration to the Hawaiian Islands by hundreds of thousands of foreigners, at the same time that the native Hawaiian population suffers a massive decline due to foreign diseases and other causes. Foreigners outnumber those of Polynesian descent (native Hawaiians).
Earlier waves of Portuguese laborers and immigrant laborers from China and Japan are supplemented by the importation of laborers from Puerto Rico (1900), Korea (1903), and the Philippines (1907-1931).
In 1900 there are more than 60,000 Japanese in the Hawaiian Islands, and by 1920, they comprise more than 40% of the total population. (See Immigrant Laborers, Chapter 12.) 1910—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 191,874 people, including 26,041 Hawaiians and 12,056 part-Hawaiians. 1920—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 255,881 people, with 42.7% of the population being of Japanese descent. (See Immigrant Laborers, Chapter 12.) 1930—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 368,336 people. 1940—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 420,770 people. 1950—The population of the Territory of Hawai‘i is documented at 499,794 people, and about 85% of these are United States citizens. About one-third of the population of the Hawaiian Islands is Caucasian, one-third Japanese, and 12% are part Hawaiian, with only about 2% pure Hawaiian. About 10% of the population is Filipino, and there are also a small number of Chinese, North Koreans, and Puerto Ricans. 1959—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is about 622,000 people, with more than 240,000 annual visitors. 1960—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 632,772 people. 1964—Caucasians become the majority in the Hawaiian Islands for the first time. 1967—The annual visitor count of the Hawaiian Islands exceeds one million people for the first time. 1970—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 769,913 people. 1972—The annual visitor count of the Hawaiian Islands exceeds two million people. 1979—The annual visitor count of the Hawaiian Islands exceeds four million people. 1980—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 964,691 people. 1982—The population of the State of Hawai‘i exceeds 1 million people. 1986—The State of Hawai‘i annual visitor count exceeds five million people. Tourism continues to grow as the driving force of the economy of the Hawaiian Islands. 1990—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 1,108,228 people, with more than 6.7 million annual visitors. 2000—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,211,537 people, including 239,655 people of native Hawaiian ancestry. Twenty-one percent of Hawai‘i’s 1.21 million residents identify their ancestry as Japanese; 17.7% Filipino; 16.3% Hawaiian; 8.3% Chinese; 5.8% German. Visitors to the Hawaiian Islands total 6,983,394, including 6,948,594 by air and 34,800 by ship. Visitor expenditures in 2000 total $10.9 billion. This visitor expenditure total is the second highest recorded to date (the 1995 total was $11.1 billion). 2001—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,224,398 people. Visitors to the Hawaiian Islands total 6,350,361, including 6,303,790 by air and 46,571 by ship. 2002, July 1—According to the Census Bureau, the July 1, 2002 population of the Hawaiian Islands is 1,244,898 people, including: Maui County-134,007; Island of Hawai‘i—154,794; Kaua‘i—59,946; City and County of Honolulu—896,019; and Metropolitan Honolulu (Red Hill to Hawai‘i Kai)—378,155. 2002—Visitors to the State of Hawai‘i total 6,452,834, including 6,389,058 by air and 63,776 by ship. 2003—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,257,608, including about 7,000 Hawaiians, and 401,000 part (mixed-blood) Hawaiians.
The population of the Hawaiian Islands ranks 42nd in the United States, which has a total population of about 290 million. The Hawaiian Islands gained 16,945 new residents during the previous year, which is a total population increase of about 1%.
Visitors to the State of Hawai‘i in 2003 total 6,442,020, including 6,380,439 by air and 61,581 by ship. 2004—Visitors to the State of Hawai‘i total 6,991,927, including 6,912,094 by air and 79,833 by ship. 2004—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,262,840, an increase of about 1.1% from 2003, and including about 200,000 people of native Hawaiian ancestry. 2005—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,275,194.HE
Chapter 12 Source Notes
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published. See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
[Note: This list is still in progress and being updated.] Ablan, Jennifer. Weather watch—snowfall. Hawaii Magazine, February 1996. Abbott, Isabella Aiona. Lā‘au Hawai‘i: Traditional Hawaiian Uses of Plants. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992. Abbott, Isabella Aiona. Limu: An Ethnobotanical Study of Some Hawaiian Seaweeds. Lawai: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 1984. About the Polynesian Voyaging Society. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/aboutpvs.html. A case of bill overkill. Discover Magazine, May, 1996. Adams, Wanda A. Explore scenic and historic North Kohala. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/08/2002. Adams, Wanda A. Hike through history at Pololū Valley: Kohala Ditch trail also offers native wildlife, scenic views. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/08/2002. Adams, Wanda. Navigator, mediator, hero...Eddie: Eddie Aikau, Hawai‘i’s legendary surfer, is recalled by those who knew him best. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/01/2002. Adamski, Mary. Makua Makahiki: Dedicated faithful revive ancient Hawaiian traditions in contrast to a military presence. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/09/2003. Aguiar, Eloise. Big turquoise waves create perfect ‘Eddie.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/08/2002. Aikin, Ross R. Kilauea Point Lighthouse: The Landfall Beacon on the Orient Run. Kilauea Point Natural History Association. Lihue: Island Printers, 1988. Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Relatives recall his humble personality. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002. Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Volunteers and experts tackle extensive Hokule‘a repairs. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002. Ali‘iolani Hale. Internet site: http://www.planet-hawaii.com/jhchawaii/ahale.html, 8/18/2002. All About Hawaii (1948-1949): Thrum’s Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Publications Division: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1949. Aloha Flight 243: Air Disaster. Internet site: http://www.disastercity.com/flt243/index.htm, 9/01/2001. A look at Midway Atoll today. The Garden Island, 6/06/2002. Altonn, Helen. Hawaiian got isles off to a flying start: The airline began Hawaii’s first scheduled interisle flights in 1929. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002. Altonn, Helen. New Mauna Kea camera: The wide-field device helps researchers investigate broad expanses of the sky. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/20/2003. Altonn, Helen. UH enlisted to spot ‘killer asteroids’: Its Astronomy Institute will help design an array of telescopes. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/09/2002. Altonn, Helen. Unique telescope will seek new stars: The dish antenna array on Mauna Kea focuses on radiation from cold regions. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/20/2003. A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings II. Edited by Alison Kay. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999. Ancient chants and hula at Historical Society dinner. The Garden Island, 5/26/1994. Anderson, George William. Excerpts from Captain Cook’s Third and Last Voyage. The Garden Island, 11/10/1999. A new Hawaiian. The Garden Island, 7/23/2001. A nice gift for the new Hawaiian monk seal. The Garden Island, 7/27/2001. Antone, Rod. A drowning season: A rash of ocean deaths has officials studying the situation with concern. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/06/2002. Antone, Rod. Swimmer luckily not to shark’s liking: John Marrack is safe after a close call off the Waianae coast. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 6/25/2003. Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001. Apgar, Sally. Persistent monk seal relocated to Johnston Atoll. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/03/2003. Ariyoshi, Rita. The National Geographic Traveler: Hawaii. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2000. Arthur, Sheila Heathcoate. Kauaians help to restore lonely Kaho‘olawe. The Garden Island, 9/19/1998. Astronomers find strongest evidence yet of solar system around star visible from earth. The Garden Island, 4/12/2002. Atlas of Hawai‘i: Second Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983. Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998. A Trip Through Hawaii’s Military History: Exploring the U.S. Army Museum of Hawaii. Edited by Barbara Mills. Hawaii Army Museum Society, 2000. A web site for monk seal watchers. The Garden Island, 7/28/2001. Bakutis, Bunky. Diver gets close look at ‘Jaws’ off Maili: Great whites rare in Hawaii. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/15/1999. Balcomb, Kenneth C. III. The Whales of Hawaii: Including All Species of Marine Mammals in Hawaiian and Adjacent Waters. San Francisco, California: Marine Mammal Fund, 1987. Balloon flight blazes trail. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/09/2003. Barayuga, Debra. State found negligent in Sacred Falls deaths: A judge rules there was insufficient warning of the risks of a rockslide. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/25/2002. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Alula. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/30/2002. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Hibiscus kokio. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/07/2003. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Iliau (Kauai Greensword). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/01/2002. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Koki‘o Kea. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/08/2002. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Ma‘ohauhele (Hawaii’s State Flower). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/13/2002. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Naio. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/15/2002. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Naupaka Papa (Dwarf Naupaka). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/16/2003. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Nehe. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/07/2003. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Palapalai. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/02/2003. Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Wiliwili. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/17/2003. Basement makes building isle rarity. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/02/2003. Bassler, Bonnie L. Tiny Conspiracies: Cell-to-cell communication allows bacteria to coordinate their activity. Natural History Magazine, 5/2001. Beamish, Rita. Scientists, environmentalists, fishermen clash over NW Hawaiian Islands’ future. The Garden Island, 5/27/2002. Beletsky, Les. Hawaii: The Ecotravellers’ Wildlife Guide. London: Academic Press, 2000. Berger, Andrew J. Bird Life in Hawaii. Honolulu: Island Heritage Limited, 1983. Berger, Andrew J. Hawaiian Birdlife: Second Edition. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1981. Bernardo, Rosemarie. Aloha Airlines starts on right flight path: Employees live up to Hung Wo Ching’s legacy of pride and a can-do attitude. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002. Bernardo, Rosemarie, and Leone, Diana. Mink’s work to advance women’s rights and aid environment serves as legacy. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002. Bishop Museum—About the Museum. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/about.html, 7/23/2002. Bishop Museum—About the Museum: Contact Information. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/contact.html, 7/23/2002. Bishop Museum—About the Museum: Our Mission. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/mission.html, 7/23/2002. Bishop Museum—Amy B. H. Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/greenwell/index.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum—Archives: About the photo collection. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archphoto.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum—Archives: The Mele Collection. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archmele.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum—Archives: Manuscript Collection. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archmanu.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum—Archives: Special Collections. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archother.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum—Falls of Clyde. Informational brochure distributed at Hawai‘i Maritime Center. Bishop Museum: Hawaiian and Pacific Studies. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/handps.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum—Hawai‘i Maritime Center: Home of the Hokule‘a and Falls of Clyde. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/hmc/, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum: Hawaii’s Extinct Species. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/extinct.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum: Hawai‘i’s Extinct Species—Birds. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-birds.html., 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum—Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Insects. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-insects.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum—Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Plants. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-plants.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum—Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Snails. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-snails.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum: History. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/history.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum—Hokule‘a: Polynesian Voyaging Canoe- Retracing the paths of ancient Polynesia. Internet site: http:www.bishopmuseum.org/hmc/hokulea.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum: Museum Guide & Map. Informational brochure, distributed at Bishop Museum, 8/15/2002. Bishop Museum—Library and Archives: The history of Hawaii and the Pacific in words and images. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum: Message from the President. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/message.html, 7/23/2002. Bishop Museum: Native plant species in Hawai‘i. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/greenwell/gwplants.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum: Pacific Center for Molecular Biodiversity. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/research/pcmb/pcmb.html, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum: Past Exhibits. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/exhibits/past.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum: Planetarium Programs: Fun in Space. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/education/planetarium.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum Press. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/press/, 7/28/2002. Bishop Museum—The Falls of Clyde: A one-of-a-kind ship. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/hmc/fallsofclyde.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum: The How Many Species Are there in Hawaii Web Page. Includes: How many species are there in Hawaii?, from the “Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994” as published in the Bishop Museum Occasional Paper volume 41: 3-18; and Number of Hawaiian Species: Supplement 1, originally published in Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 45: 8-17 (1996). Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hispp.html, 10/17/2002. Bishop Museum—The Kona Field System. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/greenwell/kona.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum—The role of the Hawaii Biological Survey. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hbs3.html. Bishop Museum: Upcoming Traveling Exhibits. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/exhibits/upcoming.html, 8/07/2002. Bishop Museum: World famous Bishop Museum now in Waikīkī. Informational brochure distributed by Bishop Museum, August, 2002. Blakeman, Karen. Sanctuary system moves forward: ‘This is going to strangle us, slowly,’ bottom fisherman says of restrictions. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/16/2002. Blakeman, Karen. Shark attacks woman on Maui: Visitor bitten swimming off Kā‘anapali. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/18/2002. Blakeman, Karen. 1,300 sightings reported by whale watchers. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/26/2003. Blay, Chuck, and Siemers, Robert. Kauai’s Geologic History: A Simplified Guide. Kaua‘i: TEOK Investigations, 1998. Blowhole has history of danger. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/01/2002. Borg, Jim. Catching the wave. San Francisco Examiner, 3/3/1996. Borg, Jim. Genetic research offers intriguing new view of Polynesian migrations. Hawaii Magazine, February, 1997. Bornhorst, Heidi. Crown flower thrives in heat, sun. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/02/2002. Bornhorst, Heidi. Hawai‘i Gardens. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/02/2001. Bornhorst, Heidi. Hawaiian cotton needs a helping hand from us. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/23/2002. Bornhorst, Heidi. Native hibiscus gains a following. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/02/2000. Bornhorst, Heidi. Wiliwili variety of erythrina native to Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002. Boynton, David. Boar hunting: Hunting the feral pigs helps to protect the forest ecology. Kauai Magazine, Fall, 1992. Boynton, David. Kaua‘i monk seal population up by one. The Garden Island, 7/19/1999. Boynton, David. Students taking part in Kolea Watch: Native bird ready for annual migration north. The Garden Island, 4/15/2002. Brill, Richard. The birth of a hurricane. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/01/1998. Briscoe, David. Ancient galaxy being studied atop Mauna Kea. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/31/2003. Briscoe, David. Don’t worry about 1,000-foot waves: They’re all underwater. The Garden Island, 2/15/2002. Briscoe, David. Kilauea lava flow slows, but still attracts thousands. The Garden Island, 8/29/2002. Bryan, E.H. Jr. Stars Over Hawaii. Hawai‘i: The Petroglyph Press, 1995. Building’s corner entry even grander than most. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/09/2003. Bunnell, Dave. Pele’s Underground: Beyond the twilight awaits the deep, dark world of lava tubes. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1996. Burlingame, Burl. Advertiser building went up in 1929. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/23/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Archives built to house monarchy files. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/25/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Building was home for Japanese newspaper. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/30/2003. Burlingame, Burl. Eddie: Riding on the crest of the myth. Honolulu Star-Bulletin Features, http://starbulletin.com/98/03/09/features/story1.html, 2/02/2001. Burlingame, Burl. Efficient design and perfect location define market. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/14/2003. Burlingame, Burl. Elegant, functional train depot was typical of old Honolulu. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/11/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Foster Botanical Gardens is a 20-acre, green oasis. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/1/2004. Burlingame, Burl. German immigrant built ‘Iolani Barracks. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/11/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Hawaii Theatre back to its original ‘new’ look. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/15/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Hawaiian royalty backed St. Andrew’s. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/14/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Honolulu Hale has a strong Mediterranean look. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/09/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Kawaiahao is a Protestant showplace. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 6/06/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Missionary landmark was built in 1915. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/16/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Oldest Catholic cathedral in isles—and maybe U.S. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/29/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Queen’s spirit prevails in historic home. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/21/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Roots of modern China in isle building. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/07/2003. Burlingame, Burl. State art museum looks a bit like a hotel and Italian palazzo. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/28/2004. Burlingame, Burl. Temple is devoted to goddess of mercy. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/25/2004. Bushnell, O.A., and Daws, Gaven; Illustrated by Feher, Joseph. The Illustrated Atlas of Hawaii. Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1970. Cabrera, Theresa. The Hawaiian hoary bat: Hawaii’s only native land mammal. Honolulu: Nature Conservancy of Hawaii Newsletter, Spring, 1995. California researchers aim to tag great white sharks. The Garden Island, 7/10/2003. Captain James Cook: British Navigator and Explorer. Internet site: http://www2.lucidcafe.com/lucidcafe/lucidcafe/library/95oct/jcook.html. Cause of death of hikers on lava flow determined. The Garden Island, 3/01/2001. Cave critters added to endangered species list. The Garden Island, 1/16/2000. Chang, Lester. Dolphins are happy in Kaua‘i’s waters. The Garden Island, 6/23/2003. Chang, Lester. It’s raining Newell shearwaters again: Annual falling—and rescuing—of the birds resumes. The Garden Island, 10/07/2000. Chang, Lester. Monk seal pair are hassle-free: Proper respect gives pup good start. The Garden Island, 8/01/2001. Chang, Lester. Monk seal pup is weaned and relocated: Po‘ipu beach to reopen soon. The Garden Island, 9/09/2001. Chang, Lester. More and more whales spotted in Kaua‘i waters. The Garden Island, 1/26/2003. Chang, Lester. Nurses rally against drownings. The Garden Island, 1/20/2001. Chang, Lester. The end of Queen Lili‘uokalani’s rule. The Garden Island, 1/20/2002. Chang, Lester. Visit to “sinkhole” offers a look at thousands of years of Kaua‘i’s natural history. The Garden Island, 3/25/2002. Chang, Lester. Young seal moves in to Po‘ipu: Officials say long beach closures unlikely. The Garden Island, 10/12/2001. Chang, Lester. $2.8 million helping bats, other species: Federal protection money pouring into state. The Garden Island, 9/29/2001. Chaffee, Frederic H. 10-year-old Keck still rules. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/09/2002. Chapin, Helen G., for the Hawaiian Historical Society. Kauai prince left isles at 6. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/13/2002. Chapin, Helen G., for the Hawaiian Historical Society. 1901 trolley alters Manoa. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/01/2002. Charles Reed Bishop. Kamehameha Schools. Internet site: http://www.ksbe.edu/endowment/bpbishop/CRBishop.html, 8/7/2002. Check out the Bowfin. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/20/2002. Ciaffardini, David Aldo. Eddie would go, has gone and is still going: A wild, occasional big-wave surf meet honors the memory of a homegrown hero. Hawaii Magazine, December, 1996. Clark, Hugh. Mauna Loa swelling detected: Scientist says eruption only a matter of time. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/29/2002. Coleon, Shayna. Duke stamp creates sales swell. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/27/2002. Cole, William. Links to Italy found in middle of sea: Vespucci crew visits POW graves, statues. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/02/2002. Clark, Hugh. Groups seek hearing on telescope plan. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/22/2002. Clark, Hugh. Kilauea’s 18-year eruption far from longest, experts say. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/2/2001. Clark, Hugh. Land deal creates habitat for endangered birds. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/27/2001. Clark, Hugh. Lava flows again crawl across Royal Gardens. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/10/2001. Clark, Hugh. Turtle nest in Hilo great rarity in itself. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/12/2002. Clark, Hugh. Visiting astronomers to give free lectures: Gravitational lensing, quasars are topics for Keck anniversary. The Honolulu Advertiser. Clark, Hugh, and TenBruggencate, Jan. Tsunami could hit Islands with little warning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/09/2000. Clark, Joan. The etiquette of lei: The gift of flowers carries a varied symbolism. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1995. Closing the triangle: A quest for Rapa Nui. Polynesian Voyaging Society: History and Heritage. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/rapanui/heritage.html. Cole, Richard. Hurricane forecasting needs a lift, 20,000 feet: Higher-flying planes required to gather more reliable data from 8 miles high. San Francisco Examiner and Chronicle, 12/05/1993. Cole, William. ‘Queen’s Own’ recalls Korea. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/23/2002. Cole, William. War practice opens with planning: RIMPAC forces downsized by world tensions. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/26/2002. Coleon, Shayna. Beach Boys share memories of Duke: Surfing legend remembered for ‘spreading aloha.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/24/2002. Coleon, Shayna. Picnic perfect for war stories: 100th Battalion gathers for event. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/15/2002. Coleon, Shayna. Rash of drownings causes alarm. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/20/2002. Cone, Joseph. Life’s undersea beginnings. Earth Magazine, July, 1994. Conrow, Joan. Kauai profits in Iniki’s aftermath. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/8/1994. Conrow, Joan. Puaiohi thrives in the Alaka‘i Swamp. The Garden Island, 6/2/2000. Cook, Chris. Mayor calls for comprehensive water safety plan: 169 drownings in 26 years, 240 percent rise in responses. Kauai Times, 5/31/1997. Cook, Evelyn. Geckos galore. Spirit of Aloha Magazine, February, 1997. Cook, Robert. Kīlauea sea slide could be catastrophic: Scientists recorded sizable slip in 2000. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/28/2002. Cox, J. Halley, with Stasack, Edward. Hawaiian Petroglyphs. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 60, 1970. Creamer, Beverly. Plans set for rare birds to meet, mate: Biologists ready for high-tech effort on Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/15/2002. Creamer, Beverly. Project measures stability of earth’s core. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/14/2002. Culliney, John L. Islands in a Far Sea. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988. Curtis, Paul C. Expect monk seals alongside beachgoers: Odds are monk seals will claim sections of Po‘ipu Beach. The Garden Island, 6/04/2002. Curtis, Paul C. Mother seal attacks snorkeler: Too close for comfort at Po‘ipū Beach. The Garden Island, 8/06/2001. Curtis, Paul C. North Shore beaches reopen. The Garden Island, 12/28/2001. Curtis, Paul C. Seals are weaning it: Almost time for mother and pup to part ways. 8/29/2001. Curtis, Paul C. Whale of a time around Kaua‘i: Visitors, boat operators ready for another season of whale watching. The Garden Island, 12/01/2000. Damien. Informational brochure distributed at The Damien Museum, 130 Ohua Ave., Honolulu, HI., August, 2002. Danninger, Lyn. Isle agriculture ahead of the curve. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002. Danninger, Lyn. Sweet industries see sour fall: Mechanization and competition took their toll on once-thriving sugar and pineapple industries. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002. Davidson, Keay, and Williams, A.R. 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Big Island, Maui get that sinking feeling. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/05/2000. Taxonomy: Species Moorhen, Common, Hawaiian. Internet site: http://fwie.fw.vt.edu/www/esis/lists/e101014.htm, 3/13/1996. Teen-age shark attack victim tells story to national audience. The Garden Island, 4/02/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Agency seeks new franchisee for Midway Atoll: Midway Phoenix to end operations May 1, says it can’t ‘do it for free.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/08/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Albatross back in islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date). TenBruggencate, Jan. Aliens overrun Island environs. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/09/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Amazing kōlea faithfully return. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/26/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. April 1, 1946: ‘Tidal wave!’. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/01/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Astronomers spot new Jovian moons: 7 found recently by UH team brings total to 47. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/06/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Bat stages rare show on O‘ahu. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/08/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Beaches slip-sliding away. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/19/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Beetles live here in abundance. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/02/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Biologists score breakthrough in raising reef fish. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/23/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Botanical secrets of sea await discovery. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/3/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Dark evenings of autumn a risky time for fledglings. The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date). TenBruggencate, Jan. Debris continues to threaten marine life. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/01/01. TenBruggencate, Jan. Dolphins change sonar volume: Signals reveal target, size, distance, UH researchers find. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/24/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Echoes of Iniki: Some victims still staggering. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/5/1993. TenBruggencate, Jan. Eddie’s Sacrifice: Surfer’s search for help during a stormy 1978 Hōkūle‘a voyage ensured his legacy—and the canoe’s mission. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/17/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Get out of water if dolphins are jumpy, shark experts say. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/26/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Giant tsunami theory disputed: Lana‘i study contradicts 1937 report. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/08/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Group sues for forest bird habitat. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/4/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Hawaiian spellings catch on but slowly: Luddites afraid of diacritical mass. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/16/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Hawai‘i: Land of Volcanoes. Honolulu: Mutual Press, 1999. TenBruggencate, Jan. Help keep watch on our kōlea. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/25/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Identify ‘elepaio habitat, court says. Honolulu Advertiser, 6/27/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Isles warned tsunami overdue: Experts fear few aware of danger. Honolulu Advertiser, 9/05/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Kaua‘i limestone 315,000 years old. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/19/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Kauai thrush may be coming back. The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date). TenBruggencate, Jan. Kilauea simmers down again: Coat of red dust covers wide area. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/02/1997. TenBruggencate, Jan. Keck seeing farther and farther out—and back. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/1996. TenBruggencate, Jan. Keck twins open new paths to universe. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/03/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Last habitat for crow endangered. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/15/1996. TenBruggencate, Jan. Linking of telescopes enhances visibility: Kecks to look for planets like Earth. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/03/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Lo‘ihi’s secret: a little known form of life. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/13/1996. TenBruggencate, Jan. Loss of variability left nēnē vulnerable. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Mauna Kea telescope gets world’s biggest camera. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/02/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Muted lights brighten sea birds’ future. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/05/2003. TenBruggencate, Jan. Navy clocked Iniki gust at 227 mph: Weather Service reports sustained winds blew at 145 mph. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/07/1992. TenBruggencate, Jan. Nēnē finds home on Moloka‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/07/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Nene flourish on Kauai. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/19/1995. TenBruggencate, Jan. New firm to manage Midway Atoll. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/30/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Northwestern islands subject of wrangling. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/10/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Northwest islands’ fish differ noticeably. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/15/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Officials discover third monk pup born on Kaua‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/06/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. ‘Outrigger’ telescopes would target giant planets. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/21/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Po‘ipu may face new wildlife rules: Federal actions would be limited. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/20/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Push to protect habitats worrisome to landowners: Proposal calls for one-fourth of two islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/07/2002 TenBruggencate, Jan. Presence of seals worries officials: Biologists say sightings are up. The Garden Island, 4/15/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Rare birds socializing again at Midway. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/15/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Rare seeds stolen from nature preserve: Lāna‘i thief targets endangered plant. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/23/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Researchers studying volcanoes to drill 3 miles into Mauna Loa. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/09/1996. TenBruggencate, Jan. Sanctuary status sought for Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/07/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Seal has another pup at Po‘ipū. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/23/2001. TenBruggencate, Jan. Science mission finds new species: Discoveries rife on outlying isles. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/19/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Scientists gather on Big Island to debate brown dwarfs. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/17/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Seal pup plops down in Po‘ipu. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/07/2000. TenBruggencate, Jan. Service cuts at Midway Atoll raise protests. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/02/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark attacks teenager off Kaua‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/26/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Sinkhole yields treasure trove of bird fossils. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/25/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Songbird showing promise in wild: Efforts tested on Kaua‘i thrush. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/22/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Sub finds mysteries near Loihi’s new pit. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/09/1996. TenBruggencate, Jan. Taro’s in trouble, and it’s rooted in labor. The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date). TenBruggencate, Jan. This bug’s life is an icy existence: Wēkiu thrives in Mauna Kea cold. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/18/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Three rare puaiohi hatch in captivity. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/1996, (uncertain date). TenBruggencate, Jan. Jupiter study adds 11 moons: UH astronomers widen jovian map. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/17/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Scientist disputes Kīlauea slide danger. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/07/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark chomps into board at popular surf spot. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. UH to plan asteroid scope: Instrument to search for threats to Earth. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/09/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. Variety fills island ecosystems. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/16/2002. TenBruggencate, Jan. What do big sharks eat? Anything! The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date). Tern Island project proposed. The Garden Island, 8/09/2001. 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Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Facsimile reproduction of first edition, University of Chicago Press, 1951. Including Foreword by Katharine Luomala, The University Press of Hawaii, 1972. The little people. Discover Kaua‘i Magazine, Island Heritage Publishing, 1999. The Old Archives Building. Informational brochure distributed at Old Archives Building. Published by The Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, August, 2002. The Plant Book: The World of Plants in a Single Volume. Australia: James Mills-Hicks, Random House Australia Pty Ltd., 2001. Thompson, Rod. Big Isle provides view to massive volcano in space. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/14/2002. Thompson, Rod. Endangered olive ridley turtle lays eggs at Hilo Bay: Officials are asking the public to not disturb the rare nest, which has 124 eggs. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/12/2002. Thompson, Rod. Hawaiian groups contest planned Mauna Kea scopes. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/21/2002. Thompson, Rod. New observatory will have offices in Hilo: Astronomers can study the cosmos without scaling Mauna Kea. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/29/2002. Thompson, Rod. Scientists watching Mauna Loa swelling: The expansion is relatively small but could be significant. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002. Thompson, Rod. Telescopes see star being born: The 2 Keck mirrors combine their light with optics that erase atmospheric twinkle. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 7/02/2003. Thompson, Rod. UH finds 7 more Jupiter moons: 2 Hawaii astronomers share in the discovery of Koko Head-size rocks in oddball orbits. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/06/2003. Thousands go with the flow: Kīlauea lava enchants ever-increasing crowds. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/23/2002. Timmons, Grady. Waikiki Beachboy. Honolulu, Hawaii: Editions Limited, 1989. Titanic: A special exhibit from Britannica Online. Internet site: http://titanic.eb.com/01_01.html, 3/26/2002. Travis, J. An illuminating partnership for squid. 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Internet site: http://pacificislands.fws.gov/wesa/endspindex.html, 7/15/2002. United States Fish & Wildlife Service: Pacific Islands—Endangered Species; Threatened and Endangered Animals in the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaiian Cave Animals: Kaua‘i Cave Wolf Spider and Kaua‘i Cave Amphipod. Internet site: http://pacificislands.fws.gov/wesa/caveanimals.html, 7/24/2002. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS): Listings by State and Territory, as of 7/28/2002. Internet site: http://ecosfws.gov/webpage/webpage_usa_lists.html?state=all&module=undefined, 7/28/2002. U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS): U.S. Listed Vertebrate Animal Species Report by Taxonomic Group as of 7/28/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/webpage/webpage_vip_listed.html?module=undefined&code=V&listings=0, 7/28/2002. USS Arizona Memorial turns 40. The Garden Island, 5/26/2002. Valier, Kathy. Ferns of Hawai‘i. Honolulu, University of Hawai‘i Press, 1995. Varez, Dietrich. Kapa. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1994. Varez, Dietrich. Nene. Hawaii Magazine, April, 1996. Varez, Dietrich. Stamp printing. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1995. Viernes, Kathleen J.F. Bullfrog predation on an Endangered Common Moorhen chick at Hanalei National Wildlife Refuge, Kaua‘i, ‘Elepaio, Volume 55, Number 6, August/September, 1995. Viotti, Vicki. Envoys of the dance: A halau performed for villagers in New Caledonia as part of a Pacific arts festival. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/17/2000. Viotti, Vicki. Preserving the poetry and protocol of hula. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/02/2001. Viotti, Vicki. The elements of the chants. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/12/2000. Viotti, Vicki. The lei of the land. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/16/1995. Volcano Views: A Visitor Guide to Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park. Hawai’i Natural History Association. Summer/Winter, 1994. Visitor arrivals down in 2000, but it was still very good year. 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Discover Kaua‘i Magazine, Island Heritage Publishing, 1999. Waite, David. State loses falls lawsuit: Tragedy that killed 8 called result of official negligence. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/25/2002. Walther, Michael. Fading songs of the forest: Scientists work to save endangered birds. Hawaii Magazine, August, 1996. Warning devices will give people time to run for higher ground and avoid tsunamis. The Garden Island, 2/25/2001. Welch, Kim, Perry, Kelly, and Jeffers-Fabro, Ati. How to identify a damselfly. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/26/2001. Wetland Wildlife. Hawaii Magazine, December, 1996. Webb, Nancy, & Webb, Jean Francis. Kaiulani: Crown Princess of Hawai‘i. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1998. Welcome to the Judiciary History Center. Informational brochure distributed at Ali‘iōlani Hale, Honolulu, HI, August, 2002. Where nēnē can wander again. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/06/2003. Whitney, L.D., Bowers, F.A.I., Takahashi, M. Taro Varieties in Hawaii. Bulletin 84, December 1939, Reprinted June, 1997. University of Hawaii at Manoa, College of Tropical Agriculture & Human Resources, 1997. Wichman, Fredrick B. Kaua‘i: Ancient Place-Names and Their Stories. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998. Wilcox, Elsie. Hanalei in History, Wilcox mss. Kauai Historical Society, 4/26/1917. Wildlife service launches plan to recover population of alala. The Garden Island, 12/19/2003. Wilhelm, ‘Aulani. The Reefs Beyond: A groundbreaking expedition surveys the remote reefs of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Hana Hou, Volume 4, Number 3, June/July, 2001 Wilken, Dennis. Second ocean death in 2 days reported: Lumahai Beach drowning victim 12th this year. The Garden Island, 12/30/2000. Wilken, Dennis. Lifeguards make a save. The Garden Island, 2/20/2002. William Haraguchi a Living Treasure for life-long commitment to agriculture. The Garden Island, 6/26/2002. Williams, Julie Stewart. Kamehameha the Great: Revised Edition. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools/Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate, Community Education Division Intermediate Reading Program, 1993. Williams, Julie Stewart. Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop: Revised Edition. Honolulu, Kamehameha Schools Press, 1999. Wilson, Christie. 1 in 4 Hawaiian children poor: Less education, large family size seen as factors. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/26/2002. Wilson, Christie. Haleakalā launches annual count of nēnē. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/09/2001. Wilson, Christie. Hansen’s disease still carries stigma. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/17/2002. Wilson, Christie. Lava flows at your feet, a changing landscape: Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is summer’s hit attraction. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/25/2002. Wilson, Christie. Permanent shark warning up in Olowalu: Risk is ‘unique’ in Maui area, state explains. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/02/2002. Witte, Astrid and Mahaney, Casey. Hawaiian Reef Fish. Waipahu, Hawai‘i: Island Heritage Publishing, 1998. W.M. 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[1] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [2] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [3] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [4] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [5] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [6] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [7] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [8] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [9] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [10] p. 243, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2224. [11] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [12] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [13] p. 252, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2313. [14] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [15] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [16] p. 234, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2144. [17] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. This popular Hawaiian saying comes from a song by that name written by Reverend Samuel Kapū. [18] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [19] p. 203, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1885. [20] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [21] Island ages based on: Blay, Chuck, and Siemers, Robert. Kauai‘’s Geologic History: A Simplified Guide. Kaua‘i: TEOK Investigations, 2004. [22] p. 266, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2441. [23] p. 137, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1267. [24] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999. [25] p. 276, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2523. [26] p. 146, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1340. [27] p. 300, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2735. [28] p. 248, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2270. [29] One version of the Kumulipo is: The Kumulipo: A Hawaiian Creation Chant. Translated and edited with commentary by Martha Warren Beckwith. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Facsimile reproduction of first edition, University of Chicago Press, 1951. Including Foreword by Katharine Luomala, The University Press of Hawaii, 1972. [30] p. 38, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 311. [31] p. 309, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2814. [32] p. 66, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 571. [33] p. 191, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1781. [34] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. & Mookini, Esther T. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [35] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [36] p. 309, p. xxiv, Desha, Stephen L., translated by Frazier, Frances N. Kamehameha and his Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 2000). [37] p. 81, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 732. [38] p. 64, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 552. [39] Translation by J.C. Lane, as cited in: Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988. [40] Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988. [41] p. 320, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2924. [42] p. 112, 113, Wichman, Frederick B. Nā Pua Ali‘i O Kaua‘i: Ruling Chiefs of Kaua‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003. [43] p. 113, Wichman, Frederick B. Nā Pua Ali‘i O Kaua‘i: Ruling Chiefs of Kaua‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003. [44] p. 183, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1698. [45] The Seamen’s Bethel provided opportunities for sailors to learn to read. [46] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. [47] p. 194, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1803. [48] p. 275, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2520. [49] Official Protest to the Treaty of Annexation: Presented by Lili‘uokalani in Washington D.C., June 17, 1897. Internet site: http://hawaiii-nation.org/treatyprot.html, 6/14/2005. [50] p. 75, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 669. [51] Stevenson also visited Waikīkī in 1889. [52] p. 41, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 333.
[liv] p. 235, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2157. [lv] p. 140, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1285. [lvi] p. 201, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1868. [lvii] p. 307, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2786. [lviii] p. 81, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 736. [lix] p. 303, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2766. [lx] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [lxi] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [lxii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [lxiii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [lxiv] p. 163, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1512. [lxv] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [lxvi] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. [lxvii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. [lxviii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. & Mookini, Esther T. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974. [lxix] Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. [lxx] p. 234, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2147. [lxxi]The Apology to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Kapolei, Hawai‘i: Ka‘imi Pono Press, 1994. [lxxii] p. 243, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2227. [lxxiii] p. 251, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2307. [lxxiv] Lokelani Lindsey was later sentenced to six months in prison for bankruptcy fraud and money laundering, charges unrelated to her Bishop Estate position. Jervis was later caught in a public mens’ room at the Hawaiian Prince Hotel with a married Bishop Estate employee. The woman committed suicide the next day, and about one week later Jervis (also married) consumed a large amount of sleeping pills and was rushed to the hospital. [lxxv] Battleship Missouri Memorial, 808-973-2494 (recording); 808-423-2263, 1 Arizona Memorial Drive, Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, www.ussmissouri.org, open daily 9-5. [lxxvi] U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine Museum and Park, 11 Arizona Memorial Drive, Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, 808-423-1341, open daily 8-5, www.bowfin.org. [lxxvii] Senator Fong’s Plantation Gardens, 808-239-6775, 47-285 Pūlama Road, open 10-4 daily. Directions: 1 mile off Kahekili Highway (Hwy. 83). [lxxviii] Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.
[lxxx]Juvik, James O. Biogeography in Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Edited by Sonia P. Juvik and James O. Juvik. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998. [lxxxi]The How Many Species Are there in Hawaii Web Page. Includes: How many species are there in Hawaii?, from the “Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994” as published in the Bishop Museum Occasional Paper volume 41: 3-18; and Number of Hawaiian Species: Supplement 1, originally published in Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 45: 8-17 (1996). Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hispp.html, 10/17/2002. [lxxxii] Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002. The species were documented as part of Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum’s ongoing Hawaii Biological Survey, updated in the Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. [lxxxiii] p. 6, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 32. [lxxxiv]Bishop Museum: Hawai‘i’s Extinct Species—Birds. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-birds.html, 7/28/2002. [lxxxv]Bishop Museum: Hawai‘i’s Extinct Species—Birds. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-birds.html, 7/28/2002. [lxxxvi]Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002. [lxxxvii]Bishop Museum - Hawaii’s Extinct Species. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/extinct.html, 7/28/2002. [lxxxviii]Bishop Museum - Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Insects. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-insects.html, 7/28/2002. [lxxxix] (Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey// (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.)
Essays on Topics of Hawaiian History
Table of Contents
The State of Hawai‘i—The Aloha State
Island Nicknames
Facts About the State of Hawai‘i
State of Hawai‘i Holidays
The State Seal
Ocean Channels Between Islands
Distances
O‘ahu—The Gathering Place
Kaua‘i—The Garden Isle
Ni‘ihau—The Forbidden Isle
Moloka‘i—The Friendly Isle
Lāna‘i—The Private Isle
Maui—The Valley Isle
Hawai‘i Island—The Orchid Isle
Kaho‘olawe
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
Origins
Origins of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
The Hawaiian Archipelago
Ages of the Islands
Settlement—1800
Ancient Polynesians
‘Aumākua—Sacred Guardians
Heiau and Kapu
Celestial Navigation
The First Hawaiians
Polynesian-Introduced Plants
Traditional Uses of Polynesian Introduced Species
Traditional Uses of Native Hawaiian Species
‘Ōahi—The Fire-Throwing Ceremony
Medicinal Plants—The Kahuna Lā‘au Lapa‘au
A Unique Hawaiian Culture
Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth
Kamehameha’s First Major Battle
Captain Cook Establishes Western Contact
The Death of Captain Cook
The Rise of the Warrior Kamehameha
The Death of Kīwala‘ō at the Battle of Moku‘ōhai
Games, Rituals, and Celebrations
The Battle of Kepaniwai—Kamehameha Invades Maui
The Olowalu Massacre
The Hawaiian Sandalwood Trade
Dedication of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau
George Vancouver Visits the Hawaiian Islands
The Battle of Nu‘uanu
1800—1850
Parker Ranch
The Exploits of Georg Anton Schäffer
‘Ōpūkaha‘ia—The First Christian Hawaiian
The Hawaiian Flag
The Breaking of the Kapu
The Mission Houses
Humehume and Kaua‘i’s Last Rebellion
Kapiolani, by Lord Alfred Tennyson
The Twelve Companies of American Missionaries
The Demise of Boki
The Hawaiian Language
Pronunciation
Common Hawaiian Words
Hiram Bingham (1789-1869)
Scholars of Hawaiian History
Early Publications
Kawaiaha‘o Church
French / Catholics
Restoration Day
The Whaling Era
Washington Place
1850—1900
Heroes of Kalaupapa—Father Damien and Mother Marianne
Mark Twain in the Sandwich Islands
King Kamehameha Day—Henry Berger and the Royal Hawaiian Band
Ali‘iōlani Hale
‘Iolani Palace
The Legend of Pele
Public Transportation
The Coronation Pavilion
Statue of King Kamehameha I
The Bayonet Constitution
Kamehameha Schools and Bishop Museum
The Sugarcane Era
The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy
The Waikīkī Beachboys
Aloha ‘Oe
Annexation—The Kū‘ē Petitions
The Newlands Resolution Annexing Hawai‘i to the United States
Princess Ka‘iulani—Heir to a Vanished Throne
1900—1950
The Organic Act
The Pineapple Industry
Lāna‘i City
Native Reef Fish of the Hawaiian Islands
Military Bases in the Hawaiian Islands
The U.S. Military
Immigrant Laborers
Duke Kahanamoku—Surfer, Olympian, Movie Star, Sheriff
Historic Waikīkī
Island Emblems
Lei Day—May 1
Island Flowers and Lei
King Kamehameha Hula Competition (Photo and Caption)
Lei Making Methods
Honolulu Hale
War Memorial Natatorium
Aviation
The Massie Trial
Communication
Pearl Harbor
Martial Law
The 442nd/100th—Hawai‘i’s Nisei Soldiers
Tsunamis
Major Tsunamis That Have Hit the Hawaiian Islands
Nēnē—The Hawaiian Goose
1950—Present
Unions
The Democratic Revolution
Daniel Inouye
Ala Moana
Statehood
The U.S.S. Arizona Memorial
Mormons in the Hawaiian Islands—The Polynesian Cultural Center
The Merrie Monarch Festival
Hula and Mele
Preparing for the Dance
The Spirit of Aloha
The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe—Rediscovering the Past
Kaho‘olawe Returned
Eddie Would Go—The Story of Eddie Aikau
Recent Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano
‘Onipa‘a Centennial Observance
Historic Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano
Historic Eruptions of Mauna Kea and Hualālai Volcanoes
Historic Eruptions of Mauna Loa Volcano
Mary Kawena Pūku‘i (1895-1986)
Senator Daniel Akaka
Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine
Mauna Kea Astronomy
Hurricane ‘Iniki Devastates Kaua‘i
Hurricanes
The U.S. Apology to the Native Hawaiians
The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe
Lō‘ihi Seamount—The Next Hawaiian Island
Bruddah Iz (1959-1997)
The Bishop Estate Scandal
Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn—Queen of Mākaha
U.S.S. Missouri Battleship and U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine
Humpback Whales
June Jones and the University of Hawai‘i Warriors
The Eternal Flame
Representative Patsy Mink
Senator Hiram Fong
Modern Waikīkī
Native and Endangered Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Initial Colonizing Species—Adaptive Radiation
Bird Species in the Hawaiian Islands
Plant and Animal Extinctions
Threats to Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Population and Visitor Statistics
Hawaiian Kingdom, Republic, Territory, and State of Hawai‘i
The State of Hawai‘i—The Aloha State
Island Nicknames
O‘ahu—The Gathering Place
Kaua‘i—The Garden Isle
Ni‘ihau—The Forbidden Isle
Moloka‘i—The Friendly Isle
Lāna‘i—The Private Isle
Maui—The Valley Isle
Hawai‘i—The Orchid Isle
Kaho‘olawe
Facts About the State of Hawai‘i
Land Area: 6,423.4 square miles (16,636.6 sq. km).
Size Comparison: 47th largest of the United States.
Statehood: Became 50th state on August 21, 1959.
Latitude: Between 19º and 22º north (main Islands).
Longitude: Between 155º and 161º west (main Islands).
State Bird: Nēnē—Hawaiian goose (Branta sandvicensis).
State Tree: Kukui—Candlenut (Aleurites moluccana).
State Flower: Pua Ma‘o Hau Hele—Yellow Hibiscus (Hibiscus brackenridgei).
State Marine Mammal: Koholā—Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae).
State Team Sport: Outrigger Canoe Paddling.
State Fish: Humuhumu-nukunuku-ā-pua‘a—Reef triggerfish (Rhinecanthus rectangulus).
State Song (Anthem): Hawai‘i Pono‘ī (words written by King Kalākaua, music by Henry Berger).
State Gem: Black Coral.
Official State Nickname: The Aloha State.
State of Hawai‘i Holidays
State Motto:
Ua mau ke ea o ka ‘āina i ka pono.
The life of the land is perpetuated (preserved) in righteousness.
State of Hawai‘i Holidays
State Seal:
Hawai‘i’s State Seal was created in 1959 when the Hawaiian Islands became the 50th state. Designed after the Territorial Seal, the State Seal is circular in shape, with the words “State of Hawai‘i” on the top of the Seal, and Hawai‘i’s State Motto (see above) written on the bottom.
In the middle of the State Seal is a heraldic shield, which is also the state’s Coat of Arms. Kapu sticks are on the lower left and upper right of the shield, and horizontal stripes are at the lower right and upper left of the shield. Above the shield is the sun, and “1959,” commemorating statehood. King Kamehameha I is to the left of the shield, while the Goddess of Liberty (holding the state flag) is on the right side of the shield.
A phoenix with leaves of kalo (Colocasia esculenta, taro), mai‘a (Musa species, banana), and ‘iwa‘iwa (Adiantaceae, maidenhair fern) are at the bottom of the State Seal, which was designed by Viggo Jacobsen in 1895 for the Republic of Hawai‘i. The State Seal was designed after the Territorial Seal.
[Photograph: State Seal]
Ocean Channels Between Islands
Kaulakahi Channel “The single flame (streak of color”[1]) Between Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau
Ka‘ie‘iewaho Channel* “Outer Ka‘ie‘ie,”[2] after ‘ie‘ie vine.B etween Kaua‘i and O‘ahu
Kaiwi Channel “The bone”[3] Moloka‘i and O‘ahu
Kalohi Channel “The slowness”[4] Between Lāna‘i and Moloka‘i
Pailolo Channel “Pai (lift), oloolo (shifting)”[5] Between Maui and Moloka‘i
‘Au‘au Channel “Bathe”[6] Between Lāna‘i and Maui
Kealaikahiki Channel “The way to foreign lands”[7] Kaho‘olawe and Lāna‘i
‘Alalākeiki Channel “Child’s wail (believed heard here)”[8] Maui and Kaho‘olawe
‘Alenuihāhā Channel “Great billows smashing”[9] Between Maui and Hawai‘i Island
*The Ka‘ie‘iewaho is also called the Kaua‘i Channel.
Freycinetia arborea
Na kai ‘ewalu.
The eight seas.
The “seas” that divide the eight inhabited islands.[10]
Distances:
Hawai‘i Island to Midway Atoll: 1,580 miles (2,543 km).
Hawai‘i Island to Kaua‘i: More than 400 miles (644 km).
Honolulu to Equator: 1,470 miles (2,366 km).
Honolulu to Tokyo, Japan: 3,847 miles (6,191 km).
Honolulu to Los Angeles, California: 2,557 miles (4,115 km).
Honolulu to Anchorage Alaska: 2,781 miles (4,476 km).
Honolulu to Midway Atoll: 1,309 miles (2,107 km).
[Illustration: Map of eight main Hawaiian Islands, each island boldly labeled.]
[Text underneath: The State of Hawai‘i. Text on each island: Kaua‘i, Ni‘ihau, O‘ahu, Maui, Lāna‘i, Kaho‘olawe, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i.]
O‘ahu—The Gathering Place
Land Area: 596.7 square miles (1,545 sq.km.).
Size Comparison: Third largest Hawaiian Island; most populated island.
Island Emblem: Pua ‘Ilima—Flower of ‘Ilima (Sida fallax).
Highest Elevation: 4,003 feet (1,220 m) at the summit of Ka‘ala in the Wai‘anae Range.
Official Nickname: The Gathering Place.
O‘ahu is about 44 miles (71 km) long by 30 miles (48 km) wide, with more than 112 miles (180 km) of coastline and more than 100 white-sand beaches. Popular surfing sites are found on all sides of O‘ahu, including the north shore’s renowned Banzai Pipeline where the world’s best surfers challenge the giant winter waves.
O‘ahu has more than 900,000 residents, and each day the island hosts an average of nearly 70,000 tourists. Hotel rooms and other vacation accommodations number more than 36,000 rooms.
[Photograph: Waikīkī]
The prominent geographical features of O‘ahu are two parallel mountain ranges: the older Wai‘anae Mountains and the deep-furrowed Ko‘olau Mountains. Formed by volcanic eruptions more than one million years ago, the two mountain ranges are aligned perpendicular to the northeast tradewinds, creating a wet windward side of O‘ahu (the eastern side) and a much drier leeward side.
The majestic Ko‘olau Mountains run north to south for the entire span of the island of O‘ahu. Between the two major mountain ranges is the fertile Leilehua Plateau, long known for its pineapple production.
[Photograph: Ko‘olau Mountains at Waimanalo (steep furrows)]
O‘ahu has three prominent geologic landmarks known as tuff cones: Koko Head (Kohelepelepe), Punchbowl (Pūowaina), and Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi). These volcanic cones provide visual reminders of the island’s volcanic past. O‘ahu has 62 county parks as well as 25 state parks and three national parks.
[Photograph/Map: O‘ahu]
Kaua‘i—The Garden Isle
Land Area: 552.3 square miles (1,430 sq.km.).
Size Comparison: Fourth largest Hawaiian Island.
Island Emblem: Mokihana—Fruit of Mokihana (Pelea anisata).
Highest Elevation: 5,243 feet (1,598 m) at the summit of Mt. Kawaikini.
Official Nickname: The Garden Isle.
Kaua‘i is the oldest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, having formed about five million years ago. The age of the island accounts for its many stunning features, from the deeply carved valleys of Waimea Canyon to the steep cliffs and spires of the Nāpali Coast.
Kaua‘i is about 33 miles (53 km) long and 25 miles (40 km) wide, with about 90 miles (145 km) of coastline. Kaua‘i is known for its scenic, rugged mountains as well as its pristine, white-sand beaches, with the most beach per mile of coastline of any of the eight main Hawaiian Islands
Kaua‘i is also known for resisting the rule of King Kamehameha I long after he conquered the other Hawaiian Islands. In 1810, Kaua‘i’s paramount ruler, King Kaumuali‘i, ceded the island of Kaua‘i to King Kamehameha to avoid impending war against Kamehameha’s powerful army. King Kamehameha had twice earlier attempted to invade Kaua‘i, but was not successful.
Today Kaua‘i has a resident population of about 62,000 people. The island’s major industry is tourism, but military spending and agricultural enterprises also bring significant income. Kaua‘i’s main agricultural products are sugarcane, coffee, papaya, pineapple, guava, and tropical flowers.
The 5,148-foot summit of Kaua‘i’s Mt. Wai‘ale‘ale is one of the rainiest spots on the planet, recording 681 inches in 1982, with an average annual rainfall of 451 inches, the highest in the world. This annual average rainfall exceeds even India’s Cherrapunji Village, which received 905 inches of rainfall in 1861, but has an average annual rainfall of just 428 inches. Scientists think Wai‘ale‘ale’s actual rainfall may be even more than 451 inches because researchers have seen the high winds at the summit blow the rain nearly horizontally over the gauges. Automated gauges atop Wai‘ale‘ale now relay weather information via satellite.
[Photograph/Map: Kaua‘i]
Ni‘ihau—The Forbidden Isle
Land Area: 69.5 square miles (180 sq.km.).
Size Comparison: Seventh largest Hawaiian Island.
Island Emblem: Pūpū Ni‘ihau—Ni‘ihau Shell
Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca); Momi (Euplica varians); Laiki (Mitrella margarita).
Highest Elevation: 1,281 feet, at summit of Pānī‘au.
Official Nickname:The Forbidden Isle.
Also called: Island of Yesteryear (Yesterday).
[Illustration: Map—Ni‘ihau]
A single volcano formed Ni‘ihau about 4.9 million years ago. Ni‘ihau is about 6 miles (9.7 km) wide and 18 miles (29 km) long, making it the smallest inhabited Hawaiian Island. Ni‘ihau is just over 17 miles (27 km) from the west side of Kaua‘i, across the ocean channel called Kaulakahi, which means “The single flame (streak of color).”[11] Ni‘ihau is relatively dry because it is in Kaua‘i’s rain shadow.
The main town on Ni‘ihau is Pu‘uwai (“Heart”[12]), and Ni‘ihau’s 860-acre (348 ha) Hālali‘i Lake is the largest lake in all of the Hawaiian Islands. In pre-contact times, Ni‘ihau was known for the mats made there from the native makaloa (Cyperus laevigatus). These mats were considered the finest sleeping mats in all of ancient Polynesia.
Ni‘ihau was also famous in ancient days for the fine quality of the uhi (Dioscorea alata, yams) that grew there. These yams were grated and used for medicinal preparations, and also were considered “slippery and tenacious,” as noted in the ancient proverb, “Ni‘ihau i ka uhi pahe‘e,” (“Ni‘ihau of the slippery yam.”)[13]
The Robinson family owns the island of Ni‘ihau, which is not open to tourism. The Robinsons are descendants of Eliza McHutcheson Sinclair, who purchased the island of Ni‘ihau from King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha) in 1864 for $10,000 worth of gold.
Largely isolated from the rest of the Hawaiian Islands, Ni‘ihau is considered by some to be the last bastion of pure Hawaiians speaking the Hawaiian language. Ni‘ihau has no airport, nor does it have an Island-wide electricity or phone system.
[Photograph/Map: Ni‘ihau]
Moloka‘i—The Friendly Isle
Land Area: 260 square miles (673 sq.km.).
Size Comparison: Fifth largest Hawaiian Island.
Island Emblem: Pua Kukui—Flower of Kukui (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut).
Highest Elevation: 4,970 feet (1,515 km) at the summit of Kamakou.
Official Nickname: The Friendly Isle.
Moloka‘i is located about 9 miles (14.5 km) northwest of Maui, 9 miles (14. 5 km) north of Lāna‘i, and 22 miles (35 km) southeast from Honolulu across the Kaiwi Channel. Moloka‘i is about 38 miles (61 km) long by 10 miles (16 km) wide, and somewhat rectangular in shape.
Moloka‘i has no fast food chains, high-rise buildings, shopping centers, movie theaters, or traffic signals. The main town, and perhaps Moloka‘i’s only true “town,” is Kaunakakai on the island’s southern coast.
The island of Moloka‘i has the highest percentage of native Hawaiians of any of the Hawaiian Islands except Ni‘ihau. Much of Moloka‘i’s relatively small population (less than 8,000 total) still clings largely to a subsistence lifestyle of farming, fishing, hunting, and gathering.
Moloka‘i was formed by Kauhakō and Kamakou Volcanoes, which originally created two separate islands but were later joined when lava flows formed the Ho‘olehua Plains. After the main part of Moloka‘i had been formed, Kauhakō Crater erupted offshore, creating the peninsula of Kalaupapa on the island’s northern side, and thus Kauhakō Crater became part of the island of Moloka‘i. The crater rises to 400 feet above sea level, and is the highest point on the Kalaupapa peninsula.
Moloka‘i has vast amphitheater valleys and spectacular coral reefs. The sea cliffs along Moloka‘i’s northern shore have an average steepness of more than 55 degrees and rise to more than 3,300 feet, making them among the highest sea cliffs in the world. The waterfall called Kahiwa (“The chosen one”[14])cascades 1,750 feet down the cliffs over a horizontal distance of 1,000 feet (305 m), and is one of the highest waterfalls in the Hawaiian Islands.
The western half of Moloka‘i is generally the drier side, and is dominated by the shield-shaped dome of Mauna Loa, which has two peaks, including 1,381-foot-tall Pu‘unānā, the highest point on west Moloka‘i. Located on the northwest coast are the dunes of Mo‘omomi, a unique Hawaiian habitat supporting many endangered plant species. Numerous archaeological sites are also located in the area.
In ancient times, Mauna Loa was the site of adze quarries, where pōhaku pa‘a (basaltic rocks) were chipped into ko‘i (stone adzes) that had many important uses. Mauna Loa was also the site of he‘e hōlua (hōlua sledding), which involved using specially constructed papa hōlua (wooden sleds) to slide down a hillside or a ramp slide constructed of stone.
[Photograph/Map: Moloka‘i]
Lāna‘i—The Private Isle
Land Area: 140.5 square miles (364 sq.km.).
Size Comparison: Sixth largest Hawaiian Island; smallest inhabited island.
Island Emblem: Kauna‘oa—Native Dodder (Cuscuta sandwichiana).
Highest Elevation: 3,370 feet, at the summit of Lāna‘ihale.
Official Nickname: The Private Isle.
Also called: The Pineapple Island, The Secluded Island.
Lāna‘i is about 17½ miles (28 km) long by 13 miles (21 km) wide. The island is somewhat teardrop-shaped, with about 47 miles (76 km) of coastline. Lāna‘i is about nine miles west of Maui (across the ‘Au‘au Channel), and 9 miles (14.5 km) south of Moloka‘i.
Lāna‘i’s Pālāwai Basin is the alluvium-filled crater of the single volcano that formed the island. The volcano last erupted about 1.3 million years ago. During the last century many pineapples were grown in the fertile Pālāwai Basin.
There are not many paved roads on Lāna‘i, and much of the island is accessible only by four-wheel-drive vehicles. On a clear day one may see five of the Hawaiian Islands from atop Lāna‘ihale (“House [of] Lāna‘i”[15]), the highest point on Lāna‘i. The 3,370-foot (1,027-km) summit of Lāna‘ihale is about 5 miles (8 km) southeast of Lāna‘i City.
The peak of Lāna‘ihale is the highest point of the ridge that runs from southeast to northwest across the island. This ridge is a significant geographical feature affecting Lāna‘i’s climate, which is relatively dry because the West Maui Mountains block the northeast tradewinds.
[Photograph/Map: Lāna‘i]
Maui—The Valley Isle
Land Area: 727.2 square miles (1,883 sq.km.).
Size Comparison: Second largest Hawaiian Island.
Island Emblem: Pua Lokelani—Damask Rose (Rosa species).
Highest Elevation: 10,023 feet (312 m) at the summit of Haleakalā.
Official Nickname: The Valley Isle.
Maui has a resident population of about 140,000, and is about 48 miles (77 km) long by 26 miles (42 km) wide and ringed with beautiful beaches, quiet coves, and hidden waterfalls. During the November to May whale-watching season, Maui is one of the best Hawaiian Islands to view breaching humpback whales. A well-known local saying, “Maui nō ka ‘oi,” translates to “Maui excels”[16] or “Maui is indeed the best.”[17]
Maui was formed by two separate volcanoes, which today are bridged by an isthmus of land that connects the two parts of the island. The West Maui Mountains rise to 5,788 feet at Pu‘u Kukui (“Candlenut Hill”[18]), and are older and more sculpted by erosion than the younger East Maui Mountains. The broad, sloping hills of the East Maui Mountains rise up to the 10,023-foot summit of Haleakalā Volcano, a site of ancient Hawaiian astronomy.
Throughout the 1900s, Maui’s economy was centered on agriculture, especially sugar and pineapple. In the 1970s, resort development and tourism became the economy’s driving force. The championship golf courses and beachfront resort hotels of western Maui’s Kā‘anapali and Kapalua are now world-renowned, as is the bustling town of Lahaina. Other parts of the island remain remote and undeveloped, bathed in waterfalls and rainbows and steeped in Maui’s rich cultural history.
[Photograph/Map: Maui]
Hawai‘i—The Orchid Isle
Land Area: 4,028 square miles (10,432 sq.km.).
Size Comparison: Hawai‘i Island is the largest Hawaiian Island.
Island Emblem: Pua Lehua—Red Blossom of ‘Ōhi‘a Lehua (Metrosideros species).
Highest Elevation: 13,796 feet at the summit of Mauna Kea.
Official Nickname: The Orchid Isle.
Also called: The Big Island.
Hawai‘i Island is the youngest Hawaiian Island, at less than one-half million years old, and also the largest Hawaiian Island. Hawai‘i Island is more than twice as big as the rest of the Hawaiian Islands combined, and more than four times as big as Maui (the second largest Hawaiian Island).
Hawai‘i Island is about 93 miles (150 km) long by 76 miles (122 km) wide, and still growing due to the active lava eruptions coming from Kīlauea Volcano. Hawai‘i Island supports a great diversity of native ecosystems, from HawHsnow-covered peaks to lava deserts and lush rainforests. Near the coast lava crackles and hisses as it flows into the sea. Snow tops the 13,796-foot (4,205-m) summit of Mauna Kea volcano, the highest spot in the Hawaiian Islands and all the Pacific Basin.
Six separate volcanoes formed Hawai‘i Island, and five of the volcanoes are above sea level: Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, Kohala, Hualālai and Kīlauea Volcanoes. The sixth volcano, Mahukona, is submerged off the island’s northwest shore.
Kīlauea Volcano is currently the most continuously active volcano on Earth, having covered more than 500 square miles (1,295 sq.km.) with lava in the last 1,100 years. Kīlauea has erupted almost non-stop since 1983, covering more than 38 square miles (98 sq.km.) of Hawai‘i Island with lava.
This activity continues as the flank of Kīlauea Volcano erupts lava near Hawai‘i Island’s southeast coast and pours molten earth into the sea, adding to the island’s size and creating new material for black sand beaches.
Agricultural products of Hawai‘i Island include macadamia nuts, Kona coffee, and papayas as well as diversified products (e.g., mushrooms, lettuce) that supply the island’s fine restaurants. A large quantity of tropical flowers, such as anthuriums and orchids, are also grown. Another major export is beef.
Hawai‘i Island’s two main airports are Kona International Airport and Hilo International Airport. The smaller Waimea Kohala Airport is used by private charters and commuter flights.
Hilo is the county seat, with a population of about 163,000. Hawai‘i Island has about 266 miles (428 km) of coastline. Driving around the island’s circumference can be accomplished in about 222 miles (357 km).
[Photograph/Map: Hawai‘i Island]
Ku ka‘apā ia Hawai‘i, he moku nui.
It is well for Hawai‘i to show activity; it is the largest of the islands.
Hawai‘i should lead forth for she is the largest.”[19]
Kaho‘olawe
Land Area: 44.6 square miles (116 sq.km.).
Island Emblem: Hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum)
Highest Elevation: 1,483 feet at the summit of Pu‘u Moa‘ulanui.
Size Comparison: Eighth largest Hawaiian Island.
Kaho‘olawe is about 11 miles (18 km) long and 6 miles (10 km) wide, and located less than 7 miles (11 km) southwest of Maui. A relatively dry island, Kaho‘olawe is largely blocked from heavy rains by Maui’s Haleakalā Volcano.
According to Hawaiian tradition, Kaho‘olawe is the sacred home of the god Kanaloa. Ancient chants have revealed that a site at the 1,444-foot elevation on a Kaho‘olawe mountain called Moa‘ulaiki was a place where Polynesian ocean navigators were trained in the arts of celestial navigation, using stars to guide them over the vast Pacific Ocean.
Kaho‘olawe is also the site of many ancient heiau (sacred places of worship). Hakioawa (“Breaking of [the] harbor”[20]) in north Kaho‘olawe is said to be where ‘Ai‘ai, the fish demigod, erected a kū‘ula (altar) on a cliff overlooking the ocean. The temple at Hakioawa is thought to have been built before A.D. 1600. On the Kaho‘olawe volcano called Lua Makika is a large stone quarry used in ancient times.
More than 2,500 historical and archaeological sites have been identified on Kaho‘olawe. Many of Kaho‘olawe’s native sites were destroyed when the military used the island for bombing practice. Kaho‘olawe’s native ecosystems have also suffered a long history of abuse including introduced goats and cattle ranching degrading the natural habitat.
In 1981, Kaho‘olawe was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. The island has also been designated as a cultural reserve by the State of Hawai‘i. (See Kaho‘olawe Returned, Chapter 12.)
[Photograph/Map: Kaho‘olawe; Moa‘ulaiki]
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
Combined Land Area: 3.108 square miles (8 sq.km.), not including Midway Islands (not part of state).
Size Comparison: One-tenth of one percent of the State of Hawai‘i’s land area.
Also called: The Leeward Islands; The Kupuna Islands.
The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands constitute .1% (one-tenth of one percent) of the State of Hawai‘i’s land area. The eight main Hawaiian Islands comprise the other 99.9% of the total land area of the State of Hawai‘i.
The 124 scattered islets, shoals, and atolls of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands are located to the west-northwest of the main Hawaiian Islands, extending as far as Kure Atoll about 1,264 miles (2,034 km) from Kaua‘i. Most of the tiny islets barely rise above the water’s surface. The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands contain about 70% of the United States’ coral reefs and support at least 7,000 native species, and about half of these species are endemic (unique) to the Hawaiian Islands. The species include fish, birds, marine mammals and other flora and fauna.
[Photograph/Map: Northwestern Hawaiian Islands]
Origins of the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain
Each of the Hawaiian Islands was born on the seafloor of the Pacific Ocean at the site of the Hawaiian magmatic hot spot, a stationary plume of magma (molten lava) rising up from deep in the Earth and erupting onto the seafloor to form volcanic islands. During the last 80 million years, the Hawaiian hot spot has created at least 107 volcanoes that now span over the Pacific seafloor for more than 3,100 miles (5,000 km) to form the Hawaiian-Emperor Chain, with the Hawaiian Islands at the southwest end.
The Hawaiian Islands are continually carried northwest by the movement of Earth’s crust. The southeast portion of Hawai‘i Island (the most recently formed island at less than one-half million years old), is currently above one edge of the erupting hot spot plume of lava. The other edge of the magmatic hot spot is about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of Hawai‘i Island, where the newest undersea volcano is forming.
This newest volcano, called Lō‘ihi Seamount, is about 3,116 feet below the ocean’s surface and rises up more than 9,000 feet (2,743 km) from the seafloor. The erupting summit of Lō‘ihi should rise above the water about 50,000 to 200,000 years from now to become the next Hawaiian Island.
From 1983 to the present, Kīlauea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island has erupted almost continuously, increasing the island’s size by more than 370 acres (150 ha). In 1984, Kīlauea Volcano erupted fiery fountains of lava to heights of more than 1,500 feet (457 m).
[Photograph: Erupting lava]
The Hawaiian Archipelago
The Hawaiian archipelago includes the eight main islands as well as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, extending in a line from southeast to northwest for about 1,523 miles (2,451 km). Slicing through the Tropic of Cancer, the Hawaiian Islands extend from Hawai‘i Island at about 19º north latitude, to Kure Island at 28.5º north latitude, and from 154º to 179º west longitude.
[Photograph: Cliffs and spires of Nāpali Coast]
[Illustration: Overview map of eight main Hawaiian Islands.]
Ages of the Islands
Island Age (in millions of years)__[21]__
Kaua‘i 5.1
Ni‘ihau 4.9
O‘ahu 2.6-3.7
Maui 1.32-.75
Lāna‘i 1.28
Kaho‘olawe 1.03
Moloka‘i 1.76-1.9
Hawai‘i .4-.43
Ancient Polynesians
The ancient Polynesians were master navigators who sailed their wa‘a kaulua (double-hulled voyaging canoes) to inhabit hundreds of Pacific islands over thousands of years before finally discovering the Hawaiian Islands. Using only the moon and sun as their clock and calendar, they were guided by the stars, winds, and flight patterns of birds. The Polynesians were the first to reach the Hawaiian Islands, an isolated island group totaling less than 6,500 square miles (16,835 sq.km.) in the middle of an ocean covering more than 70 million square miles (181,300,000 million sq.km.), nearly one-third of the Earth’s surface.
When Captain Cook and his crew established Western contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, they found a friendly, self-sufficient and productive people with all the components of a highly developed culture. There was a fairly rigid caste structure, though the Hawaiians also maintained a system of communal subsistence based on the natural resources of wedge-shaped land divisions known as ahupua‘a.
Resources were shared within these ahupua‘a, formed naturally by mountain ridges and ocean bays and extending from the high valley to the sea, including the offshore coral reefs. The ahupua‘a contains all of the different resources important for survival.
O kau aku, o ka ia la mai, pelā ka nohona o ka ‘ohana.
From you and from him—so lived the family.
The farmer gave to the fisherman, the fisherman to the farmer.[22]
‘Aumākua—Sacred Guardians
The world of the ancient Hawaiians was rich with spiritual forces closely linked to the natural environment. Certain species were considered sacred ‘aumākua, guardian spirits that might be seen in visions or dreams. This connection to the natural world and these spiritual beliefs continue today—the Hawaiian culture is a living culture, and the ancient philosophies still resonate in the daily lives of Hawaiians.
As personal or family gods, ‘aumākua may take on various physical manifestations, becoming incarnate in living animals that appear to warn or protect. Some ‘aumākua are the ‘io (Hawaiian hawk), manō (shark), pueo (owl), honu (sea turtle), kōlea (golden plover), and hīnālea (wrasse), with different species being ‘aumākua to different families.
[Illustrations/photos of above species (hawk, shark, owl, sea turtle, plover, wrasse).]
Heiau and Kapu
Ancient Hawaiians built many heiau, sacred places of worship, including shrines to gods and places of refuge. Heiau structures included stone enclosures, platforms, and earthen terraces. A heiau might also include an ‘anu‘u, or oracle tower, covered with white kapa (tapa) barkcloth. Offerings and prayers were made to ‘aumākua, personal or family gods and sacred guardians that were considered protectors that should be respected and even fed.
The Tahitian high priest Pā‘ao arrived in the Islands sometime before A.D.1200, and initiated a new social order. The highest class was the mō‘ī (king, queen) and his/her ‘aha kuhina (chiefs and advisers). Next were the ali‘i (royalty), kāhuna (priests and experts in a given profession), maka‘āinana (commoners who were mostly farmers), and lastly the kauā (or kauwā) class, who were the lowest outcast members.
Pā‘ao also introduced kānāwai, a strict system of laws and regulations that determined if something was kapu (sacred or forbidden). Commoners fell prostrate to the ground in the presence of chiefs, who possessed more mana (divine power).
Before the arrival of Pā‘ao the Hawaiians had built various heiau, but Pā‘ao constructed the first luakini (temple of human sacrifice), honoring Kūkā‘ilimoku, the god of war. This luakini was known as Waha‘ula Heiau, located at Puna on Hawai‘i Island. Pā‘ao also introduced Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes.
Many other types of heiau were also built throughout the Islands: heiau ho‘oūlu insured good fishing; heiau ho‘oulu ua insured rain; and heiau ho‘oulu ‘ai brought an increase in food crops. Treatment of the sick was done at heiau hō‘ola, and the large number of these found throughout the Islands signified the Hawaiians’ advanced state of medicinal healing knowledge. Today one of the only surviving heiau hō‘ola is Keāiwa on ‘Aiea Heights.
Many heiau were dedicated to Lono, the god of agricultural fertility. Agricultural heiau were known as waihau or unu, where gifts such as pigs, bananas, or coconuts were offered. Fishermen often placed a kū‘ula (fish god) atop a stone altar located near the coast, while bird catchers in the mountains made their offerings at a ko‘a (stone platform).
The site of a heiau was chosen by a kahuna kuhikuhi pu‘uone (master architect) who valued a location for its mana, or spiritual power. Major heiau were usually constructed of lava rock walls built into a rectangular formation on the ground, or raised terrace platforms forming a more substantial structure. Structures built within heiau utilized wood of the native ‘ōhi‘a lehua and cordage woven from olonā. Pili grass was used for thatching. Ki‘i (wooden carved figures representing gods) were carved from ‘ōhi‘a lehua and placed in and around the heiau.
[Photograph: Heiau]
The strict sanctions of the kapu system in ancient times ensured the separation of the classes, and prescribed much of the daily lives of the islanders. Kapu breakers and defeated warriors were subject to immediate death unless they could reach a pu‘uhonua, or place of refuge, where a priest could absolve them.
One such place was Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau on Hawai‘i Island’s South Kona coast, with a 1,000-foot (305-m) high, 10-foot (3-m) long stone wall. Now a National Historical Park, Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau encompasses ancient royal grounds and a reconstructed heiau and pu‘uhonua with carved images of ki‘i (ancient gods).
Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau also has a petroglyph site, a loko ‘ia (fishpond), lava tree molds, and a canoe that was hand-carved from koa. A heiau on the nearby coastal point holds the bones of 23 chiefs, and these bones are said to hold mana (spiritual power) that is imparted to those that come near.
Pu‘ukoholā Heiau overlooks the Pacific Ocean about 30 miles (48 km) north of Kailua-Kona on Hawai‘i Island. The rising warrior Kamehameha constructed this luakini heiau (sacrificial temple) as a result of a prophecy that the construction of the massive heiau would allow him to unite all of the Islands under his rule.
Kamehameha had thousands of his men work to construct the 224-foot (68-m) long, 100-foot (30-m) high structure of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau. A human chain 20 miles (32 km) long passed stones from hand-to-hand all the way to the site.
Also found at the Pu‘ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site are the ruins of Mailekini Heiau, which was used by King Kamehameha‘s ancestors. Hale o Kapuni Heiau, dedicated to a shark god, is submerged offshore.
Many other heiau are found throughout the main Hawaiian Islands as well as on the remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. Necker Island, 310 miles (499 km) northwest of Ni‘ihau, was inhabited in ancient times and has the remains of an extensive heiau complex. The island was uninhabited when Captain Cook first established Western contact in 1778. (See Dedication of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau, Chapter 12.)
Celestial Navigation
Seafaring Polynesians navigated the oceans guided only by the clues that nature provided, such as the positions and movements of the sun, moon, stars, and constellations as well as the flight patterns of birds and the prevailing winds and seas. The Polynesians likely began their west-to-east journeys when westerly winds replaced the prevailing easterly trade winds. If the voyagers failed to find land, then they could wait for the trades to return and carry them home.
The Polynesians also used the star that Westerners call Polaris (also called the North Star) to determine the direction toward the Hawaiian Islands. The ancient navigators called this star Hōkūpa‘a (“Fixed Star”) because it is located due north and appears “fixed” in the sky. The Earth spins to the east, so to an observer looking north, the star doesn’t change position, as do all the other stars in the sky. In the northern hemisphere, Hōkūpa‘a’s altitude is very close to the observer’s latitude, and in the Hawaiian Islands the latitude is between 18.5 and 22.5 degrees above the horizon.
The star called Hōkūle‘a (hōkū means “star”; le‘a means “happiness,” or “joy”) was also important to ancient Polynesians trying to navigate their wa‘a kaulua (double-hulled voyaging canoes) to the Hawaiian Islands. The name Hōkūle‘a refers to the star that Westerners call Arcturus. Voyagers sailing to the Hawaiian Islands from the Marquesas or Tahiti needed to determine how far north to sail. They knew that at the latitude of Hawai‘i Island, the star Hōkūle‘a would be directly overhead (a zenith star). At the high point of its nightly arc across the sky, Hōkūle‘a points the way to the Hawaiian Islands.
The Polynesian voyagers utilized many different types of navigational clues. For example, they knew that clouds tend to pile up over islands, revealing land in the distance. Land also reflects light, and so the color of the sky may reveal an island’s location. Even phosphorescence on the water at night is said to have helped guide the ancient navigators.
The Polynesian voyagers also relied on their knowledge of the daily and seasonal cycles of birds. Migratory birds such as the kōlea (Pacific golden plover) and the ‘akē‘akē (ruddy turnstone) winter on Central Pacific islands and then head back to their arctic breeding grounds in April or May. Sighting these species revealed to the Polynesian mariners that somewhere to the north or northeast there was land.
The flight directions of pelagic (oceanic) birds were also helpful, including ‘ua‘u (petrels), ‘ua‘u kani (shearwaters) and mōlī (albatross). These pelagic birds spend most of their time over the ocean seeking fish, squid, and crustaceans and then return to land during the nesting season.
Non-pelagic birds such as ‘a (boobies), noio (terns) and koa‘e (tropicbirds) all feed over the sea by day but return each night to their island homes. Navigators watched for these species at dusk because sighting them meant land was near at hand. During their open ocean journeys, the navigators also looked for birds congregating over feeding areas, as this revealed locations where fishing would be productive.
I wawā no ka noio, he i‘a ko lalo.
When the noio make a din, there are fish below.
When the people gossip, there is a cause.[23]
The First Hawaiians
Polynesians sailed double-hulled voyaging canoes to the Hawaiian Islands, bringing pua‘a (pigs), moa (chickens), ‘īlio (dogs), and more than two dozen species of plants for food, clothing, and tools. In addition to these Polynesian-introduced species, they also utilized native plants from the mountains to the sea. Specific parts of the plants used included the bark, leaves, stems, flowers, seeds, wood, sap (resin), flower pollen, and flower bracts. [Note: A bract is “a specialized leaf from the axil of which a flower or flower stalk arises; the leaf of an inflorescence.”[24]]
Plants were used extensively to create food products, lei, dyes, scents, containers, tools, weapons, musical instruments, canoes, hale (houses), and heiau (sacred places of worship). Many plants also had extensive ritual and ceremonial uses.
One of the most important plants brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the Polynesians was kalo (taro), which they pounded into poi, a staple of their diet. They grew the taro in rock-terraced fields with networks of irrigation channels. Taro was cultivated extensively in lowland areas where the lo‘i kalo (taro patches) complemented the Hawaiians’ extremely productive and well-stocked loko i‘a (saltwater fishponds).
[Illustration: Lo‘i kalo (taro patch)]
‘Ono kāhi ‘ao lū‘au me ke aloha pū.
A little taro green is delicious when love is present.
Even the plainest fare is delicious when there is love.[25]
The settlers also caught fish from the coral reefs and deeper ocean waters, and ate honu (turtles), and shellfish. Along the shoreline and in the shallow ocean waters Hawaiians gathered limu (seaweed) that provided essential vitamins and minerals as well as spicy flavors. Limu was often mixed with pa‘akai (sea salt), another natural resource gathered from ponds along the coast.
Varieties of limu also had spiritual and ceremonial uses. Limu kala was worn as a lei to bring healing, and used in ho‘oponopono, an ancient cultural process that involves offering and receiving forgiveness.
Polynesian-Introduced Plants
Hawaiian Name Common Name Scientific Name
1. ‘Ape Elephant’s-ear Alocasia macrorrhizos
2. ‘Auhuhu Tephrosia purpurea
3. ‘Awa Kava Piper methysticum
4. ‘Awapuhi Kuahiwi Shampoo Ginger Zingiber zerumbet
5. Ipu Bottle Gourd Lagenaria siceraria
6. Kalo Taro Colocasia esculenta
7. Kamani Alexandrian Laurel Calophyllum inophyllum
8. Kī Ti Cordyline fruticosa
9. Kō Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum
10. Kukui Candlenut Aleurites moluccana
11. Laukahi Native Plantain Plantago species
12. Mai‘a Banana Plant Musa species
13, Milo Portia Tree Thespesia populnea
14. Niu Coconut Palms* Cocos nucifera
15. Noni Indian Mulberry Morinda citrifolia
16. ‘Ohe Bamboo Schizostachyum glaucifolium
17. ‘Ōhi‘a ‘Ai Mountain Apple Eugenia malaccense
18. ‘Ōlena Turmeric Curcuma longa
19. Pia Polynesian Arrowroot Tacca leontopetaloides
20. ‘Uala Sweet Potato Ipomoea batatas
21. Uhi Yam Dioscorea alata
22. Pi‘a Yam Dioscorea pentaphylla
23. Hoi Yam Dioscorea bulbifera
24. ‘Ulu Breadfruit Artocarpus altilis
25. Wauke Paper Mulberry Broussonetia papyrifera
* Though niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palm) is considered a Polynesian introduction, there is a chance that it also may be native to the Hawaiian Islands, as the seeds are very durable in ocean water for many months. Some plants that are currently considered Polynesian introductions may later, upon further scientific evidence, turn out to be native to the Hawaiian Islands.
[Note: Though niu (Cocos nucifera, coconut palm) is considered a Polynesian introduction, there is a chance that it also may be native to the Hawaiian Islands, as the seeds are very durable in ocean water for many months. Some plants that are currently considered Polynesian introductions may later, upon further scientific evidence, turn out to be native to the Hawaiian Islands.]
Traditional Uses of Polynesian Introduced Species
The Polynesian setters of the Hawaiian Islands brought pua‘a (pigs), moa (chickens), and ‘īlio (dogs) to the Hawaiian Islands on their voyaging canoes. They also brought dozens of species of useful plants.
Tall niu (coconut palms) were a source of food and provided material for cordage as well as for musical instruments such as the pahu (drum). Growing near the lo‘i kalo (taro patches) was pia, the Polynesian arrowroot. Pia’s starchy tubers were mixed with shredded niu (coconut), wrapped in kī (ti) leaves and baked in an imu (underground earthen oven) to make the tasty treat known as haupia. The pudding-like mix known as kūlolo was made with kalo (taro) corms, niu (coconut), and kō (sugarcane) wrapped in kī (ti) leaves and baked in an imu.
Dozens of varieties of ‘uala (sweet potatoes) were cultivated, as were uhi (yams). Kō (sugarcane) and mai‘a (bananas) were grown near dwellings. Bananas were also grown in upland areas and at the forest’s edge along with groves of ‘uala (breadfruit trees).
Almost all of the species brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the Polynesian settlers eventually became naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands, growing without the aid of human cultivation. Two important Polynesian-introduced species that did not become naturalized in the Hawaiian Islands are ‘uala (Artocarpus altilis, breadfruit) and ipu (Lagenaria siceraria, bottle gourd).
The wood of the breadfruit tree was fashioned into papa ku‘i ‘ai (poi-pounding boards), papa he‘e nalu (surfboards), and large drums, while the tree’s leaves, bracts and flower clusters were used as a fine sandpaper to polish wooden bowls as well as to polish kukui nuts that were strung into lei.
Kukui were strung together and burned to provide the primary source of light in ancient Hawai‘i, while the tree’s blossoms and leaves were used to make lei, as were leaves of kī (ti) and blossoms of kō (sugarcane). Calabashes (bowls) for poi and other foods were made primarily from kamani trees and from the red-grained milo, as well as from the wood of kou. [Note: Kou was long considered to be a Polynesian introduction but is now classified as indigenous. The native koa was also used to make calabashes (bowls) for holding certain items, however not for food, since the tannic acid in koa wood imparts an unpleasant taste to food.]
Another Polynesian-introduced plant widely used in ancient Hawai‘i was ipu, the bottle gourd. Ipu were used as containers for food and other items, and were also made into musical instruments such as the pā ipu (double gourd drum), found only in the Hawaiian Islands.
Many Polynesian-introduced plants had important ceremonial uses in ancient Hawai‘i. Mai‘a (bananas) and kalo (taro) were used as offerings at loko i‘a (fishponds). Noni (Indian mulberry), ‘ōhi‘a ‘ai (mountain apple), and ‘awa (kava) were part of many medicinal preparations.
Note on Polynesian-Introduced Species: The precise number of plants brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers remains uncertain, and likely includes several species that were brought to the Hawaiian Islands by the Polynesians, and were already native (indigenous) to the Hawaiian Islands. These species include: hala (Pandanus tectorius, screwpine), hau (Talipariti tiliaceum), and kou (Cordia subcordata).
The 25 Polynesian-introduced species listed include 24 species shown quite conclusively by research to be Polynesian introductions, along with ‘ohe (Schizostachyum glaucifolium, bamboo), which is probably a Polynesian introduction, though its status is still questionable. Kou (Cordia subcordata), long thought to be a Polynesian introduction (and not native to the Hawaiian Islands) was recently determined to be native.
Hala (Pandanus tectorius, screwpine) was also thought to have been a Polynesian-introduced species (and not native to the Hawaiian Islands) until hala fossils dated to more than one million years ago were discovered along Kaua‘i’s north shore. This find proved quite conclusively that hala is indeed a native Hawaiian plant. Species that are generally considered indigenous in the Hawaiian Islands, but which may be Polynesian-introduced, include: pā‘ihi (Rorippa sarmentosa), pili (Heteropogon contortus, twisted beardgrass), and ‘uhaloa(Waltheria indica).
Various other Polynesian-introduced species were also brought unintentionally. Following is a summary of all species known to be introduced to the Hawaiian Islands by the early Polynesian settlers, as well as other species that may have been brought to the Hawaiian Islands, intentionally or unintentionally, by Polynesian settlers previous to Western contact in 1778.
Intentional Polynesian introductions include: pua‘a (Sus scrofa, pigs); moa (Gallus g. gallus, chickens); ‘īlio (Canis familiaris, dogs); and at least 24 (and probably more than 26) plant species. Unintentional Polynesian introductions include: Geckos (Gekkonidae): Indo-Pacific gecko (Hemidactylus garnotii); mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris); stump-toed gecko (Gehyra mutilata); tree gecko (Hemiphyllodactylus typus). Skinks (Scincidae): azure-tailed skink (Emoia impar); moth skink (Lipinia noctua noctua); snake-eyed skink (Cryptoblepharus poecilopleurus). Plants (possibly Polynesian-introduced; some of these plant species may be indigenous Hawaiian species, but have been noted as potential Polynesian introductions.): kāmole (Ludwigia octivalvis, primrose willow); ‘ihi ‘ai (Oxalis corniculata, yellow wood sorrel); kūkaepua‘a (Digitaria setigera); koali kua hulu (Merremia aegyptia, hairy merremia); neke (Cyclosorus interruptus, formerly Thelypteris interrupta, maiden fern); Paspalum scrobiculatum (ricegrass, no known Hawaiian name). Snails (Lamellaxis gracilis; Lamellidea oblonga; Gastrocopta pediculus.) Other (unintentional) Polynesian-introduced species include: Polynesian black rat (Rattus exulans); ectoparasites; Laelaps hawaiiensis, and others (carried on rats). Based on Kirch, Patrick V. (Citing Cooke 1926; Cooke and Kondo 1960; Pilsbry 1916-1918; Solem 1959.) The Impact of the Prehistoric Polynesians on the Hawaiian Ecosystem. Pacific Science, Vol.36, No.1, January, 1982. In addition, freshwater clams (Pisidium casertanum; Musculium partumeium) found in ancient taro ponds may have been transported on taro stock brought to the Hawaiian Islands by early Polynesian settlers. (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.).
The early Polynesian settlers brought many other species to Hawai’i besides plants. Some of these other species were brought intentionally for use as food sources, but other species were brought unintentionally, coming as stowaways on the Polynesians’ voyaging canoes and then establishing breeding populations in the Hawaiian Islands.
The geckos and the skinks listed above are presumed to have arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in this manner (as stowaways on the voyaging canoes), but there remains a possibility that some of these lizard species may instead have arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on their own (e.g., floating to the Hawaiian Islands on rafts of debris), and thus are native to the Hawaiian Islands.]
Traditional Uses of Native Hawaiian Species
Polynesian-introduced species were very useful in ancient Hawaiian culture, but they numbered only in the dozens, compared to thousands of native Hawaiian species. Many of native Hawaiian species are endemic (unique) to the Hawaiian Islands, and the use of these endemic resources contributed greatly to the unique Hawaiian culture that evolved in the isolated archipelago.
The yellowish wood of ‘ahakea was made into papa ku‘i ‘ai (poi-pounding boards) as was the reddish wood of ‘ōhi‘a lehua, which was also used to make ‘umeke (bowls), ihe (spears), kū‘au (mallets), and ki‘i (carved images of sacred temple gods). The red-brown wood of lama was made into fish traps, while fishhooks were made from the hardwood olopua. Ihe (spears) and pou (house posts), were made from olopua, ‘a‘ali‘i, naio,and ‘ōhi‘a lehua. Houses were often thatched with pili grass, particularly in the warmer and dryer areas. The majestic koa tree was fashioned into large, twin-hulled canoes and also used to make jewelry, weapons, and wooden carvings.
Maile leaves were woven into lei, and used in hula along with various mountain ferns such as palapalai and pala‘ā. Native blossoms woven into lei came from ‘ōhi‘a lehua, māmane, hala pepe, ‘ohai, ‘āwikiwiki, kou, and nānū (native gardenia). Another traditional lei flower was nuku ‘i‘iwi, notable for its long, curved blossoms that evolved to fit perfectly with the long beaks of honeycreeper birds. ‘Ilima growing near the sea provided orange flowers for the beautiful ‘ilima lei that were reserved for ali‘i (Hawaiian royalty).
[Photograph: Nuku ‘I‘iwi]
Leaves for lei were gathered from various native species including ‘ōhelo, ‘ōlapa, pūkiawe, ‘ōhi‘a lehua ‘a‘ali‘i and pa‘iniu (native lily). Lei were also made with the berries of the native ‘ākia, ‘ōhelo, ‘ūlei, and kūkaenēnē, and the seeds of the native kāmakahala, ‘ōhi‘a lehua and ‘a‘ali‘i. Also strung into lei were the fragrant seed capsules (“berries”) of Kaua‘i’s endemic mokihana.
The native hāpu‘u and ‘ama‘u tree ferns were valued for their pulu, the silky hair growing at the base of the young fronds. Pulu was used as an absorbent for dressing wounds, and for embalming the dead.
[Note: When embalming the dead, the brain, tongue, and body organs were removed from the deceased and the spaces were filled tightly with pulu, which absorbed the body fluids. The body openings were then sewed shut. A body preserved in this way was known as i‘aloa, which means, “long fish.” Bodies embalmed with pulu could remain preserved for up to several months.]
The tree ferns were also valued for the edible, starchy pith in their trunks, which was cooked in an imu (underground earthen oven) and eaten. Also cooked and eaten were the starchy bases of the stems of the now rare pala fern, which had medicinal and ceremonial uses.
The young fronds and roots of the kikawaiō fern were eaten raw, as were the pepe‘e (young coiled fronds) of the hō‘i‘ō fern, often eaten with ‘ōpae (mountain shrimp) and poi.
Ka i‘a ho‘opumehana i ka weuweu.
The fish that warms the clumps of grass.
Mountain shrimp, which cling to weeds and grasses along the banks of streams when a cloudburst occurs in the upland. Unlike the ‘o‘opu,
they are not washed down to the lowland.[26]
The uluhe fern was used to make a medicinal tea. The fern ally moa and the tropical club moss wāwae‘iole were consumed for medicinal purposes and also used in lei. The bracts (specialized leaves) of the hīnano (flower cluster of the male hala tree) were woven into the finest of the ancient mats, known as moena hīnano, used only by ali‘i (chiefs and royalty) and kāhuna (priests and experts in a given profession).
Kohekohe was used as offerings at loko i‘a (fishponds). Leaves of hala (lau hala) were woven into baskets, floor mats and sails for voyaging canoes. Hala fruitlets were woven into a lei symbolizing the passing of the old year and the beginning of a new year, and worn during the ancient harvest festival known as Makahiki.
The inner bark of hau and olonā provided fibers used to make the strong cordage for canoe lashings as well as fishnets, which were also made from the native sedge ‘ahu‘awa. Hau was rapidly rotated against the harder olomea to start fires using friction.
The tough ‘ie‘ie vine, which grows mostly in wet areas, was woven into fish traps and fine baskets, and used for the base of mahiole (feather-crested helmets). The buoyant wood of wiliwili was made into papa he‘e nalu (surfboards) as well as ama (canoe outriggers) and fishnet floats.
The broad, wedge-shaped leaves of loulu, the native fan palm, were used to provide protection from the rain and sun (loulu means “umbrella”). Loulu was also used for plaiting (interlacing strips of leaf material), particularly for the construction of heiau (sacred places of worship and refuge). Other plants used for plaiting included lau hala, makaloa and ‘aka‘akai.
Edible native berries eaten by the ancient Hawaiians included pōpolo, ‘ūlei, ‘ōhelo, naupaka kahakai and ‘ākala, the Hawaiian raspberry. The fruit of the native lama tree was also eaten. Hala fruit was eaten during times of food scarcity.
[Illustration: Uses of native plants]
‘Ōahi—The Fire-Throwing Ceremony
In the ancient ‘ōahi (fire throwing) ceremony, flaming logs of pāpala and hau were hurled into the strong seaward winds blowing off the sea cliffs of northwestern Kaua‘i. The fiery wood showered sparks over the ocean waters as people in canoes beneath the cliffs attempted to catch the burning embers, sometimes tattooing themselves with the fiery logs to commemorate the event.
Pulelo ke ahi ha‘aheo i na pali
The firebrand soars proudly over the cliffs.
An expression of triumph. Referring to the firebrand hurling of
Kaua‘i, or to the glow of volcanic fire on Hawai‘i.[27]
[Illustration: Fire-throwing ceremony]
Medicinal Plants—The Kahuna Lā‘au Lapa‘au
Cultural knowledge in ancient Hawai‘i was passed on through apprenticeships, including training by kāhuna (priests and experts in particular professions). The kahuna lā‘au lapa‘au was an herbalist and healer trained from an early age to identify, prepare and administer medicinal treatments made from the natural resources of the Hawaiian Islands.
Nānā no a ka lā‘au ku ho‘okāhi.
Look for the plant that stands alone.
Often said by those seeking strong medicinal herbs. A plant that stood by itself was
considered better for medicine than one that grew close to others of its kind.[28]
The kahuna lā‘au lapa‘au had an extensive botanical, pharmacological and medicinal knowledge of more than 300 plants and ferns (both native and Polynesian-introduced) as well as at least 29 animals (mostly marine creatures) and about twelve minerals, including pālolo (clay), ‘alaea (red ocherous earth) and pa‘akai (sea salt). These ingredients were prepared in a variety of ways and utilized to create a multitude of medicinal treatments.
The kahuna lā‘au lapa‘au followed many rituals during the gathering of medicinal materials, as well as during the preparation and administration of treatments. If the afflicted person was a female, prayers were offered to the goddess Hina. The god Kū was prayed to if the patient was male. Prayers were also offered to gods associated with particular plants. For example, when gathering the important medicinal plant pōpolo a prayer was offered to the god Kāne, as pōpolo is considered an embodiment of Kāne.
At the conclusion of the medicinal treatment, a small piece of food was eaten. This was considered a closing (pani) and the food eaten was often from a marine species with a similar sounding name to the land plant that had been used in the medicinal treatment. This twinning of plants is detailed in the Kumulipo,[29] the Hawaiian creation myth in which many land and sea species are paired.
E ‘imi i ke ola mawaho.
Seek life outside.
Consult a kahuna to see what is causing the delay in healing.
Said when a person lies sick, and recovery is slow.[30]
[Illustration: Hawaiian forest scene, understory of ferns, etc.]
A Unique Hawaiian Culture
From the time the ancient Polynesians first discovered and settled the remote Hawaiian archipelago, created an amazingly rich and complex Pacific island culture unlike any other. The unique Hawaiian language that evolved among the isolated islanders is still considered among the most fluid and melodic of any language known. Of all the Pacific cultures, the Hawaiians were the only ones to construct and maintain shoreline loko i‘a (saltwater fishponds) where pua ‘ama‘ama (mullet) and pua awa (milkfish) entered through mākāhā (sluice gates), and then were raised and eaten when needed.
The sticky sap of pāpala kēpau was used to catch native forest birds whose plumage was woven into colorful ‘ahu ‘ula (feathered capes and cloaks). Mahiole (feather-crested helmets) made with the aerial root of the ‘ie‘ie vine and adorned with colorful bird feathers were found nowhere else in Polynesia. These elaborate and magnificently-crafted featherwork items were unmatched anywhere, and were preserved with hīnano, the inflorescence (flower cluster) of the male hala tree.
Also woven from the ‘ie‘ie vine were a great variety of twined baskets considered the finest in all of ancient Polynesia, a distinction also given to the moena pāwehe (sleeping mats) woven from the native sedge makaloa. Some forms of Hawaiian ki‘i pōhaku (petroglyphs), including certain muscled figure petroglyphs, are found nowhere except the Hawaiian Islands.
Riding waves on a surfboard was likely first done in the Society Islands, including Tahiti, but it was in the Hawaiian Islands that he‘e nalu (surfing) really took hold. The first papa he‘e nalu (surfboards) used by Hawaiians were up to 18 feet (5.5 m) long. The surfboards were carved from the buoyant wood of wiliwili (Hawaiian coral tree), ‘ulu (breadfruit tree), or koa, and weighed up to 175 pounds.
The early Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands also created many artistically decorated bowls and containers, and developed an innovative new method of carrying the containers using a continuous unknotted cord. No other Pacific culture produced such large ipu (bottle gourds), and this was a testament to ancient Hawaiians’ horticultural skills. The pā ipu (double-gourd drum) and the pūniu (coconut knee drum) were found nowhere else in Polynesia.
The culture that evolved among the ancient Hawaiians was in many ways different than anywhere else in the world. The uniqueness of the Hawaiian culture was in large part due to the variety of unique resources (e.g., endemic species) available to the ancient settlers who first landed on Hawaiian shores.
Ua lehulehu a manomano ka ‘ikena a ka Hawai‘i.
Great and numerous is the knowledge of the Hawaiians.**[31]**
Kapa (Tapa) Barkcloth
The Polynesians produced the finest kapa (tapa) barkcloth in ancient times, and the Hawaiians produced the finest kapa in all of Polynesia. Hawaiian kapa had the greatest variety of design and texture, and was made with a fermentation process and second beating that produced a homogenous quality generally free of defects, resulting in a barkcloth superior to kapa made in other locales.
The primary source of fibers for making kapa was the Polynesian-introduced wauke (paper mulberry tree). The long inner bark fibers of māmaki were another source of material for cordage and for making kapa. Kapa beaters (hoahoa and i‘e kuku ho‘ōki) and kapa-beating anvils (kua kuku) were made from numerous native trees, including kāwa‘u, koai‘e, uhiuhi, ‘ōhi‘a lehua, nīoi, kauila and pūkiawe.
Kapa was used to produce dozens of different products integral to early Hawaiian culture, including a great variety of fine clothing items such as long pā‘ū dresses and malo loincloths. Kapa items were colored and scented with dyes and fragrances derived from native and Polynesian-introduced plants, and often stamped with intricate geometric designs found nowhere else in Polynesia. Sap of ‘ulu (breadfruit) was sometimes painted onto kapa to give it a shiny appearance.
Plant materials used to scent kapa included maile, powdered ‘iliahi (sandalwood), and hīnano, the inflorescence (flower cluster) of the male hala tree. The flowers of kamani, valued for their pleasant orange-blossom fragrance, were also used to scent kapa. Dyes for kapa were made from a multitude of native and Polynesian-introduced species, and included the beautiful golden colors of ‘ōlena.
A kapa moe (sleep covering) might consist of several layers of kapa sewn together, with the kilohana (upper layer) often beautifully decorated. Pā‘ū (women’s wrap-around skirts), were made of kapa and could be up to ten layers thick. The malo (loin cloth) worn by males was often stamped with two different designs, and then folded lengthwise so that both designs showed.
[Illustration/photo: Kapa (tapa) items ]
A pūlo‘ulo‘u (kapa-covered stick) was carried in front of chiefs to signal their kapu (sacred) status, and a puela (triangular kapa strip) was displayed on canoes. The silky pulu (wooly hairs) found on hapu‘u (tree ferns) were used to embalm the deceased ali‘i (royalty) whose bones were preserved by wrapping them in kapa and placing them in a remote hidden cave or heiau (sacred place of worship).
The mashed fruit of the Polynesian-introduced noni (Indian mulberry) was used as a poultice by binding it to the wound with kapa.
Modern attempts to replicate traditional kapa-making techniques have only approximated the high quality kapa produced by the ancient Hawaiians. Rediscovering the traditional methods has given modern crafters a renewed appreciation for this ancient art.
[Photographs: Kapa barkcloth with geometric designs; pā‘ū; malo]
Kamehameha’s First Major Battle
In 1775, warriors of Hawai‘i Island ruler Kalani‘ōpu‘u battled the warriors of Maui’s ruler, Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili]. Angered by the recent slaughter of his people at Kaupō, Kahekili raised an army led by the famous warrior Kāne‘ōlaelae, and ordered his forces to avenge the attack on his people at Kaupō. A heated battle took place at Kaupō between the warriors of Kalani‘ōpu‘u and Kahekili, and this became known as the Battle of Kalaeoka‘īlio (“The cape of the dog”). Kekūhaupi‘o showed fearless bravery in this battle, and when he was suddenly surrounded my Maui warriors he was rescued by the young warrior chief Kamehameha.
Despite the valiant fighting of Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s forces, they were outnumbered and had to flee the battlefield, and the Maui warriors were victorious. Many Hawai‘i Island warriors died in this battle. Those who survived returned to Hawai‘i Island where Kalani‘ōpu‘u again prepared to avenge his defeat by Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili].
The young warrior Kamehameha was displeased at having been ordered to attack the Kaupō people, and told Kalani‘ōpu‘u that such cowardly acts of war would not be supported by the war god.
Kahekili was informed of the valiant fighting of the two warriors Kamehameha and Kekūhaupi‘o, and he mentioned to some of his chiefs that perhaps this brave warrior Kamehameha was his son. (Note: Though the father of King Kamehameha is usually listed as Keōuakupuapāikalaninui [Keōuanui], many think Kahekili is indeed the true biological father because Kamehameha’s mother Keku‘iapoiwa had visited Kahekili before the young ali‘i Pai‘ea Kamehameha was born.)
Kalani‘ōpu‘u then ordered his most proficient fighters, the 800 warriors of the Chiefly Army of Keawe, to move inland to Wailuku toward the plain of Kama‘oma‘o. There they would confront the Maui warriors of Kahekili who were also supported by the O‘ahu warriors of Kahahana.
The Maui and O‘ahu warriors hid at the sand dunes of Waikapū and nearby at a spot seaward of Wailuku, awaiting the arrival of Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s forces, who were soon surrounded. All of Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s Chiefly Army was slain except for two messengers who were left alive so they could bring the news of the slaughter to Kalani‘ōpu‘u. This battle came to be known as ‘Ālapa and Pi‘ipi‘i Heaped Up at Kakanilua, or Battle of the Sand Dunes.
Captain Cook Establishes Western Contact
Christopher Columbus (Cristobal Colón) reached the New World in 1492, Ferdinand Magellan (Fernão de Magalhães) of Spain sailed across the Pacific Ocean in 1519, and French, English, and Dutch ships undertook many voyages of discovery through the early 1700s, yet Westerners still had not found the Hawaiian Islands.
Magellan died during the voyage, but his ship and crew continued on and circumnavigated the globe, completing the journey in 1522. It would take 256 more years before British Captain James Cook finally established the first documented Western contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. (There are undocumented accounts of Spanish galleons reaching the Hawaiian Islands before 1778.)
The crews of Cook’s two ships, the HMS Resolution and HMS Discovery, first sighted O‘ahu and Kaua‘i in the dawn hours of January 18, 1778. Weather and ocean conditions kept Cook’s ships far offshore until the next day, by which time they had also sighted the island of Ni‘ihau.
When Cook’s ships approached Kaua‘i’s southeast coast on the afternoon of January 19, natives in canoes paddled out to meet them. The Hawaiians traded fish and sweet potatoes for pieces of iron and brass, which were lowered down from the larger ships to the Hawaiians’ canoes—and so began Western contact with the Hawaiian people.
Cook’s ships remained offshore sailing along Kaua‘i’s southeast coast. On the morning of January 20, Cook allowed a few Hawaiians to come on board before he continued on in search of safe anchorage. On the afternoon of January 20, 1778 Cook anchored his ships near the mouth of the Waimea River on Kaua‘i’s southwest coast. Cook and twelve armed marines boarded three small boats and went ashore for the first time.
As Cook and his men stepped onto land, hundreds of Hawaiians greeted them and offered various gifts including kapa (tapa) barkcloth, pua‘a (pigs), and mai‘a (bananas). Cook went ashore three times the next day, walking inland where he saw Hawaiian hale (houses), heiau (sacred places of worship), and agricultural sites.
Cook’s crew estimated the total population of the eight main Hawaiian Islands to be around 400,000, with about 30,000 people living on Kaua‘i. (Note: Pre-contact population estimates vary from less than 300,000 to more than 700,000.)
Captain Cook named the islands “The Sandwich Islands” in honor of his patron, the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich.
The Death of Captain Cook
British Captain James Cook returned to the Hawaiian Islands one year after first establishing Western contact in 1778. After leaving the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, Cook had journeyed north in search of the elusive (because it was non-existent) “Northwest Passage,” a northwest route from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean. On January 17, 1779, Cook sailed into Kealakekua Bay on Hawai‘i Island to restock his ships and prepare for further exploration.
[Illustration: Map of Cook’s route to Hawaiian Islands in 1778, and then north, returning to the Hawaiian Islands in 1779.]
Cook was unaware that he was visiting the Islands during the ancient Hawaiian harvest festival known as Makahiki, a Hawaiian period of several months when time is taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility.
When Cook arrived on Hawai‘i Island during the Makahiki festival, he was greeted by processions and celebrations unlike any he had encountered before. Many historians state that Cook was received as the god Lono, fulfilling Hawaiian beliefs that Lono had long ago departed from Kealakekua Bay, promising to return. Others disagree, and accounts vary on whether Cook was indeed thought by the natives to be the god Lono. It is clear, however, that the Hawaiians gave preferential treatment to Cook.
Cook was brought to Hikiau Heiau, a sacred temple where kāhuna (native priests) put sacred red kapa cloth on him and offered sacred chants.
Cook left Kealakekua Bay on February 4, 1779 to survey the other Hawaiian Islands, but when a foremast of the HMS Resolution broke, Cook and his men returned to Kealakekua Bay. When one of Cook’s smaller boats was stolen, he went ashore with nine of his men to retrieve the boat. Cook planned to find the ruler of the island, Kalani‘ōpu‘u, and take him hostage in order to demand the return of the boat for the return of the chief.
On February 14, 1779, Cook and his men awakened Kalani‘ōpu‘u and compelled him to come to the ship. Meanwhile, members of Cook’s crew had blockaded the harbor so no one could escape. When a canoe attempted to pass the blockade, Cook’s crew fired on the natives, killing a chief. Learning that one of their chiefs had been killed, the natives gathered in a large crowd near shore just as Cook’s group reached shore to take their small boat out to the main ship.
During a violent encounter with the native Hawaiians on the shore, Cook and his men fired upon the natives. When Cook’s men paused to reload they were attacked. Cook yelled for his men to “...take to the boats!,” but it was too late—Cook was stabbed in the neck and killed, and floated face down in the water. At least four of Cook’s men were also killed. The rest of Cook’s group escaped, retreating to the main ship and leaving Cook behind along with the other members of his crew that had been killed.
Four marines and an unknown number of native Hawaiians died in the fighting during the following days as hostilities escalated. A stalemate existed over the return of Cook’s remains, which had been taken inland. Eventually a procession of Hawaiians bearing white flags and beating drums returned Cook’s remains wrapped in kapa (tapa) barkcloth and covered by a feather cloak. Within the kapa, however, were only some of Cook’s remains, while the rest remained in the possession of native chiefs.
Cook’s hands and feet had been preserved with pa‘akai (sea salt), and the rest of his flesh had been stripped from his bones and burned. (Note: Current historians note that this stripping and burning of flesh was normally reserved for ali‘i nui (high chiefs)).
Cook’s crew then held a naval burial service. The ship’s cannons were fired in salute, and Cook’s remains were lowered into Kealakekua Bay. Pressure from the British government eventually resulted in Cook’s remains being returned to his homeland.
[Photograph: HMS Discovery or HMS Resolution]
The Rise of the Warrior Kamehameha
When Hawai‘i Island ruler Kalani‘ōpu‘u met with his chiefs in 1780, he informed them that after he died his oldest son Kīwala‘ō [Kīwala‘ō Kauikeaouli (Kauikeouli)] would be the new ruler, and his son Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula would get land. Kamehameha (Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s nephew) would become chief of Kohala on land that was Kamehameha’s by inheritance, and Kamehameha would be given guardianship of the family’s feathered war god, Kūkā‘ilimoku, along with the responsibility of caring for the heiau (sacred places of worship) associated with the war god.
Afterward, Kalani‘ōpu‘u captured an enemy chief of Puna named Imakakola for a human sacrifice ceremony to consolidate his chiefdom. Imakakola was taken to the luakini heiau (where human sacrifices are performed) at Kamā‘oa called Pākini, which was built by Kalani‘ōpu‘u. When Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s son Kīwala‘ō initiated the sacrificial ceremony, Kamehameha boldly stepped in and finished the ritual, placing Imakakola on the altar. This action by Kamehameha caused controversy and led to a rift between Kīwala‘ō and Kamehameha, who then returned to Kohala.
Kalani‘ōpu‘u died in April of 1782, and Kīwala‘ō brought the deceased ruler’s bones to Hale-o-Keawe, the Royal Mausoleum at Pu‘uhonua o Hōnaunau in Kona on Hawai‘i Island.
As specified by Kalani‘ōpu‘u before his death, his oldest son, Kīwala‘ō, became the new ruler of Hawai‘i Island, and his other son, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, was given land. Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s nephew, Kamehameha, was given guardianship of the family’s feathered war god, Kūkā‘ilimoku, and also became chief of Kohala on Hawai‘i Island.
Kīwala‘ō then redivided the lands of Hawai‘i Island. Chief counselor for Kīwala‘ō at this time was Keawemauhili, who was given large portions of Kona and Hilo. (Spelling clarification: Frazier notes that the spelling “Keawemauhili” more properly reflects the original meaning and symbolism (p. xxiv, Desha, Stephen L., translated by Frazier, Frances N. Kamehameha and his Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 2000), however, the spelling “Keaweama‘uhili” is used by Pūku‘i (Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983), and in other publications.)
Kamehameha and Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula were both slighted by Kīwala‘ō’s redivision of lands, which took away from Kamehameha and the Kona chiefs lands that were formerly under their rule.
Kīwala‘ō’s division of lands on Hawai‘i Island angered many important Kona chiefs. When Kīwala‘ō attempted to take control of disputed lands, this caused Kamehameha to unite with the chiefs of Kona, and he soon became their leader. Loyal to Kīwala‘ō were chiefs of Ka‘ū, Puna, and Hilo, including Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s brother, Keawemauhili.
Kona chiefs aligned with Kamehameha:
- Keaweāheulu—Kamehameha’s uncle.
- Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe—Ka‘ahumanu’s father.
- Kekūhaupi‘o—Warrior teacher of Kamehameha.
- Kala‘imāmahu—Son of Keōuakupuapāikalaninui [Keōuanui] and Kamakaeheikuli; half brother of Kamehameha.
- Kawelo‘okalani—Half-brother of Kamehameha.
- Keli‘imaika‘i—Brother of Kamehameha.
- Kame‘eiamoku and Kamanawa—Sacred royal twins of Kekaulike; sons of Keawepoepoe and Kanoena; uncles of Kamehameha; depicted on the State of Hawai‘i’s official coat of arms.
Chiefs aligned against Kamehameha:The Death of Kīwala‘ō at the Battle of Moku‘ōhai
In 1782, the Battle of Moku‘ōhai was fought in Ke‘ei, Kona. The young warrior Kamehameha led his warriors to victory, and the chief Kīwala‘ō [Kīwala‘ō Kauikeaouli (Kauikeouli)] was killed. When Kīwala‘ō died he was wearing an ‘ahu ‘ula (feathered cloak), which then became the property of Kamehameha. (Note: This feathered cloak is now in the collection of the Bishop Museum.)
One account states that an injured Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe crawled to Kīwala‘ō, who also had been injured, and then Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe slit Kīwala‘ō’s neck with a leiomano (shark-tooth weapon). (Note: Accounts differ on the sequence of events leading to Kīwala‘ō’s death at the Battle of Moku‘ōhai. Another version holds that Kīwala‘ō was stabbed to death, or killed by stones.)
After Kīwala‘ō was killed, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula fled to Ka‘ū and Keawemauhili was captured, but then was allowed to escape, presumably because of his high rank. After the Battle of Moku‘ōhai, Hawai‘i Island was divided into three chiefdoms:
- Keawemauhiliruled Hilo and a portion of Puna and Hāmākua.
- Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula ruled Ka‘ū and part of Puna.
- Kamehameha ruled Kona, Kohala, and northern Hāmākua.
Kamehameha then campaigned for nearly a decade to control the rest of Hawai‘i Island. Kamehameha’s two opponents were: Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula (Kīwala‘ō’s younger brother and chief of Puna and Ka‘ū) and Keawemauhili (Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula’s uncle and Kalani‘ōpu‘u’s brother). Kamehameha also began a military campaign to conquer other Hawaiian Islands.Games, Rituals, and Celebrations
Ancient Hawaiians enjoyed a great variety of pā‘ani (sports and games), many of which were part of more serious rituals and ceremonies. The game of kōnane is similar to the Western game of checkers, and was played using pebbles on a stone or wood surface called a papa kōnane.
A traditional loop and ball game was known as pala‘ie. Various hei (string figures) were made using string looped around the fingers. Ancient Hawaiians produced at least 115 of these string figures, and many of the figures were associated with particular chants.
Ancient Hawaiians also engaged in many contests of strength and balance, including uma and pā uma (hand and wrist wrestling), kula‘i wāwae (foot-pushing), kula kula‘i (chest pushing), heihei kūkini (foot races), and hākōkō (wrestling). Ku‘i a lua was a dangerous form of hand-to-hand fighting, sometimes resulting in broken bones.
Pua (arrows, or darts) were sometimes made from stalks of kō (sugarcane) or other plants, and were used in games and contests. The finger-pulling contest in which opponents hooked their fingers together is known as loulou (“to link or hook together”), and the competitors see who can stay hooked the longest. A team tug-of-war game was known as pā‘ume‘ume, and ‘io was a tag game involving foot-racing. (Note: Pā‘ume‘ume is also called hukihuki.)
‘Ulu maika involved rolling stone discs for accuracy and distance. Ho‘olele lupe (flying kites) were made by covering a hau frame with kapa (tapa) barkcloth or plaited lau hala (leaves of hala), and then the kites are flown on a cord made from olonā.
Ancient Hawaiians also practiced kio (mock war games) in anticipation of real battle. They threw ku‘uku‘u (boomerangs) and participated in kākā lā‘au (spear fencing), ‘ō‘ō ihe (spear throwing), and ku‘i a lua (hand-to-hand fighting). Kūpololū involved using pololū (long spears) to pole vault, which was a necessary warrior skill for traversing ravines.
Many activities occurred in or near the ocean, including ‘au (swimming) as well as lele kawa, jumping off cliffs into the sea in an attempt to make the least amount of splash. The goal of lele pahū was to make the biggest splash. The sport of kaupua was another ocean challenge, requiring participants to dive deep underwater to retrieve half-ripe ipu (gourds). Ancient Hawaiians also engaged in kaha nalu (body surfing), he‘e nalu (surfing), and heihei wa‘a (canoe racing).
Many ancient Hawaiian games and sports were played during the ancient Hawaiian harvest festival known as Makahiki, which began with the first appearance of the crescent moon following the new moon after the appearance of the constellation Makali‘i (Pleiades) rising in the east after sunset. During the Makahiki festival, time was taken away from work for feasts, sports games, and other events in honor of Lono, the god of agricultural fertility.
He‘e hōlua involved using papa hōlua (wooden sleds) to slide down steep hills or down specially constructed stone ramps. The slides were lined with pili grass (twisted beardgrass) or tassels of kō (sugarcane), allowing the sledders to reach speeds sometimes exceeding 100 miles (161 km) per hour. Children often slid down the steep inclines on the stalks of a mai‘a (banana plants) or on hōlua kī, the leaves of kī (ti). Some contests engaged in during Makahiki were meant to strengthen the participants’ warrior skills.
He he‘e hōlua
One who rides a hōlua sled.
Said proudly of being a descendant of the chiefly families of Waipi‘o, Hawai‘i,
who were well known for their skill in hōlua sledding.[32]
The Battle of Kepaniwai—Kamehameha Invades Maui
In 1790, Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili] was the most powerful ali‘i (chief) in the Hawaiian Islands, ruling Maui, Lāna‘i, and Moloka‘i. He was in alliance with his half-brother, Kā‘eokūlani [Kā‘eo], ruler of Kaua‘i, who seized O‘ahu by killing its chief and sacrificing him to his own war god, also killing lesser chiefs of O‘ahu and using their skeletons to construct a house of bones.
Fearing conquest of Hawai‘i Island by Kā‘eokūlani and Kahekili, Kamehameha decided to strike first, and landed his troops on Maui to fight against Kalanikūkupule, son of Kahekili. Kamehameha considered it a good omen when the feathers of his war god Kūkā‘ilimoku bristled.
Fighting between the two groups of warriors began in Wailuku, and then proceeded up into ‘Īao Valley where the precipitous cliffs at the head of the valley blocked escape. Kamehameha’s forces had the advantage of superior western weapons (muskets) as well as a cannon manned by the foreigners John Young (‘Olohana) and Isaac Davis (‘Aikake).
In Kamehameha’s victory at ‘Īao Valley, dead bodies from both sides are said to have blocked the river, giving the battle its name, the Battle of Kepaniwai (“Battle of the Water Dam”). The bloody confrontation is also referred to as Ka‘uwa‘upali (“Precipice-clawing”), referring to the fleeing warriors climbing the steep cliffs of ‘Īao Valley as they tried to escape.[33]
Facing imminent defeat, Kahekili’s son, Kalanikūpule, fled over a narrow mountain pass along with his high chiefs, and they sailed to O‘ahu where Kahekili began war preparations. Kamehameha’s troops returned to Hawai‘i Island but Kamehameha sailed to Moloka‘i to meet with his chiefs and advisers.
The Olowalu Massacre
Pioneering American trader Simon Metcalfe arrived in 1790 in command of the snow Eleanora. After the chief Ka‘ōpūiki stole one of his skiffs, Metcalfe killed more than 100 Hawaiians as retribution. Off the coast of Hawai‘i Island, Metcalfe also punished Chief Kame‘eiamoku by whipping him. Some weeks later, Kame‘eiamoku attacked the Fair American, which was under the command of Metcalfe’s 18-year-old son, Thomas, who was killed along with all of the crew except for Isaac Davis (later known as ‘Aikake), who was left tied to a canoe, half blind and nearly dead. It is said that Davis’ life was spared because of his brave fighting.
Simon Metcalfe left his boatswain John Young (later known as ‘Olohana) onshore and sailed away from the Hawaiian Islands without even knowing if his son had been killed. The Fair American was taken over by Kamehameha, and Davis and Young became Kamehameha’s supporters (and advisers), manning large guns from canoes during the invasion of the northern coast of Hawai‘i Island as well as during a later attack on O‘ahu. Davis and Young were later known as ‘Aikake and ‘Olohana.
John Young eventually became governor of several Hawaiian Islands and had estates on all the Islands. Isaac Davis (‘Aikake ) eventually became a chief, married a relative of King Kamehameha I, became governor of O‘ahu, and owned estates on O‘ahu, Maui, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i Island. Young’s granddaughter was Queen Emma (1836-1885), the wife of King Kamehameha IV.
The Hawaiian Sandalwood Trade
‘Iliahi, the Hawaiian name for the sandalwood tree, means “fiery surface” and refers to the tree’s reddish blooms and new leaves.
Sandalwood trees may be up to 65 feet (20 m) tall, with small leathery, elliptical-shaped leaves that are about 4 inches (10 cm) long with a glossy surface. ‘Iliahi also produces small purple fruits, and the flowers may be green, yellow, pale red, or magenta, growing in clusters that are often pleasantly scented, and sometimes used in lei.
Ancient Hawaiians had many uses for the tree, including placing its powdered heartwood between layers of kapa (tapa) barkcloth to impart the sweet fragrance to the cloth. A mixture added to kapa dyes was made by adding ‘iliahi to the oil of niu (coconut palm) heated with hot stones. Sandalwood also had various medicinal uses in ancient Hawai‘i, including as part of a treatment to sooth the pains of aching joints.
The wood of ‘iliahi was used to make various products, including the ‘ūkēkē, a musical instrument comprised of a wooden bow with strings that were strummed while the player’s mouth was used as a resonance chamber, producing a speech-like sound though no noise was made by the player’s vocal cords. The ‘ūkēkē was the only stringed instrument in ancient Hawai‘i.
In 1790, ship captain John Kendrick (c.1740-1794) left two of his crew on the island of Kaua‘i to collect sandalwood. This was a prelude to the sandalwood trade, which began in 1791 when it was discovered that the fragrant wood could be sold for a high price in Canton, China. Extensive sandalwood groves in the mountains of the Hawaiian Islands were harvested and shipped to China where they valued the close-grained fine-smelling wood for making fine furniture, boxes, chests and carvings, as well as perfume and incense. The older trees were the most valued due to their increased fragrance (the scent increases with age).
In 1811, Jonathan and Nathan Winship arrived on the O‘Cain and the Albatross, and took away a load of sandalwood. (Note: Jonathan and Nathan Winship initially arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1806.)
King Kamehameha was pleased with his profits and granted the Winships and Captain William Heath Davis an exclusive ten-year contract for sales of sandalwood on all the Hawaiian Islands except Kaua‘i. (Note: The sandalwood contract was cancelled in 1813 due to the War of 1812 between Britain and the United States.)
Between 1810 and 1820, sandalwood sold for about $125/ton, generating more than $3 million. The peak years of the sandalwood trade were from 1810 to 1840, a time that also saw a steadily increasing desire for Western goods in the Islands, and consequently a large debt incurred by the Hawaiian monarchy. By 1821, sandalwood exports totaled about 1,400 tons annually.
Chiefs forced maka‘āinana (commoners) to climb high in the mountains to cut down the tall trees. Carrying the wood down from the mountains was hard work, and intensive harvesting of sandalwood occurred at the expense of the lo‘i kalo (taro patches) and other traditional agricultural food production and cultural practices. Sandalwood traders supplied the Hawaiians with furniture, clothes, liquor and other Western goods that increasingly eroded away at traditional native ways of living.
As the sandalwood forests of the Hawaiian Islands were logged at a rapid pace to meet China’s growing market, the supply of the valued wood rapidly declined and was eventually exhausted. By 1840, nearly all of the large, marketable sandalwood trees in the Hawaiian Islands had been cut down, ending the sandalwood trade with China. Though the large sandalwood groves of ancient times are gone, smaller trees remain. Currently only one of the four endemic (unique) Hawaiian sandalwood species is listed as endangered.
[Photographs: Sandalwood tree; ‘ūkēkē; sandalwood box; and/or other sandalwood items]
Dedication of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau
After the young warrior Kamehameha’s military victory at the Battle of Kepaniwai (see The Battle of Kepaniwai), he sent Ha‘alo‘u (the grandmother of Ka‘ahumanu) to O‘ahu to consult with Kapoukahi, a highly respected kahuna (priest) of Kaua‘i, who was in Waikīkī at the time. Kapoukahi answered the request from Kamehameha for an oracle, telling Kamehameha that he would be victorious over all the Hawaiian Islands only if he built a heiau dedicated to his war god, Kūkā‘ilimoku. This heiau was to be built at Kawaihae on Hawai‘i Island, and named Pu‘ukoholā (“Whale hill”).[34] Kamehameha’s royal architect Kapoukahi traveled from Kaua‘i to assist Kamehameha in the construction and consecration of the massive heiau at Kawaihae.
In the summer of 1791, with construction of Pu‘ukoholā Heiau completed, Kamehameha asked Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, chief of Hawai‘i Island’s Puna and Ka‘ū districts, to attend the dedication of the heiau, telling Keōuakū‘ula his presence was important if there was to be peace between the rivals. Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula and 26 of his chiefs and friends, including the highest chiefs of Ka‘ū, arrived at Kawaihae Bay in two large canoes.
Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was in one of the canoes, and in the other canoe was a young chief named Pauli Ka‘ōleiokū, the son of Kamehameha and Kānekapōlei (the mother of Keōuakuahu‘ula with Kalani‘ōpu‘u). Greeting Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula and his men were Kamehameha’s war canoes arranged in a great crescent shape surrounding Kawaihae Bay to prevent Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula’s escape. Kamehameha’s men onshore had muskets and cannons.
As they arrived at the shoreline of Kawaihae Bay, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was killed along with many of his chiefs and other members of his group. Historical accounts of this event by prominent early historians differ considerably on various points.
In most but not all accounts, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was killed by Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe, who is said to either have killed Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula with a spear, or put Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula in a lua (fighting) hold and drowned him (said to have been done to keep Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula’s body unmarred for the human sacrifice at the heiau). Another account has Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula killed by a slingstone that was hurled from on shore, hitting Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula in the temple.
Also uncertain about this event: whether the killing of Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula was ordered by Kamehameha or was done by Ke‘eaumoku Pāpa‘iaheahe without Kamehameha’s approval; the number of other chiefs with Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula who were killed; and other significant facts.
After the initial attack on Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, Kamehameha reportedly prevented his men from attacking the people in the other canoe, which included Pauli Ka‘ōleiokū, Kamehameha’s first son. The bodies of the killed chiefs (including Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula) were sacrificed on the altar of the luakini heiau atop the hill at Pu‘ukoholā. With his rival, Keōuakū‘ahu‘ula, dead, Kamehameha controlled Hawai‘i Island.
Note: Pu‘ukoholā means “Whale hill”[35] according to Pūku‘i, but was later explained by Frazier to instead be spelled Pu‘ukohola (no macron), and meaning “built as the house of the god, a pu‘u [desire] for death and not for life. The death which was to be bound securely within this heiau was in the lagoon (kai kohola) and not in the deep sea nor on land.”[36]
Hele aku ‘oe ma‘ane‘i, he wa‘a kanaka; ho‘i mai ‘oe ma‘ō he wa‘a akua.
When you go from here, the canoe will contain men; when you
return, it will be a ghostly canoe.
Warning to Keouakuahu‘ula by his kahuna not to go to meet Kamehameha at Kawaihae. He went anyway and was killed.[37]
George Vancouver Visits the Hawaiian Islands
British Captain George Vancouver (1758-1798) had served under Captain Cook on his second Pacific voyage, and was Cook’s midshipman on his third voyage when Cook first found the Hawaiian Islands. Vancouver returned to the Hawaiian Islands on March 5, 1792 in command of the Chatham and the Discovery (not the same ship Captain Cook sailed).
Vancouver came to the Islands again in 1793 and 1794, meeting with many important Hawaiian chiefs. Vancouver also introduced sheep, cattle, goats, and geese as well as a variety of seeds and plants including almond and orange trees as well as grapevines. Vancouver hoped that the food products would be raised and cultivated by the Hawaiians and then would later supply food for visiting ships of British seamen.
On February 25, 1794, Vancouver obtained an informal treaty of cession from Kamehameha I. The two men were friends, and Kamehameha sought assurance that the Hawaiian Islands would be under British protection.
Kamehameha received a gift of a British flag (a Union Jack) from Vancouver, and flew the flag for the next 22 years at various places where he lived. It is uncertain what meaning Kamehameha attributed to the flag, however, since the British Parliament never ratified the apparent cession agreement with Vancouver. During Vancouver’s 1794 visit, his carpenters helped Kamehameha construct the 36-foot Britannia, the first foreign-designed ship in the Hawaiian Islands.
The Battle of Nu‘uanu
In February of 1795, Kamehameha and his warrior army sailed from Kohala on Hawai‘i Island to Lahaina, Maui to take on food and other provisions, and then sailed to Kaunakakai, Moloka‘i where they prepared to invade O‘ahu. In April of 1795 they set sail from Moloka‘i to invade O‘ahu. Kamehameha had an estimated 960 canoes as well as 20 armed foreign ships, and his troops totaled an estimated 16,000 soldiers, many trained in modern musketry. Also allied with Kamehameha were 16 foreigners, including several manning Kamehameha’s cannons.
Kamehameha’s warriors landed on O‘ahu’s southern shores from Waikīkī to Wai’alae, and then prepared to meet the forces of O‘ahu’s chief Kalanikūpule, an estimated 9,000 warriors arrayed throughout Pū‘iwa and La‘imi, and mauka (toward the mountains) all the way to Luakaha. Kamehameha’s warriors who landed at Wai‘alae marched over the plains of Kaimukī to Mō‘ili‘ili where they joined with the troops marching from Waikīkī. Kamehameha’s united army then proceeded behind Pūowaina (now called Punchbowl Crater) to Nu‘uanu where the warriors confronted the forces of Kalanikūpule, who were also supported by the forces of the chief Ka‘iana‘ahu‘ula [Ka‘iana] who had deserted Kamehameha and joined Kalanikūpule.
The first confrontations occurred at La‘imi and Pū‘iwa, and neither side gained a clear advantage. Kamehameha’s warriors killed Ka‘iana‘ahu‘ula, and the O‘ahu forces were gradually overpowered and retreated up into Nu‘uanu Valley. Many of the fleeing warriors climbed the valley’s sides while others retreated up to Nu‘uanu Pali at the head of the valley.
Fleeing from Kamehameha’s onslaught, some of Kalanikūpule’s warriors escaped over the valley’s ridges and others made it down the trail at the end of the pali (cliff). Those who didn’t escape were confronted by Kamehameha’s soldiers at the edge of the precipice at Nu‘uanu Pali. Many of the O‘ahu warriors were driven over the edge of the cliff at Nu‘uanu Pali, and met their death on the rocks hundreds of feet below. (Note: Historical accounts of the events that occurred at Nu‘uanu Pali vary considerably, and it is possible that some warriors may have jumped off the precipice rather than surrender. The number of soldiers that died at the head of Nu‘uanu Pali is also uncertain, with estimates varying from 300 to more than 2,000. Overall, it is estimated that as many as 10,000 warriors (from both sides) died in the Battle of Nu‘uanu, making the confrontation the deadliest event ever in the Hawaiian Islands, including Pearl Harbor.)
Chief Kalanikūpule escaped from the battlefield and hid in the Ko‘olau mountains. He was captured several months later in the upper Waipi‘o-‘Ewa area, and the defeated chief was killed and presented to Kamehameha, who offered the body as a sacrifice to his war god Kūkā‘ilimoku. This is said to have occurred on the altar called Pu‘ukapa at Moanalua.
The Battle of Nu‘uanu was Kamehameha’s final major military conquest. With his victory, Kamehameha gained control of all of the Hawaiian Islands except Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, furthering his attempt to establish a united Hawaiian Kingdom. King Kamehameha I established a system of government wherein each island had a governor. There was also a Council of Advisers, a Treasurer, and a Prime Minister. Taxes were levied, and could be paid with handicrafts or produce.
King Kamehameha instituted a fee for licensing trade and wharfage, and encouraged the sandalwood trade with foreign ships. He initially ruled from Kawaihae on Hawai‘i Island, then moved the capital to Hilo in 1796. Kamehameha moved the capitol to Lahaina, Maui in 1803 and lived in a red stone house originally built for Queen Ka‘ahumanu. In 1804 the center of government was moved to Honolulu, which had the best available port.
[Illustration: Nu‘uanu Pali battle scene]
He aupuni ko Kamehameha.
Kamehameha has a government.
A warning not to steal. Kamehameha united the islands and made laws that gave everyone peace and safety. Killing and stealing were utterly prohibited.[38]
Parker Ranch
In 1815, John Palmer Parker arrived in Waimea, Hawai‘i to kill wild cattle for King Kamehameha I. Kamehameha hired Parker to shoot the cattle, which had proliferated in Waimea due to a kapu (prohibition) placed upon them with the intention of letting the animals multiply after they were brought to the island by George Vancouver. The cattle were killed for their meat, which was salted and sold to visiting ships. The hides were also exported. Parker claimed to have shot well more than 1,000 cattle.
Parker later married a Hawaiian princess, the cousin of Kānekapōlei, the wife of the high chief Kalani‘ōpu‘u. Parker began acquiring grazing land and building up a herd of tame cattle, and he also built a sawmill. John Palmer Parker’s son, John Palmer Parker II, continued to increase the size of Parker Ranch. In 1943, 30-year-old Richard Palmer Smart became the sole owner of Parker Ranch, the second largest private ranch in the United States at more than a half million acres.
The Exploits of Georg Anton Schäffer
Georg Anton (Egor Nikoloaevich) Schäffer (1779-1836) was a surgeon in the Russian army, and had built hot air balloons in Moscow in 1812 to observe the movements of Napoleon’s armies. In 1815, the Russian-American Company sent Schäffer to the Hawaiian Islands to retrieve or seek appropriate payment for the cargo of the Behring, which had wrecked on Kaua‘i. When Schäffer first arrived at the end of 1815, he cured King Kamehameha I of a feverish cold, and was given land on O‘ahu. Schäffer then began building a blockhouse on the Honolulu waterfront, causing John Young (‘Olohana) to persuade King Kamehameha to halt the work. (See 1815.)
With three Russian ships and their crews, Schäffer then traveled to Kaua‘i where he befriended Kaua‘i’s vassal ruler, Kaumuali‘i. On May 21, 1816, Schäffer enticed Kaumuali‘i to sign a document putting Kaua‘i under the protection of the Russian Czar, Alexander Pavlovich. Schäffer proceeded to build Fort Elizabeth at Waimea, Kaua‘i, naming the fort in honor the consort of the Russian Emperor. Fort Elizabeth overlooked Waimea Bay, with guns positioned to protect the anchorage’s trading vessels. Schäffer also built two forts in Hanalei, Kaua‘i, including Fort Alexander overlooking the mouth of the Hanalei River and Fort Barclay on Hanalei Bay.
Though Schäffer was overstepping his authority, he sought a trade monopoly for Russia, and in return promised Kaumuali‘i independence from King Kamehameha I and conquests of other Hawaiian Islands Kaumuali‘i felt he had a hereditary right to rule. Schäffer in turn would get rights to all of the valuable sandalwood growing on O‘ahu. Kaumuali‘i had ceded the island of Kaua‘i to King Kamehameha I in 1810, however, so the vassal ruler’s agreement with Schäffer was considered treasonous. Nevertheless the Czar’s flag flew over Kaua‘i and Schäffer built two more forts in Hanalei.
When Otto von Kotzebue on the Russian Navy brig Rurik visited the Hawaiian Islands in 1816, he repudiated Schäffer’s acts. In May of 1817, Kaumuali‘i renounced his agreement with Schäffer, who was soon forced to leave the Hawaiian Islands. On July 7, 1817, Schäffer left on the American vessel Panther headed for Macao. In 1821, Schäffer went to Brazil and was made a nobleman by Emperor Dom Pedro I, under the title of Count von Frankenthal.
‘Ōpūkaha‘ia—The First Christian Hawaiian
‘Ōpūkaha‘ia was born in 1792, and was just an infant when his parents and brother were killed at Kaipalaoa on Hawai‘i Island in an encounter known as Nāmakaehā’s Rebellion, the last battle of King Kamehameha I, at Kaipaloa in south Hilo in September of 1796. This conflict was instigated by Nāmakaehā, the cousin of Ka‘iana‘ahu‘ula [Ka‘iana], the half-brother of the high chief Kahekilinui‘ahumanu [Kahekili].
When Kamehameha’s warriors arrived, Nāmakaehā’s forces were in control of Hilo. A battle ensued at Kaipaloa in south Hilo and ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia’s parents and brother were killed. Nāmakaehā was offered as a sacrifice to Kamehameha’s war god Kūkā‘ilimoku at the heiau at Pi‘ihonua.
After his parents were killed, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia was raised in Nāpō‘opo‘ō on Kealakekua Bay by his kahuna uncle. In 1809, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia left the Hawaiian Islands for New England (Connecticut) on the ship Triumph, under the command of Captain Caleb Brintnall. The ship first went to the Seal Islands in the American northwest, and then stopped in the Hawaiian Islands before going to Canton, China, New York, and finally to New Haven, Connecticut.
‘Ōpūkaha‘ia was influenced by students of Andover Seminary and Yale College, and he became a Christian and took the name Henry Obookiah. He began translating the Bible into Hawaiian and had plans to travel back to the Hawaiian Islands but died of typhus fever in Cornwall, Connecticut on February 17, 1818 at the age of 26. Considered the first Hawaiian convert, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia’s had planned to return to the Hawaiian Islands with the First Company of American missionaries.
On July 26, 1993, ‘Ōpūkaha‘ia’s remains, which had been buried in Connecticut since 1818, were returned to Hawai‘i Island. On August 15, 1993 the remains were reburied at Kahikolu Cemetery in Nāpō‘opo‘o, South Kona.
The Hawaiian Flag
In 1794, Kamehameha I received a gift of a British flag (a Union Jack) from British Captain George Vancouver. (See 1794, February 25.) Before the Hawaiian flag was originated, the Hawaiian people had not used flags in the manner of other nations.
The Hawaiians did have the kāhili (royal feather standard), and the puela (triangular kapa strip), which was often carried on canoes. They also had the pūlo‘ulo‘u (kapa-covered stick ), which was carried in front of the chiefs to signal kapu (sacredness).
By 1816, a uniquely Hawaiian flag was created, though there is still much uncertainty regarding its exact origins and the intent of its designers, including King Kamehameha I. Alexander Adams is believed to be the one who placed the Union Jack at the upper left corner, inspiring today’s Hawaiian flag. (See 1817.)
A January 1, 1862 letter to the editor of the Hawaiian newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a stated: “The Hawaiian flag was designed for King Kamehameha I in the year 1816. As the King desired to send a vessel to China, to sell a cargo of sandal wood, he in company of John Young, Isaac Davis...and Captain Alexander Adams...made this flag for the ship, which was a war vessel called the Forester, carrying 16 guns, and was owned by King Kamehameha I. The flag having been made, the vessel sailed for Macao, China where the flag was not credited nor recognized as a government flag...”[39]
The flag flown on the Forester (renamed Kaahumanu) differed from today’s Hawaiian flag in that it did not contain the diagonal cross of St. Patrick, because the British ensign initially included only the cross of St. Andrew and St. George. The diagonal cross of St. Patrick was added in 1801, and soon also appeared on the official flag of the Hawaiian Islands.
The eight horizontal stripes of the Hawaiian flag represent the eight main Hawaiian Islands. The colors of the stripes are alternating red, white and blue, with red said to symbolize Hawaiian gods, white symbolizing truth, and blue for the ocean. The flag was used to represent the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, the Republic, the Territory, and finally the State of Hawai‘i. There was originally a ninth stripe (bar), apparently representing the archipelago, but the number of stripes was reduced to eight after statehood.
“The national ensign shall consist of eight horizontal stripes, alternating white, red, blue, etc., beginning at the top, having a jack cantoned in the dexter chief angle next to the point of suspension. The jack shall consist of a blue field charge with a compound saltire of alternate tinctures white and red, the white having precedence; a narrow edge of white borders each red side of the saltire. A red cross bordered with white is charged over all. The jack is half the hoist and 7/16 the fly in length. The arms of the red cross with border shall be equal in width to one of the horizontal stripes; the white border shall be one third the width of the red cross.”
The Hawaiian Statutes of 1896, Chapter 10[40]
[Illustration or Photographs: Hawaiian Flag; British Flag (comparison)]
The Breaking of the Kapu
King Kamehameha’s 24-year-old son Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho, took the throne as King Kamehameha II on May 20, 1819. Within months of assuming the throne, the king ate food in public with the dowager queens Ka‘ahumanu and Keōpūolanikauhiakama [Keōpūolani], thus breaking the kapu (prohibition) against men and women eating together. This was known as the ‘Ai Noa. (‘Ai Noa means “to eat freely, without observance of taboos.”)
The feast during which the kapu was broken was attended by several foreigners as well as high chiefs. When the defiant act brought no retribution from the gods, eating together was no longer kapu, and this began a process that eroded away at traditional Hawaiian religious beliefs and eventually led to the complete overturning of the traditional kapu system. Many sacred temples were dismantled and abandoned, and idols were burned.
Kekuaokalani, the son of King Kamehameha I’s younger brother, Keli‘imaika‘i, rebelled against King Kamehameha II’s abolishment of the eating kapu. Kekuaokalani was the keeper of King Kamehameha I’s renowned war god Kūkā‘ilimoku, and was encouraged to revolt by revered kāhuna (high priests) including Kūāiwa and Holoialena.
In 1819, Kekuaokalani fought the forces of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) at the Battle of Kuamo‘o on Hawai‘i Island. Both sides were armed with Western weapons. Kalanimoku led Liholiho’s forces, which were supported by canoe-mounted American swivel guns. Kekuaokalani was killed at Kuamo‘o along with his wife Manono and the kahuna Kūāiwa. The last battles took place at Waimea, and the revolt was defeated. (Note: Warriors who survived these battles were later pardoned by King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho)). Soon after, another rebellion was defeated in Hāmākua.
Wehe ka piko la, e ka hoahānau.
Undone is the navel string, O kinsman.
A family relation is severed. Said by Keopuolani to Kekuaokalani when she attempted to quell a rebellion, meaning that the tie of kinship between the two cousins, Liholiho and Kekuaokalani, was being severed by the latter’s refusal to be reconciled.”[41]
The Mission Houses
On September 15, 1821 a Hale Pule (Christian Meeting House) was dedicated in Honolulu at the future site of Kawaiha‘o Church at the corner of South King and Punchbowl Streets. Hawaiians framed and thatched this original structure, and the missionaries installed imported windows, doors, a pulpit, and a bell. The church was built to hold 300 people.
Also built in 1821, near the Christian Meeting House, was the Hale Lā‘au (Frame House), a two-story prefabricated structure that the missionaries brought with them around Cape Horn. The Frame House served as a residence for various missionaries, including Hiram Bingham, Gerrit Judd, and Elisha Loomis (the printer).
The other structure still standing from the original Sandwich Islands Mission headquarters is Hale Kamalani, also known as the Chamberlain House. Constructed in 1831, the Chamberlain House was built of coral blocks, and home to the Mission’s business agent, Levi Chamberlain (1792-1849). The Chamberlain House was also was used to store the considerable amount of supplies of the mission. Chamberlain had arrived in the Hawaiian Islands as a lay missionary in 1823, and later helped to found O‘ahu’s Punahou School (originally called Kapunahou).
On January 7, 1822, missionary Elisha Loomis used a second hand iron and mahogany Ramage press brought on the Thaddeus to complete the first printing in the North Pacific region at the grass-thatched Hale Pule (Christian Meeting House). Ke‘eaumoku II (Governor Cox) pulled the lever to begin the printing process.
In 1823, a new Hale Pa‘i (Printing Office) was constructed of coral blocks and became the home of the Mission Press, which eventually printed millions of pages in the Hawaiian language. Language teachers and translators utilized the lead-type press and were helped by nā kānaka pa‘i (native Hawaiian assistants) such as John Papa ‘I‘i. The first book published in the Islands came off the press in 1823, and was entitled Na Himeni Hawaii (Hymns of Hawai‘i).
In the following years, items produced at Hale Pa‘i included books, broadsides, hīmeni (hymns), newspapers, rules, primers, and the first translation of the Bible into the Hawaiian language. Prominent early missionary printers included Elisha Loomis, Stephen Shepard, Edmund Rogers, Lemuel Fuller, and Edwin Oscar Hall. Hale Pa‘i is considered the birthplace of the written Hawaiian language.
Today the complex of missionary buildings is known as the Mission Houses Museum, also called Nā Hale Hō‘ike‘ike O Nā Mikanele (“Exhibition House of the Missionaries”).
The Mission Houses Museum is located at 553 S. King Street, Honolulu (across from Kawaiaha‘o Church); Phone: 808-531-0481; Open 9 to 4, Tuesday-Saturday; www.lava.net/ormhm/main.htm.
The Frame House is the oldest wood frame house in the Hawaiian Islands, and is now restored to reflect its original architecture and decor, including furnishings representing its appearance more than 180 years ago. (Note: In 1841 a coral block structure was added to the Frame House.)
[Photograph: Mission Houses Museum]
Humehume and Kaua‘i’s Last Rebellion
Prince George Kaumuali‘i, also known as Humehume, was born about 1797 to Kaua‘i’s King Kaumuali‘i and a commoner wife. As a child, Humehume was sent to the United States for an education, but the money given to the boy’s guardian to pay for his education was either squandered or lost.
Humehume eventually enlisted in the U.S. Navy and was reportedly wounded during the War of 1812. (Note: Some accounts call into question Humehume’s reported military participation and injury.) Humehume then worked in the Boston Navy Yard and later studied at the Foreign Mission School in Cornwall, Connecticut.
On May 3, 1820, Humehume returned to Kaua‘i and was reunited with his father after many years apart. In 1824, after Kaumuali‘i passed away on O‘ahu, Humehume challenged the rule of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) with a surprise attack on the fort at Waimea, Kaua‘i.
The fort was successfully defended, and Humehume’s troops retreated to nearby Wahiawa and Hanapēpē. King Kamehameha II was away in England at the time of the attack, leaving kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu in charge of the Hawaiian monarchy.
In response to Humehume’s rebellion, the well-armed troops of Ka‘ahumanu’s principal counselor Kalanimoku, marched on Hanapēpē and the Wahiawa plains. (Note: Kalanimoku (1768-1827) was also known as Billy Pitt, Kalanimoku was the right hand man, treasurer and principal counselor (kālaimoku) to King Kamehameha I and to later to kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu. Kalanimoku was present at the death of Captain Cook, and took the nickname of “Billy Pitt” after William Pitt, the English Prime Minister; guardian of young Liholiho (the future King Kamehameha II)).
Maui’s Governor Hoapili commanded the warriors, which included about 350 Maui soldiers and up to 1,000 soldiers from O‘ahu.
Kalanimoku’s warriors easily defeated Humehume’s meager and ill-prepared forces, who were armed only with spears and relatively few muskets. An estimated 50 to 130 of Humehume’s group were killed, including women and children. It was said that many of the dead were left on the battlefield to be eaten by pigs, and thus the event came to be known as ‘Aipua‘a (“Pig eater”[42]).
Humehume fled on horseback into the mountains with his wife and child, and was later captured. Ka‘ahumanu replaced virtually all of Kaua‘i’s chiefs with chiefs from O‘ahu and Maui who were loyal to her and to King Kamehameha II.[43] Humehume remained imprisoned on O‘ahu until his death of influenza on May 3, 1826.
[Photograph: Humehume]
Kapiolani, by Lord Alfred Tennyson
When from the terrors of Nature a people have fashion’d and worship a Spirit of Evil
Blest be the Voice of the Teacher who calls to them,
“Set yourselves free!”
Noble the Saxon who hurled at his Idol a valorous weapon in olden England!
Great, and greater, and greatest of women, island heroine Kapiolani
Clomb the mountain, and flung the berries and dared the Goddess, and freed the people
Of Hawa-i-ee!
A people believing that Peelè the Goddess would wallow in fiery riot and revel
On Kilauea,
Dance in a fountain of flame with her devils or shake with her thunders and shatter her island,
Rolling her anger
Thro’ blasted valley and flowing forest in blood-red cataracts down to the sea!
Long as the lava-light
Glares from the lava-take,
Dazing the starlight;
Long as the silvery vapor in daylight
Over the mountain
Floats, will the glory of Kapiolani be mingled with either on Hawa-i-ee.
What said her Priesthood?
“Woe to this island if ever a woman should handle or gather the berries of Peelè
Accursed were she!
And woe to this island if ever a woman should climb to the dwelling of Peelè the Goddess!
Accursed were she!”
One from the Sunrise
Dawned on His people and slowly before him
Vanished shadow-like
Gods and Goddesses,
None but the terrible Peelè remaining as Kapiolani
Ascended her mountain,
Baffled her priesthood,
Broke the Taboo,
Dipt to the crater,
Called on the Power adored by the Christian and crying, “I dare her, let Peelè avenge herself!”
Into the flame-billows dashed the berries, and drove the demon from Hawa-i-ee.
The Demise of Boki
Boki was governor of O‘ahu under King Kamehameha II. His original name was Kamā‘ule‘ule (“The one who faints”), and he was nicknamed Boki after King Kamehameha I’s favorite dog, Poki (“Boss”). (Note: Boki was a fairly common name at the time for dogs.)
In the late 1820s, Boki came into conflict with kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu when he resisted the new laws that were passed, and did not enforce them. In May of 1827, Ka‘ahumanu and the Council charged Boki with intemperance, fornication, adultery and misconduct, and fined him and his wife Liliha.
Heavily in debt, Boki decided to sail to the South Pacific (New Hebrides) after he received information provided by a visiting Australian ship about a plenteous source of sandalwood. The Kamehameha and the Becket left the Hawaiian Islands on December 2, 1829, carrying Boki and some 500 of his followers.
Disaster ensued when the two ships became separated somewhere near the Fiji group, and the Kamehameha perished in a fire apparently started by a smoker who accidentally ignited gunpowder in the ship’s hold. The crew of 250 died, along with Boki. The crew of the Becket was decimated by disease and other mishaps, and finally returned to Honolulu on August 3, 1830 with just 20 survivors.
The Hawaiian Language
Hawaiian is one of about 30 languages comprising the Polynesian language family. The Hawaiian language has a soft, smooth cadence, and a melodic, song-like quality that has been described as spoken music. Linguists note that the Hawaiian language is most similar to the language of the Marquesas Islands and Tahiti and less so to Samoan and Tongan. The Hawaiian language also bears a relationship to languages of the Philippines, Indonesia, Madagascar and Fiji.
When Captain Cook first visited the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, Hawaiian was a spoken language but not a written language. Cook’s best linguist expert aboard the Resolution, Surgeon William Anderson, compiled a list of 250 words, writing down as best he could in English what the native Hawaiians were saying.
In 1829 missionaries selected a 12-letter alphabet and outlined a structure for the written Hawaiian language. They adopted five vowels (a, e, i, o, and u) and seven consonants (h, k, l, m, n, p, and w). The new written language was modeled after the oral Hawaiian language, attempting to accurately represent the Hawaiian sounds with English letters.
The missionary scholars provided some rules for the ordering of words in clauses and phrases. In the Hawaiian language, mood, case, and tense are shown with particles rather than inflection. Typically a sentence will begin with a verb, followed by a subject, object and prepositional phrase.
Refinements to the written Hawaiian language were made over the years, and symbols (diacritical marks) were developed to represent stresses and accents. The reverse apostrophe symbol (‘) is called an ‘okina, and represents a “glottal stop,” which is a slight pause similar to the stopping of sound in the English “oh-oh!” A horizontal line above a vowel (e.g., ā), is called a macron, or kahakō, and is used to show long, stressed vowels, or glides.
The number of native speakers of Hawaiian in 1983 was estimated at only about 1,500 people, mostly elder citizens who spoke Hawaiian to each other. In the last decade the number of native speakers has grown substantially as a result of immersion schools, college programs, and mentoring by kūpuna (elders, grandparents), kumu (teachers) and kāhuna (spiritual leaders and experts in particular professions), who share their traditional cultural knowledge with the next generation.
A new generation is now learning the Hawaiian language, keeping the culture alive and perpetuating ancient knowledge and traditions. Today the number of native Hawaiian speakers is estimated to be more than 7,000 people, and most are younger than thirty years old. Music written and sung in the Hawaiian language has also made a popular resurgence.
Ke ho‘i a‘e la ka ‘ōpua i Awalau.
The rain clouds are returning to Awalau.
Said of a return to the source.[44]
Pronunciation:
A general guide for pronouncing the vowels in Hawaiian words is to pronounce:
a as in about, or above
e as in wet, or let
i as in sweet, or the y in pity
o as in rope, or hole
u as in root, or moon
The vowels above are listed as they are pronounced when unstressed. When stressed, they sound much the same, but the “e” is pronounced more like the “ay” in play rather than like the e in wet. There are exceptions to the above rules, especially when vowels are combined with other vowels to form diphthongs. Also, if a w is after an i or an e, it is usually pronounced like a lax v, but after u and o it is usually pronounced like the English w.
The constitution of the State of Hawai‘i recognizes Hawaiian as an official state language, along with English. Most place names in the Islands are Hawaiian words, including names of streets, towns, and buildings as well as mountains, valleys, beaches, and bays.
Ancient Hawaiians named many things around them, including lo‘i kalo (taro patches), heiau (sacred places of worship), fishing sites, and even particular rocks and trees, which sometimes represented ancestors or gods. Today many stores and homes are given Hawaiian names.
[Photograph: Hawaiian elders]
Common Hawaiian Words
These are the Hawaiian words most often heard and most useful to know for people living in or visiting the Hawaiian Islands.
‘a‘ā rough lava
‘ahi yellowfin tuna (very ono)
ahupua‘a natural watershed land division extending from the mountains to the sea
‘āina land, earth
akamai smart, clever, knowledgeable
‘alalā Hawaiian crow
ali‘i chief, chiefess, royalty of ancient Hawai‘i
aloha hello, good bye, love, affection
aloha kakahiaka good morning
ānuenue rainbow
‘aumakua family or personal god, guardian, ancestral spirit (plural: ‘aumākua)
auwē (or aue) expresses wonder, fear pity, scorn, or a groan (e.g., oh dear!)
E komo mai! come in, welcome!
hālau place for hula instruction, or canoes; group
hale house
Hana bay, valley
hana hou encore, repeat, do again
hānai adopted foster child
haole formerly any foreigner; now refers primarily to those of Caucasian ancestry
hapa haole of mixed blood, part Caucasian, part Hawaiian
Hau‘oli Lā Hānau Happy Birthday
Hau‘oli Makahiki Hou Happy New Year
he‘e nalu surfing, to ride a surfboard
heiau sacred temple, ancient Hawaiian place of worship
hōkū star
Hono- valley or bay (e.g., Honolulu)
honu sea turtle
honua land, earth
ho‘olaule‘a celebration
hui group, organization
hukilau a group pulling a fishing net (huki) ashore (lau)
hula a Hawaiian dance, cultural practice, art form
imu an underground earthen-oven using hot rocks; traditional for lū‘au
ka the
kāhili feather standard used by royalty
kahuna spiritual guide, priest, expert in a profession (plural: kāhuna)
kai sea
kakahiaka morning
kalo taro
kālua cooked underground, baked (e.g., kālua pig at a lū‘au)
kama‘āina native born, (means “child of the land”), also long-time resident
kanaka maoli native Hawaiian
kāne man or boy, male (Kāne is a Hawaiian god)
kapa (tapa) cloth made from bark
kapu sacred, forbidden
kaukau food
keiki child, offspring (also kama)
kīpuka vegetation surrounded by lava flow
koholā humpback whale
kōkua help, assistance
komo mai come in, welcome
kona leeward side, leeward winds
konohiki rights native land or fishing rights
ko‘oloau windward
kula school; plain, or open country land
kuleana responsibility, right, small land parcel
ku‘u ipo my sweetheart
kumu teacher
kupuna ancestor, grandparent, relative
lānai porch, balcony, veranda
lani sky, heaven
lau hala leaf of hala tree, used to weave many items
le‘a joy, happiness
lei garlands of flowers, seeds, ferns, shells, feathers or other materials
liliko‘i passion fruit
limu seaweed (many types are edible)
lo‘i, lo‘i kalo irrigated taro terrace
lōlō crazy, feeble-minded
lomi salmon mixed with onions and seasoning
lomilomi masseur, masseuse (lomi means “to rub, massage”)
lū‘au Hawaiian feast (also means “young taro leaves”)
mauna mountain, peak
mahalo thank you
mahalo nui loa thank you very much
mahimahi dolphin fish (not dolphins)
mahina moon
makai toward the sea
mālama to care for, support, preserve
malihini newcomer, visitor
mana spiritual or divine power, wisdom
mana‘o thought, idea, opinion
manini stingy
manō shark
mauka toward the mountains, inland
mauna mountain
Mele Kalīkimaka Merry Christmas
mele song or chant, to sing, merry
menehune legendary small race of ancient Hawaiians
moana ocean
mo‘i king
mo‘i wahine queen
moku island, islet
mu‘umu‘u loose-fitting dress (introduced by missionaries)
nai‘a dolphin
nalu wave
nani pretty, beautiful
nēnē native goose, Hawai‘i’s state bird
nō ka ‘oi the best! (e.g. Maui nō ka ‘oi—Maui is indeed the best)
nui big, large
‘ohana family, extended family—named after the ‘ohā (offshoots) of kalo (taro)
‘okole buttocks
‘ono delicious
‘ō‘ō digging stick, digging implement
pāhoehoe smooth, ropy lava
pali steep cliff or precipice
paniolo Hawaiian cowboy
papa he‘e nalu surfboard
pau finished, done (pau hana—end of work day, job finished, etc.)
pilikia trouble
poi taro root pounded into edible paste
pono correctness, morality, goodness
pua flower, blossom, garden
puhi eel
puka hole, door, opening
pūpū appetizer, hors d‘oeuvre
pu‘u hill, mound
tūtū grandmother, aunt
‘ukulele small, guitar-like instrument
wahine woman
wai water, stream, river
wikiwiki speedy, hurry, quick
The Twelve Companies of American Missionaries
From the 1820s to the 1860s, a steady stream of missionaries arrived in the Hawaiian Islands (then known as the Sandwich Islands), first converting ali‘i (chiefs) and then maka‘āinana (commoners) to Christianity. The First Company of American missionaries arrived on March 31, 1820 on the brig Thaddeus, which left Boston for the Hawaiian Islands on August 31, 1819 under the command of Andrew Blanchard. The missionaries arrived at Kailua-Kona on April 4, 1820, and began their congregational mission work.
On April 27, 1823, under the command of Reuben Clasby, the Thames arrived carrying the Second Company of American missionaries. On March 30, 1828, under the command of Richard D. Blinn, the Parthian arrived with the Third Company of American missionaries. Arriving with the Third Company was Gerrit Parmele Judd (1803-1873), a medical doctor who spent a lifetime of service in the Islands, including serving as a minister and adviser of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). In 1845, Judd became the Hawaiian Kingdom’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs.
On June 7, 1831, under the command of Avery F. Parker, the New England arrived carrying the Fourth Company of American missionaries. More than 1,100 missionary schools were operating by 1831, with a total enrollment of more than 50,000 students, mostly adults.
On May 17, 1832, under the command of Captain Swain, the whale ship Averick arrived carrying the Fifth Company of American missionaries. By the early 1830s, missionaries were running more than 1,000 schools that were educating as many as 50,000 people.
In 1833, under the command of Captain Rice, the Mentor arrived carrying the Sixth Company of American missionaries. On board was Reverend John Diell (1808-1841), who later opened the Seamen’s Bethel in Honolulu (1837), and was first chaplain of the American Seamen’s Friend Society.[45] Diell later organized the O‘ahu Bethel Church.
On December 5, 1834, under the command of Captain Henry, the Hellespont arrived carrying the Seventh Company of American missionaries. The Hilo Boy’s Boarding School was established in 1836 by missionaries David and Sarah Lyman.
On April 9, 1837, under the command of Charles Sumner, the barque Mary Frazier arrived carrying the Eighth Company of American missionaries. From 1838 to 1840, more than 20,000 Hawaiians were converted to Protestantism and became members of the Congregational Church during an evangelical crusade led by Titus Coan (1801-1882). This event later became known as “The Great Revival.”
By the 1840s, at least 17 mission stations existed throughout the Hawaiian Islands. On May 21, 1841, under the command of Captain Easterbrook, the Gloucester arrived carrying the Ninth Company of American missionaries. In 1842, Kawaiha‘o Church was dedicated in Honolulu. On September 21, 1842, under the command of Captain Doane, the brig Sarah Abigail arrived carrying the Tenth Company of American missionaries.
On July 15, 1844, under the command of Captain Doane, the brig Globe arrived carrying the Eleventh Company of American missionaries. On February 26, 1848, under Captain Hollis, the Twelfth (and final) Company of American missionaries arrived on the bark Samoset.
Hiram Bingham (1789-1869)
Hiram Bingham and his wife Sybil came to the Hawaiian Islands with the First Company of American missionaries in 1820. Bingham preached his first sermon in the Islands on April 25, 1820, and performed the first Christian marriage on August 11, 1822 when he married the missionary youth Thomas Hopu to his bride Delia.
Hiram continued preaching and teaching throughout the Islands for the next two decades, and Hiram and Sybil had seven children. Hiram was particularly influential among the ali‘i (the ruling class) of the native Hawaiians.
Bingham also helped develop the Hawaiian alphabet, assisted in the first translation of the Bible, and was the architect and first pastor of Kawaiaha‘o Church.
(Note: To the left of the front door of the Kawaiaha‘o Church, near the original cornerstone, is a centennial memorial plaque honoring Reverend Hiram Bingham.)
Bingham performed the marriage service of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) and Queen Kalama in 1837. Bingham also helped establish PunahouSchool for missionary children and chiefs’ children (originally called Kapunahou).
The Binghams moved back to New England in 1840 due to Sybil’s poor health, and she passed away that same year. Hiram Bingham later wrote A Residence of Twenty-One Years in the Sandwich Islands (New York: Sherman Converse; 1847). In 1852, Hiram Bingham married Naomi E. Morse.
Scholars of Hawaiian History
Many early historical writings in the Hawaiian Islands were the product of personal interviews with native Hawaiian elders and were written in the Hawaiian language.
A written Hawaiian language did not exist when Captain Cook and his crew first arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778. Soon after Western contact a written language was configured and then gradually refined (See The Hawaiian Language), and numerous historical accounts began to be written in the Hawaiian language.
Particularly notable was the voluminous amount of research done by students of Maui’s Lahainaluna Seminary, which was founded in 1831 by American Protestant missionaries as a seminary of advanced education for young Hawaiian men.
In 1836, Reverend Lorrin Andrews (1795-1868), head of the Lahainaluna Seminary, published the first significant Hawaiian-English dictionary, which included about 5,700 words and was entitled Vocabulary of Words in the Hawaiian Language. In 1845, the Lahainaluna Seminary Press published the first English-Hawaiian Dictionary, He Hoakakaolelo no na Hualelo Beritania (A Dictionary of English Words), edited by Artemas Bishop (1795-1872) and J. S. Emerson (1800-1867). In 1865, Andrews published a Hawaiian-English Dictionary containing about 15,000 words.
Lahainaluna’s history teacher, Reverend Sheldon Dibble (1809-1845), had his students collect oral histories from their own elders and other native Hawaiians. This resulted in the gathering of a great deal of information about the pre-contact past of the Hawaiian Islands.
In 1838, Dibble published Ka Moolele Hawaii (Mo‘o ‘ōlelo means “story” or “history.”[46]), a history of the Hawaiian Islands written in the Hawaiian language. The book was translated into English a few years later and then published in the Hawaiian Spectator newspaper.
In 1839, Dibble published A History and General Views of the Sandwich Islands Mission (New York: Taylor & Dodd), and then in 1843, History of the Sandwich Islands (Lahaina, Maui: Press of the Mission Seminary).
Dibble’s historical reports were developed with the assistance of two particularly prolific Lahainaluna students, David Malo (c.1793-1853) and Samuel Mānaiakalani Kamakau (1815-1876). Malo and Kamakau collected and documented many legends, genealogies, and chants as well as specific details of historical events of pre-contact times.
The extensive writings of Malo and Kamakau were originally published in Hawaiian language newspapers in the 1860s and 1870s. Malo’s writings were dated around 1840, but were not published in English until Nathaniel Emerson’s translation entitled Hawaiian Antiquities (Ka Moolele Hawaii), published by the Hawaiian Gazette Company in 1903.
Kamakau wrote historical articles for Hawaiian language newspapers Ke Au ‘Oko‘a and Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a, producing more than 200 articles between 1866 and 1871. Samuel Mānaiakalani Kamakau was also a founding member of the Royal Hawaiian Historical Society in 1841, and served in the Legislature from 1851 until his death in 1876.
Kamakau’s Ruling Chiefs of Hawai‘i (Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 1961) was translated byMary Kawena Pūku‘i (1895-1986) and published by Kamehameha Schools Press in 1961. A second volume of Kamakau’s writings, entitled Ka Po‘e Kahiko: The People of Old (Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1964) was translated by Pūku‘i and published by Bishop Museum Press in 1964, 88 years after Kamakau passed away. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1815.)
Mary Kawena Pūku‘i also translated articles written by John Papa ‘I‘i (c.1800-1870) for the newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘afrom 1866 to 1870. ‘I‘i had been the personal attendant of Liholiho (the future King Kamehameha II) and also served as a childhood guardian of Princess Victoria Kamāmalu.
‘I‘i was a language advisor to missionary Hiram Bingham (1789-1869) and was appointed to the House of Nobles and Privy Council under King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). ‘I‘i also helped draft the Hawai‘i Constitution of 1852, and was a justice on Hawai‘i’s Supreme Court from 1852 to 1864. Pūku‘i’s translation of ‘I‘i’s writings, were entitled Fragments of Hawaiian History, was edited by Dorothy Barrère and published by Bishop Museum Press in 1959.
Zephyrin Kepelino (c.1830-1876), a descendant of the famous Tahitian priest Pā‘ao, wrote at least six Hawaiian-language books in the mid-1800s. The most notable of these texts was entitled Kepelino’s Traditions of Hawaii, published by Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in 1932. The text of Kepelino’s Traditions of Hawaii was translated by Martha W. Beckwith (1871-1959).
(Note: According to tradition, sometime before the year A.D. 1200, the Tahitian high priest (kahuna) by the name of Pā‘ao founded a high priest line, known as kahuna nui. Pā‘ao returned to Tahiti and brought back a chief named Pili, who ruled Hawai‘i Island and began a 700-year dynasty, siring the royal line leading to King Kamehameha I.)
Another man who had a significant influence on the transcribing of early Hawaiian history was Judge Abraham Fornander (1812-1887). Born in Sweden, Fornander became a Circuit Judge in 1864 and was a member of the King’s Privy Council under King Kamehameha IV. Fornander later conducted extensive interviews with Kepelino and Kamakau, and with the help of native assistants he arranged interviews with many native Hawaiians.
Collectively, this information became the basis of Fornander’s An Account of the Polynesian Race. After his death, Fornander’s Collection of Hawaiian Antiquities and Folklore was published by Thomas G. Thrum. Volume II of An Account of the Polynesian Race was republished as Ancient History of the Hawaiian People to the Times of Kamehameha I (Mutual Press: 1996).
Early Publications
The first published chart of the Hawaiian Islands was included in the 1784 official account of Captain James Cook’s third voyage. In 1788, A Voyage Round the Worldby George Dixon included drawings and written descriptions of the Hawaiian Islands. Memoires du Capitaine Peron sur ses Voyages was published in 1824 by Pierre Francois Peron, including descriptions of King Kamehameha I and the Hawaiian Islands in the late 1700s.
Lord George Anson Byron, who brought the bodies of King Kamehameha II (Kalaninui ‘Iolani Liholiho) and Queen Kamāmalu back from London on the frigate Blonde in 1825, later published Voyage of H.M.S. “Blonde” to the Sandwich Islands, 1824-25. William Ellis visited the Islands in 1822 and again in 1823, and then published Hawaiian Tour in 1826 and Polynesian Researches, during a Residence of Nearly Six Years in the South Sea Islands in 1830. Ellis had lived in Huahine, Tahiti and studied the language, and was able to communicate well with native Hawaiians in their own language, taking many notes and providing one of the most complete records of early Hawaiian life, including extensive descriptions of Hawaiian history and culture.
The Hawaiian translation of the New Testament was published in 1832, and presented by missionary Hiram Bingham to the kuhina nui and former queen, Ka‘ahumanu, shortly before her death. Also published in 1832 was the Hawaiian translation of the standard New England elementary arithmetic text He Helu Kamalii, and a geography text He Hoikehonua.
OnFebruary 14, 1834, Lahainaluna Seminary began publication of a four-page Hawaiian language weekly, Ka Lama Hawaii (The Hawaiian Luminary), which was the first periodical printed in the North Pacific region (west of the Rockies). Edited by Reverend Lorrin Andrews, the periodical included woodcut illustrations and listed Lahaina ship arrivals. The Honolulu newspaper Kumu Hawaii began publication in 1834, along with the Hawaiian language newspaper Kekumu.
In 1834, Lahainaluna Press published Ke Anahonua, including sections on mathematics, navigation, and land surveying. Also in 1834, the Mission Press published the first Hawaiian Almanac. On July 30, 1836, Nelson Hall and S. D. MacIntosh began publication of the four-page weekly Sandwich Island Gazette and Journal of Commerce, the first English-language newspaper in the Hawaiian Islands, which continued publication until July of 1839. (Note: The Sandwich Island Gazette was also the first weekly English-language newspaper published west of the Rockies.)
The Honolulu Spectator began publication in 1837, and included regular weather record reports written by Dr. Thomas Charles Byde Rooke. In January of 1838, missionaries began printing the Hawaiian Spectator, the North Pacific region’s first literary journal, a quarterly review.
The first complete translation of the Bible into the Hawaiian language was completed on May 10, 1839. Entitled Ka Palapala Hemolele, the Bible was published in three volumes, totaling 2,331 pages. In 1843, Reverend S. C. Damon founded The Friend, a monthly journal that continued to be published for more than 100 years.
The Pacific Commercial Advertiser was founded in 1856, initially as a weekly newspaper, becoming a daily newspaper in 1882, and now known as the Honolulu Advertiser. Ka Hoku o ka Pakipika (The Star of the Pacific) became the first independently owned newspaper in 1861 and was produced by native Hawaiians.
The influential Hawaiian language newspaper Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a began publication in 1861 and continued until 1927, making it the longest running Hawaiian language paper. Ka Nupepa Kū‘oko‘a was founded by Luther Halsey Gulick.
On September 4, 1866, the Hawaiian Herald became the first daily newspaper in the Hawaiian Islands. The publication was short-lived, however, ending on December 21, 1866. Sanford Dole wrote Synopsis of the Birds of the Hawaiian Islands in 1869. On January 25, 1873, Scottish author Isabella Bird Bishop (1832-1904) began her travels around the Hawaiian Islands, later publishing an illustrated book, The Hawaiian Archipelago: Six Months Among the Palm Groves, Coral Reefs, and Volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands. The first Hawaiian Almanac and Annual was published by Thomas Thrum in 1875.
Paradise of the Pacific magazine began publication in 1888, and is now known as Honolulu Magazine. The afternoon newspaper Hawaiian Star began publication in 1893. In 1900, the New China Daily Press became the first Chinese newspaper in the Hawaiian Islands. The Methodist Church of Honolulu began publishing Hanin Sisa (Korean News) in 1905. In 1912, the Japanese language newspaper Hawaii Hochi was begun by Frederick Makino.
The Honolulu Star-Bulletin was formed in 1913 when the Evening Bulletin merged with the Hawaiian Star. The weekly Hawaiian language paper Ke Alakai o Hawaii (Hawai‘i Guide) began publication in 1928.
Kawaiaha‘o Church
Kawaiaha‘o Church (originally known as Stone Church) was dedicated on July 21, 1842 in Honolulu at the corner of South King and Punchbowl Streets. Construction on Kawaiaha‘o Church began in 1837 following plans drawn by missionary Reverend Hiram Bingham. The cornerstone of Kawaiaha‘o Church was laid on June 8, 1839, and the church was built in the New England style with Gothic influences. Presiding over the dedication was Reverend Richard Armstrong (Bingham had left due to poor health).
More than 1,000 people worked on the construction Kawaiaha‘o Church, using blunt axes to cut coral reef from beneath 10 to 20 feet of water. Approximately 14,000 coral blocks, many weighing more than one ton, were cut from the ocean reef. Canoes were used to carry logs for the church from Ko‘olau Loa in northern O‘ahu to Kāne‘ohe Bay, and then the logs were hauled over the mountain.
O‘ahu’s largest church, Kawaiaha‘o was built on the site of a previous church known as the Christian Meeting House, or Hale Pule (pule means “church”). The church’s clock tower was a gift of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). The clock was built in Boston and presented to the church in 1842 by James Hunnewell (and continues to keep accurate time).
Kawaiha‘o was the site of the coronation of King Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani) in 1854, and he married Queen Emma there in 1856. Originally known as Stone Church, it was renamed Kawaiha‘o Church in 1862. In 1885 a bigger bell tower was added to Kawaiha‘o Church, and then electricity was installed in 1895. Due to extreme termite damage, a complete reconstruction of all but the coral block walls took place in 1925.
Kawaiaha‘o Church still reserves pews for descendants of Hawaiian royalty. These velvet-lined pews were located at the rear of the church and marked with kāhili, the traditional feather standards that are symbols of Hawaiian royalty. Portraits of Hawaiian royalty and important figures associated with Kawaiaha‘o line the walls along the upper balconies. The church’s spectacular pipe organ dominates the rear upper balcony. The 10:30 a.m. Sunday service at Kawaiaha‘o Church is still said in the Hawaiian language as well as English.
Located just inside the main entrance gate to Kawaiaha‘o Church is the Tomb of King Lunalilo, a substantial memorial that is one of the first cement-block structures in the Islands. Many of early missionaries of the Hawaiian Islands are buried in a cemetery behind Kawaiaha‘o Church. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1821, Sep. 15; 1837; 1843, July 31; 1872, June 11; and Mission Houses, Chapter 12.)
[Photographs: Kawaiaha‘o Church; Tomb of King Lunalilo]
French / Catholics
On May 30, 1786, the Boussole and the Astrolabe, two 500-ton armed naval frigates under the command of French navigator Count de la Pérouse, arrived at the Maui location now known as La Pérouse Bay (Hawaiian name: Kalepolepo). The Solide became the first French trading ship to come to the Hawaiian Islands in October of 1791 under the command of Etienne Marchand.
Under the command of French Navy captain Louis de Freycinet (1779-1842), the French corvette Uranie arrived on August 8, 1819, and Kamā‘ule‘ule (Boki), the future governor of O‘ahu, was baptized aboard the ship. The ship’s draftsman, Jacques Arago (1790-1855), wrote an account of the visit, including numerous illustrations depicting Hawaiian life at the time. Under Captain Plassard, The Comète arrived on July 7, 1827, carrying three Roman Catholic missionaries from Bordeaux France: Alexis Bachelot, Patrick Short, and Abraham Armand. Reverend Alexis Bachelot led the first Catholic Mass in the Hawaiian Islands on July 14 (Bastille Day), 1827.
On November 30, 1827, the first baptism of the child of a foreigner in the Islands was performed on a child of Spaniard Francisco de Paula Marín (1774-1837), who served King Kamehameha I in various capacities, including as a physician, adviser, accountant, and supplier of rum. The first Catholic chapel in the Hawaiian Islands opened in 1828 in Honolulu on land granted by King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli).
In 1829, Protestant convert and kuhina nui (premier) Ka‘ahumanu ordered that practicing Catholics be punished and sent to the island of Kaho‘olawe, which became a penal colony. In 1831, Ka‘ahumanu expelled from the Island Catholic priests, including Reverends Bachelot and Short, and strongly discouraged believers in the Catholic religion. Reverend Bachelot returned to the Islands in 1837.
On December 18, 1837, with the urging of Protestant missionaries, King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) issued an ordinance rejecting the Catholic religion, leading to a controversy with France. The British Royal Navy ship Sulphur arrived in Honolulu on July 8, 1837. The French naval vessel Venus also arrived, and there was controversy regarding Catholic priests in the Islands, resulting in a treaty assuring equal treatment for French residents.
On June 7, 1839, King Kamehameha III issued a Declaration of Rights that came to be known as the Hawaiian Magna Carta. The document was a predecessor to the first formal constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1840, and also served as the constitution’s preamble. On June 17, the king issued an Edict of Toleration regarding religious differences, reversing his earlier stance banning the practice and teaching of Catholicism.
On July 9, 1839, the French Navy frigate L’Artemise arrived under the command of Cyrille Pierre Theodore Laplace, who was commissioned by the French government to demand rights for French citizens in the Hawaiian Islands, and to “destroy the malevolent impression which you find established to the detriment of the French name...and to make it well understood that it would be to the advantage of the chiefs of those islands of the Ocean to conduct themselves in such a manner as to not incur the wrath of France...if necessary, with all the force that is yours to use, complete reparation for the wrongs which have been committed.”
Despite King Kamehameha III’s earlier Edict of Toleration, Laplace threatened war unless his demands were met, including freedom of worship, a site for a Catholic Church, and $20,000 in reparations (which was paid by local merchants). On July 17, King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) and Laplace signed the Convention of 1839, granting numerous protections to French citizens in the Hawaiian Islands. Officials of other countries became alarmed when Laplace made additional demands, and this led to official recognition of Hawaiian independence by France, Great Britain, and the United States.
In May of 1840, Bishop Rouchouze, the vicar apostolic of the Pacific, arrived along with three other Catholic priests, including the exiled Father Maigret. Under the protection of the French, a permanent Catholic mission was established in 1840. The first Catholic printing press was established in November of 1841. The French sloop-of-war Embuscade arrived in 1842 under the command of Captain S. Mallet, who wanted assurances that Catholic priests would be allowed to worship and French wines could be imported.
By 1843, about 100 Catholic Mission schools operated in the Islands, with about 3,000 students. Our Lady of Peace Cathedral was blessed and dedicated at 1184 Bishop Street in Honolulu on August 15, 1843, to serve Honolulu’s Roman Catholic Diocese. On March 22, 1846, the French naval frigate Virginie arrived under the command of Rear Admiral Hamelin, who repayed the $20,000 demanded by Captain Laplace in 1839.
Father Louis Desire Maigret (1804-1882), who first arrived in 1837, was named Vicar Apostolic to the Sandwich Islands (the Hawaiian Islands) in 1846, and he served until his death in 1882. The French Navy frigate Poursuivante and steam-corvette Gassendi arrived off Honolulu in April of 1848 under the command of Rear Admiral Legoarant de Tromelin, who presented ten demands, including equality of worship, and then engaged in reprisals that included taking over government buildings, damaging the fort in Honolulu (see 1815), and seizing the yacht of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli), Tromelin departed ten days later, taking with him Guillaume Patrice Dillon, the French consul whose complaints initiated Tromelin’s actions.
Also in 1848, a full-length portrait of Louis Philippe, painted by renowned portraitist Franz-Xavier Winterhalter, arrived as a gift from the ruler of France to King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli). The portrait of Louis Philippe is now on display in the ‘Iolani Palace Blue Room.
King Kamehameha III signed a secret agreement with the United States in 1851, assuring protection in the event of further French interference. In 1864, Father Damien was ordained a Roman Catholic priest at Honolulu’s Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace, and in 1873 he begins his service on Moloka‘i’s Kalaupapa Peninsula. (See Heroes of Kalaupapa.)
Restoration Day
On February 10, 1843, Lord George Paulet of Britain arrived on the frigate Carysfort, and using the threat of military might he demanded a formal “provisional cession” of the Hawaiian Islands to Britain. Paulet’s arrival was prompted by complaints from the British consul in Honolulu of harassment of British subjects in the Islands.
King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) acquiesced to Paulet’s demands to avoid bloodshed, and he allowed the British flag to be raised in Honolulu. This occurred at a time when several major countries were attempting to expand their political, military, and economic influence in the world, and the Hawaiian Kingdom was seeking recognition of its independence.
On May 10, 1843, King Kamehameha III’s Deputy Minister, Dr. Gerrit Parmele Judd (1803-1873), resigned and brought the public papers of the king to the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna‘ala to keep them from being taken by British naval officers. Judd then used the coffin of the late Queen Ka‘ahumanu as a desk as he wrote appeals to London and Washington for help in resisting the illegal activities of Paulet.
On July 31, 1843, the provisional cession of the Hawaiian Islands to Britain was rescinded by Britain’s Admiral Richard Thomas (1777-1851), who was sent by Queen Victoria to restore control of the Hawaiian Islands to King Kamehameha III. The British flag, which had flown over the Islands for five months, was lowered and the Hawaiian flag was raised. Admiral Thomas declared King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) an independent sovereign. July 31 was later proclaimed Restoration Day.
On November 28, 1843, Great Britain and France issued a joint declaration, signed in London, formally recognizing the independence of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, referred to at the time as the Sandwich Islands.
Ua mau ke ea o ka ‘āina o ka pono
The life of the land is perpetuated (preserved) in righteousness
Hawai‘i’s State motto, said by King Kamehameha III in a speech
at a Kawaiaha‘o Church service on Restoration Day.
The Whaling Era
The whaling era in the Hawaiian Islands began on September 29, 1819 when two New England ships, the Equator and the Balena, became the first whaling ships to arrive. The Equator was captained by Elisha Folger and the Balena was captained by Edmund Gardner.
While anchored in Kealakekua Bay, the Balena harpooned a large sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) that yielded more than 100 barrels of oil, beginning Hawai‘i’s whaling era.
In 1820, the Nantucket whaling ship Maro, under the command of Joseph Allen, became the first whaling ship to enter Honolulu Harbor. Allen later discovered rich whaling waters off Japan, and soon hundreds of whaling ships headed for the area to exploit the bountiful sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) resource.
The Hawaiian Islands, being centrally located between the American west coast and Japan, quickly developed into a major staging area for ships going to and from the newly discovered whaling area. The main Hawaiian ports for the whaling ships were in Honolulu and Lahaina, and thousands of Hawaiians were recruited to work on the ships.
In 1822, about 60 whaling ships patrolled Hawaiian waters, and the number continued to grow into a shore-based fishery in the Hawaiian Islands that developed specifically to hunt whales. The Globe, a Nantucket whaling ship under the command of Thomas Worth, arrived in Honolulu on May 1, 1823, and was later involved in whaling history’s worst mutiny, led by Samuel Comstock. More than 100 whaling vessels arrived in 1824.
In October of 1825, the Lahaina home of Reverend William Richards was attacked by the crew of the British whaling ship Daniel who were angry at restrictions enacted due to missionary influences.
In October of 1827, the sailors of the British whale ship John Palmer, under the command of Captain Elisha Clarke, fired a cannon at a missionary house in Lahaina, Maui due to a conflict between the sailors and the missionaries. In 1828, a total of 159 whaling ships arrived in Hawaiian ports, including 112 in Honolulu and 47 in Lahaina.
The whaling industry continued to grow, with a total of 198 whaling ships stopping in Hawaiian ports in 1832, including 118 in Honolulu and 80 in Lahaina, and Honolulu merchant Henry A. Peirce outfitted the Denmark Hill, the first whaling ship to sail under the Hawaiian flag.
In 1834, the whaling ship Helvetius wrecked on the reef off Diamond Head with 1,400 barrels of whale oil on board. Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) sent men to assist, and about 500 barrels of oil were salvaged.
In the 1840s, several companies in the Islands attempted to hunt local whales. At this time, oil from the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) sold for $1 per gallon, and oil rendered from whale blubber, such as from the humpback whale, sold for 30 cents per gallon.
The peak year for whaling ship arrivals at Hawaiian ports was 1846, when at least 596 whaling ships arrived, including at least 429 at Lahaina and 167 at Honolulu. Oil from sperm whales fueled the Industrial Revolution.
On November 8, 1852, the death of imprisoned whaler Henry Burns led to a riot by thousands of sailors who set fire to the Honolulu police station. In 1859, 549 whaling ships stopped at Hawaiian ports, and that same year oil was discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania and became the new source of lubricants for industry, marking the end of the heyday of the whaling industry. By this time whales were rapidly disappearing due to over-harvesting.Whaling ship arrivals in 1859 included 249 ships arriving in Honolulu, 116 ships arriving in Lahaina, and 184 ships arriving in other ports.
About 600,000 pounds (272,000 kg) of whalebone (baleen) and 775,000 pounds (351,500 kg) of whale oil were transshipped from the Islands in 1868. Before plastic was invented, the baleen was in demand for use in women’s corsets, hoop skirts, umbrellas, and a variety of other products that required strong, flexible material (see Humpback Whales).
An early Arctic freeze north of the Bering Strait in 1871 destroyed the North Pacific whaling fleet, including seven Hawai‘i-owned ships.
Humpback whales were near extinction in 1966 when the International Whaling Commission prohibited all hunting of humpback whales in the North Pacific Ocean. (See Humpback Whales.)
Washington Place
Washington Place was built in Honolulu on South Beretania Street in 1847 by sea captain and merchant John Dominis, the father of Queen Lili‘uokalani’s husband, John Owen Dominis. The senior Dominis disappeared at sea around 1850, and when John Owen Dominis passed away in 1891 the queen inherited Washington Place and lived there until she died in 1917.
In 1921, due to the political efforts of Prince Kūhiō, the Territory of Hawai’i purchased the stately Washington Place and began using it as a governor’s mansion. Renovations took place in 1922, 1925, and 1953. In 1973 Washington Place was placed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Washington Place is now a museum with historical exhibits primarily dedicated to telling the story of Queen Lili‘uokalani and displaying the queen’s personal effects, important personal papers, and historical documents. Washington Place also continues to be used as a public reception area.
Heroes of Kalaupapa—Father Damien and Mother Marianne
In 1865, the first victims of Hansen’s disease (leprosy) in the Hawaiian Islands arrived at Kalawao on Moloka‘i’s Kalaupapa Peninsula, beginning the practice of segregating patients at the remote site. Hansen’s disease is caused by the slow-growing bacterium Mycobacterium leprae. Over the following decades, nearly 9,000 Hansen’s disease patients were quarantined at Kalaupapa.
Kalaupapa Peninsula is located along Moloka‘i’s north-central coast, and is surrounded on three sides by ocean and on the other side by cliffs rising up 2,000 to 3,000 feet. The area is accessible only by boat, airplane, foot, or mule. The trail into Kalaupapa descends about 1,600 feet (500 m) and includes 26 switchback turns.
The peninsula’s many archaeological sites attest to the fact that Kalaupapa was an important place in ancient Hawai‘i, and well populated before Captain Cook established Western contact with the Hawaiian Islands in 1778.
In 1873, the Belgian priest known as Father Damien (Joseph Damien DeVeuster) volunteered to minister to the needy at the Kalaupapa leper colony. In 1874, Father Damien built Our Lady of Sorrows Catholic Church at Kalua‘aha, Moloka‘i on the site of Moloka‘i’s first Christian mission.
Serving tirelessly to help the residents of Kalaupapa, Father Damien died there of leprosy 16 years later, in 1889. In 1936, the body of Father Damien was exhumed on Moloka‘i and sent to Belgium. Bones from Father Damien’s hand were reinterred on Moloka‘i.
Today Father Damien’s spirit lives on as one of Hawai‘i’s beloved heroes. Referred to as the “Martyr of Moloka‘i,” Father Damien is immortalized in a statue that faces Beretania St. on O‘ahu, in front of the State Capitol Building, and another statue in Washington D.C.’s National Statuary Hall. Pope John Paul II beatified Father Damien on June 4, 1995 in Brussels, Belgium, bringing the priest one step closer to sainthood.
Roman Catholic nun Mother Marianne Cope was another selfless and dedicated servant who ministered to the leprosy patients of Kalaupapa. Born in Germany as Barbara Koob, she took the name Marianne upon joining the Sisters of the Third Order of St. Francis in New York in 1862.
Mother Marianne later volunteered to minister to leprosy patients in Honolulu, and then moved to Kalaupapa in 1888 to supervise a new girls’ home for Hansen’s disease patients. Later she also ran a home for boys.
At Kalaupapa, Mother Marianne first worked alongside Father Damien, and then continued working at Kalaupapa for decades after Damien’s passing. She ministered to the needy for a total of 30 years until she passed away in 1918 at the age of 80.
Mother Marianne was known for her uplifting attitude. She helped the patients in many small but meaningful ways such as planting flowers and trees, organizing picnics, sewing clothes for the residents, and playing piano so they could sing along. Mother Marianne also founded Maui’s first hospital, now known as Maui Memorial Hospital.
King Kalākaua honored Mother Marianne with royal decorations, and famed author Robert Louis Stevenson wrote of her. In January of 2004, the Vatican’s Congregation for the Causes of Saints affirmed Mother Marianne’s “heroic virtue,” which was a step toward canonization and sainthood.
Mother Marianne’s bones were exhumed in January of 2005 so they could be enshrined in the headquarters of the Sisters of St. Francis in Syracuse, New York. Also in 2005, Mother Marianne was beatified, the last formal step before sainthood.
[Photographs: Father Damien; Mother Marianne]
[Sidebar]
Mark Twain in the Sandwich Islands
Samuel Langhorne Clemens (1835-1910), a Missouri-born, California newspaper correspondent and former riverboat pilot going by the pseudonym Mark Twain, arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on March 18, 1866 aboard the steamer Ajax.
Sporting a Wild West moustache and auburn hair, Twain was on assignment to write a series of travel letters about the whaling and sugarcane industries in the Islands. He writes about everything from government corruption to social life to volcanoes, and calls the Hawaiian Islands the “Isles of the Blest.”
After returning to California Mark Twain began a novel about the Hawaiian Islands, which he later abandoned, though it is said the book became a model for A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court.
Twain visited Maui’s ‘Īao Needle, (Kūkaemoku), the summit of Haleakalā, the site of Captain Cook’s death at Kealakekua Bay, and Kīlauea Volcano where he stayed at the Volcano House.
Of the volcano Twain noted, “Vesuvius is a soupkettle compared to this.” Twain later wrote of the Islands: “No alien land in all the world has any deep strong charm for me but that one; no other land could so longingly and so beseechingly haunt me, sleeping and waking, through half a lifetime, as that one has done.”
Twain’s writings about the Hawaiian Islands are included in the travelogue Roughing It as well as the newspaper articles he wrote in 1866 and some speeches, lectures, and personal letters.
King Kamehameha Day—Henry Berger and the Royal Hawaiian Band
A royal proclamation in 1872 by King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha) declared June 11 a Hawaiian national holiday in honor of King Kamehameha I. Originally known as Commemoration Day, the holiday later became known as King Kamehameha Day.
On June 11, 1872, the Royal Hawaiian Band gave its first concert under the lead of Heinrich “Henry” Berger (1844-1929), who was brought from Germany to lead the band. Henry Berger attended the Berlin Conservatory of Music before he was picked by German leader Wilhelm I, for King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha), to become the Hawaiian Kingdom’s bandmaster.
Berger held the bandmaster post for 43 years, giving more than 9,000 concerts including several United States Mainland tours with the band, increasing the popularity of Hawaiian music. Berger also authored the music of Hawai‘i’s State song, Hawai‘i Pono‘ī; the words were written by King Kalākaua. Berger was an organist at Kawaiaha‘o Church, and assisted Queen Lili‘uokalani in the writing of the well-known song, Aloha ‘Oe.
Ali‘iōlani Hale
In 1874, construction was completed on Ali‘iōlani Hale at 417 South King Street in Honolulu. The two-story building was initially planned as a palace for King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha). King Kamehameha V laid the cornerstone for Ali‘iōlani Hale on February 19, 1872.
Ali‘iōlani was one of the names of King Kamehameha V, and is thought to be a contraction of Ali‘i-iō-lani, which means “Chief unto heavens” referring to the heavenly nature of Hawaiian royalty. Another interpretation of the name Ali‘iōlani Hale, is “House of Heavenly Kings.”
Ali‘iōlani Hale became the new seat of the Hawaiian government after the Honolulu Courthouse was extensively damaged in a riot by supporters of Queen Emma, who had asserted a claim to the throne but lost the election to King Kalākaua.
Built with concrete blocks, Ali‘iōlani Hale was the first major Western-style building constructed by the Hawaiian monarchy. The concrete block construction used to build Ali‘iōlani Hale was pioneered in the Hawaiian Islands.
Designed by architects Thomas Rowe and Robert Stirling in the Renaissance Revival style, Ali‘iōlani Hale is notable for its distinctive four-story clock tower.
Ali‘iōlani Hale housed the Supreme Court, Legislature, and House of Nobles, and the old Honolulu Courthouse became the main office for American Factors Ltd. (Amfac), a “Big Five” company.
On November 8, 1875, the National Museum opened in Ali‘iōlani Hale, and the museum’s first supervisor was Charles Reed Bishop. The museum’s collection included many royal artifacts that were later transferred to the collection of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum.
In January of 1893 after the overthrow of the monarchy, Ali‘iōlani Hale was the site of the announcement by Sanford Ballard Dole that a Provisional Government had been formed.
The Provisional Government renamed Ali‘iōlani Hale the “Court House,” though it came to be known as the “Judiciary Building” and has been used for that purpose ever since that time. The House of Representatives and the House of Nobles met there until 1896 when they moved to ‘Iolani Palace, which they renamed “The Executive Building.”
In 1911, Ali‘iōlani Hale was in disrepair due to termite damage, and was set on fire so only the exterior walls remained. Architects Ripley and Reynolds designed a new floor plan, including a rotunda and double staircase.
A new wing on Ali‘iōlani Hale was completed in 1944, and a second story was added to the new wing in 1949. Refurbishments/renovations took place in 1965, 1972, and 1978. Ali‘iōlani Hale is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Today Ali‘iōlani Hale includes the King Kamehameha V—Judiciary History Center of Hawai‘i, (founded in 1989), which provides educational exhibits about Hawai‘i’s judicial processes. In front of Ali‘iōlani Hale is a statue of King Kamehameha I.
Ali‘iōlani Hale Judiciary History Center: phone-808-539-4999; website: Jhchawaii.org; open free to general public for self-guided tours, Mon.-Fri., 9 a.m. to 4 p.m.
[Photograph: Ali‘iōlani Hale]
‘Iolani Palace
The cornerstone for ‘IolaniPalace was laid on December 31, 1879 in midtown Honolulu at King and Richards Streets. A project of King Kalākaua, ‘Iolani means “Hawk of heaven,” or “Royal hawk,” referring to the flight of the ‘io (Hawaiian hawk), considered a sign of royalty.
‘Iolani Palace was built near the site of the earlier royal palace, called Hale Ali‘i, which was built by Mataio Kekūanaō‘a for his daughter, Princess Victoria Kamāmalu, and given to King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) in 1845 when the king moved his court to Honolulu from Lahaina.
Hale Ali‘i was named ‘Iolani in 1863 at the request of King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha), who chose the name “‘Iolani” to honor his deceased brother Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani (King Kamehameha IV). ‘Iolani is also the name of a sacred hawk of Hawaiian mythology.
Some of the stones used in the foundation of ‘Iolani Palace were brought from Kūki‘i Heiau in Puna on Hawai‘i Island, which was built by ‘Umi, a Hawai‘i Island chief, around A.D. 1500.
A project of King Kalākaua, ‘IolaniPalace was completed in 1882. Measuring 140 long and 100 feet wide, the palace cost nearly $360,000 to build. The building’s architectural style was said by newspapers of the day to be “American Florentine.” The architectural style was also called “American Composite.”
‘IolaniPalace was the royal palace of the Hawaiian monarchy for King Kalākaua and Queen Kapi‘olani from 1882 to 1891. ‘Iolani Palace served as the royal palace for Queen Lili‘uokalani until the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893.
At least four years before the United States’ White House installed electricity, the original gas lamps in ‘Iolani Palace were replaced with electric lights. King Kalākaua was very interested in new technology, and once met Thomas Edison.
Electric lights were installed at ‘IolaniPalace on July 21, 1886. Five lamps in all are installed, including one at the Palace, one at the gate to the Palace on Richards Street, two on King Street, and one at the Government Building. Within two years Honolulu’s streetlights, which were formerly gasoline lamps, are also replaced with electric lights.
‘Iolani Palace was also ahead of its time in other ways, including flushing toilets and bidets, hot and cold running water, copper-lined tubs and other amenities. Beautifully crafted native and Polynesian-introduced woods such as koa, kou, kamani, and ‘ōhi‘a lehua were used throughout the interior along with other fine hardwoods.
The main floor of ‘IolaniPalace was used for formal functions, the royal family resided on the second floor, and the basement housed the Palace kitchen as well as all the wines, food, silver, and other materials to supply the lavish social events held at the Palace.
A dumbwaiter transported royal meals up to the first and second floors. The basement had rooms to house more than 40 servants, and a room for the kāhili, the feather standards that were symbols of Hawaiian royalty.
(Note: Many of these kāhili are now on display in the basement of ‘Iolani Palace, along with other precious cultural artifacts. The kitchen is also beautifully restored to authentically represent the era of the monarchy.)
Steeped with history as a royal palace, ‘Iolani Palace also served for seven months as the prison chamber of Queen Lili‘uokalani after the overthrow of the monarchy. The Palace was then used as the capitol building of the Republic of Hawai‘i (1893-1900), the Territory of Hawai‘i (1900-1959), and the State of Hawai‘i (1960-1969), and was known as the ExecutiveBuilding.
Many valuable items were taken from ‘Iolani Palace by those involved in the overthrow of the monarchy, and much of the Palace furniture was sold between 1895 and 1903 in public auctions. The Throne Room was used for meetings of the House of Representatives, and the State Dining Room was used as the Senate Chambers.
The Minister of Finance used the Blue Room, where heavy safes were installed, while the Minister of Foreign Affairs used the Gold Room, and the Attorney General used Queen Kapi‘olani’s Bedroom.
The Secretary of the Territory used the room now known as Queen Lili‘uokalani’s Prison Chamber, which later housed the Lieutenant Governor of the State of Hawai‘i.
In great disrepair, the Palace underwent extensive renovations beginning in 1969, and was opened as a museum in 1978.
‘Iolani Palace is located at King and Richards Streets in Honolulu; phone: 808-522-0832; internet site: www.alike.lcc.hawaii.edu/openstudio/iolani; guided tours offered to the public from 9 to 2:15, Tuesday to Saturday; gallery 9-4.
The non-profit organization Friends of ‘Iolani Palace now runs the Palace as a museum, offering guided tours of the United States’ only royal palace.
The Legend of Pele
Pele, the legendary goddess of fire and volcanoes, is the daughter of Wākea, the Sky Father, and Papa (Haumea), the Earth Mother.
Pele is a creator of mountains and islands, including the Hawaiian Islands. She is also a destroyer and a burner of lands. Pele is able to assume different forms, and said to be akua kino lau “...because of her ability to change into a child, a beautiful maiden, a plain matron, or a very old woman.”[47]
According to legend, Pele protects her sacred fires today in Halema‘uma‘u Crater at the summit of Kīlauea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island. Halema‘uma‘u means “House surrounded by the ‘ama‘u fern,” referring to the ferns that surround the volcanic crater. These ferns are said to be the embodiment of the demi-god Kamapua‘a, who pursued Pele’s love but was rejected. The battle between Pele and her sister continues today on Hawai‘i Island’s southeast coast where the lava meets the sea in fiery explosions.
In ancient Hawai‘i, the fruiting branches of the native ‘ōhelo were thrown into Kīlauea Volcano as an offering to Pele. Another plant considered sacred to the goddess of fire and volcanoes was ‘ōhi‘a lehua.
Pele is said to be found everywhere that fire comes up through the earth to light the sky. Wherever the ground is hot and steam hisses up from cracks in the earth, wherever the incandescent glow of molten rock and the smell of sulfur fill the air, and wherever lava erupts in fiery fountains into the sky, “...‘ae aia la ‘o Pele”—“...there is Pele.”
[Illustration: Pele]
Public Transportation
Public transit in the Hawaiian Islands began in 1868 when horse-drawn carts operated by the Spring Pioneer Omnibus Line went into operation in Honolulu. The first streetcar in Honolulu was a mule-drawn tram operated by Hawaiian Tramways, Ltd. beginning in 1888.
Benjamin Franklin Dillingham formed the Oahu Railway & Land Company in 1888, and the first train ran on September 4, 1889.
With the permission of King Kalākaua, the first 9 miles (14.5 km) of track opened on November 16, 1889 (King Kalākaua’s 53rd birthday) when about 4,000 Hawaiian residents enjoyed free rides. The opening of the railroad has a significant influence on generating land sales and helping the sugar and pineapple industries.
Hawaiian Tramways, Ltd. was taken over by the Honolulu Rapid Transit & Land Company in 1903. By 1889, 12 miles (19 km) of track were laid on four routes: Nu‘uanu, Beretania, King Street, and Waikīkī.
An electric trolley (tram line) was put into operation in Honolulu in 1900, replacing horse-driven and mule-driven tram cars. Operated by Pacific Heights Electric Railway Company, Ltd., the electric streetcars were open-sided, carrying 30 passengers and initially running between Pacific Heights and upper Nu‘uanu Avenue.
Waikīkī’s horse-driven tram cars were replaced by an electric trolley (tram line) in 1902, connecting Waikīkī and downtown Honolulu.
Railroad use in the Hawaiian Islands peaks in the 1900s with seven major railroads running on about 160 miles (257 km) of track. Oahu Railway and Land Company’s “narrow gauge” line with its double-track main line was one of the most advanced rail systems, including Mikado locomotives and automatic block signals.
The rails were mostly used to carry sugar and pineapple as well as construction materials. During World War II the rails carry significant amounts of military personnel as well as civilians.
The Honolulu Rapid Transit & Land Company began offering bus service in Honolulu in 1915 using locally built buses. American Car & Foundry buses were purchased from the United States Mainland in 1928. The last electric trolley ran in Honolulu in 1933 when buses became the predominant mode of public transit.
The 1946 tsunami dealt the final blow to the Oahu Railway & Land rails when large sections of track were destroyed. Labor strikes also led to a decline in freight.
The Coronation Pavilion
On the grounds of ‘Iolani Palace is the Coronation Pavilion, an octagonal, copper-domed structure with eight tapered columns. The Pavilion was built for the coronation ceremony of King Kalākaua and Queen Kapi‘olani, which took place on February 12, 1883.
Two weeks of festivities included a grand lū‘au, parades, gun salutes, fireworks and formal receptions. The ceremony included the unveiling of the statue of King Kamehameha I in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale across the street from ‘Iolani Palace.
The Coronation Pavilion was also used for King Kalākaua’s 50th birthday jubilee, which took place in November of 1886. The Coronation Pavilion, is now used for inaugurations of Governors of the State of Hawai‘i, as well as for concerts by the Royal Hawaiian Band.
The Coronation Pavilion, also known as Keli‘iponi Hale, was originally closer to the ‘Iolani Palace, near the steps on the King Street side and connected by a bridge to the first floor veranda. The Pavilion was later moved to its current location a bit farther from ‘Iolani Palace (near the King-Richards Street corner).
In the early 1900s a concrete basement was added, and concrete columns and balustrades replaced what had been delicate woodwork. During World War II the Pavilion was used as a bomb shelter.
Statue of King Kamehameha I
As part of the 1883 coronation of King Kalākaua at ‘Iolani Palace, a statue of King Kamehameha I was unveiled across the street in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale, the judiciary building opposite ‘Iolani Palace. The Honolulu statue of King Kamehameha I is located at 417 South King Street in front of Ali‘iōlani Hale.
Now an O‘ahu landmark, the King Kamehameha I statue is about 8½ feet (2.6 m) tall and shows the warrior king holding an ihe (spear), and wearing a mahiole (feather-crested helmet), ‘ahu ‘ula (royal feather cloak), malo (loin cloth), and kāma‘a‘ie (braided sandals). The statue is said to represent King Kamehameha I at the age of about 45.
King Kamehameha I remains the most renowned and revered warrior and ruler of the Hawaiian Islands. He was responsible for uniting the Hawaiian Islands under one rule and establishing the Kingdom of Hawai‘i, which lasted until the overthrow of the monarchy in 1893. Every June 11, on King Kamehameha Day, the king’s statue is draped with many different lei, some more than 26 feet (8 m) long.
The statue is a replica of the original nine-ton statue cast by American sculptor Thomas Gould in Italy in 1883, which was based on an early engraving. That statue was lost in transport to the Hawaiian Islands, but then recovered in the Falkland Islands soon after a duplicate statue arrived in Honolulu.
The original King Kamehameha statue is now on Hawai‘i Island where it stands in front of the NorthKohalaCivicCenter in Kapa‘au, near Kamehameha’s birthplace.
‘Oni kalalea ke ku a ka lā‘au loa.
A tall tree stands above the others.
Said of a person of outstanding achievements.[48]
[Photograph: King Kamehameha I with Ali‘iōlani Hale in background]
The Bayonet Constitution
In 1887,a political organization of American merchants called the Hawaiian League instigated the Bayonet Constitution, which was drafted by Kalākaua’s Minister of Interior, Lorrin A. Thurston. The League’s membership included Sanford Ballard Dole. The Hawaiian League considered King Kalākaua to be corrupt. When King Kalākaua’s government sold its opium monopoly to a Chinese interest, the American’s tried to restrict King Kalākaua’s power.
Holding a mass meeting, the League demanded the dismissal of Kalākaua’s Cabinet, including premier Walter Murray Gibson, and also insisted that Kalākaua sign a new constitution. A radical faction of the League wanted to march to ‘Iolani Palace with guns and annex the Hawaiian Islands to the United States, but Dole and the majority only wished to limit King Kalākaua’s monarchical powers.
King Kalākaua soon signed a new constitution, which was later given the nickname “The Bayonet Constitution,” implying the document was signed at gunpoint. Accounts vary on the actual threats that were wielded against the king to force him to attach his signature to the new constitution, but the effects of the new document included drastic changes that severely curtailed Kalākaua’s power, and ended 23 years of rule under the previous constitution of King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha).
One result of the Bayonet Constitution was that a vote of the Legislature became necessary to replace Cabinet members. The constitution also allowed nobles to be elected by those who owned large amounts of land, and this significantly reduced the power of Asians and native Hawaiians.
The constitution allowed the Legislature to override the king’s veto, and extended voting rights to all Europeans and Americans who would take an oath to support the new constitution.
One view of these events attributes the new constitution to mercantile, commercial and industrial interests, including the Chamber of Commerce, sugar planters, and missionary store workers who banded together with the aim of abrogating the monarchy, declaring the Hawaiian Islands a Republic, and annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States.
Politically known as the “down-town party,” they sought to reduce King Kalākaua’s sovereign power. Another view emphasizes the corruption said to be taking place among Kalākaua’s Cabinet at the time, particularly by his premier and minister of foreign affairs, Walter Murray Gibson.
Kamehameha Schools and Bishop Museum
Princess Pauahi and Charles Reed Bishop
Princess Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop (1831-1884) was the great granddaughter of King Kamehameha I, and the monarch’s last direct descendant.
Princess Pauahi was said to have once been engaged to the young Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha before he became King Kamehameha V, but instead she chose to marry Charles Reed Bishop. They wed on June 4, 1850 and lived in their Honolulu home called Haleakalā, located near King and Bishop Streets, and built by Princess Pauahi’s father in 1847.
Just an hour before King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha) passed away on December 11, 1872, he offered to name Princess Pauahi as his successor, but she declined. Princess Pauahi traveled to England in 1876 with her husband, and the couple was presented at Queen Victoria’s Court. They were later received by Pope Pius IX in Rome.
When Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani died in 1883, her will bequeathed to Princess Pauahi her elaborate mansion, Keōua Hale, located on Emma Street in Honolulu, as well as approximately 353,000 acres (143,000 ha) of Kamehameha lands, totaling nearly nine percent of all land in the Islands.
In 1885, Princess Pauahi inherited Haleakalā from her parents, Abner Pākī and Konia [Laura Konia]. Princess Pauahi also inherited approximately 25,000 acres (10,117 ha) of land from her parents and her aunt, ‘Akāhi.
When Princess Pauahi died in 1884, her will left 434,000 acres (175,634 ha) of land in perpetual trust to assist in the establishment of two schools in the Kamehameha name. Under the terms of the endowment of benefactor Princess Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop, Kamehameha School for Boys opened in Honolulu on October 4, 1887, and then Kamehameha School for Girls opened on December 19, 1894.
Today the Bishop Estate, officially renamed Kamehameha Schools, continues to operate Kamehameha Schools, including the 600-acre (243-ha) Kapālama campus in Honolulu as well as smaller campuses on Maui and Hawai‘i Island. The Estate has vast land holdings and investments worth nearly $7 billion, and educates more than 51,000 students annually on three campuses as well as through charter schools, community outreach programs, and in 28 preschools.
Charles Reed Bishop (1822-1915) was born in Glen Falls, New York on January 25, 1822. Orphaned as a child and raised by his grandparents, Charles attended Glen Falls Academy through the eighth grade, working on his grandparents’ farm and at various jobs in New York. At age 24, he sailed around Cape Horn bound for Oregon, and then stayed in the Islands when the ship stopped to take on provisions. Bishop first posted books for the government and then in 1849 became Honolulu’s Collector General of Customs.
Bishop later opened a mercantile business with A.W. Aldrich, forming the firm of Aldrich and Bishop in 1858. They initially worked out of an office on the Honolulu waterfront, and the company later became the Bank of Bishop & Co. Ltd. Much of the bank’s initial business involved loans to companies involved in the whaling and sugar industries.
The Bank of Bishop & Co. later the bank did significant business with the “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke, which dominated the sugarcane industry in the Hawaiian Islands.
Charles Reed Bishop served on the Board of Education under King Kamehameha V (Lot Kapuāiwa Kamehameha), King Lunalilo, and King Kalākaua,and then belonged to the Privy Council of Queen Lili‘uokalani. Bishop was also known for his philanthropy, serving on the boards of various charities and contributing generously to many needy causes.
After Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop passed away in 1884, her husband played a large role in carrying out the wishes stated in his wife’s will, which included the establishment of Kamehameha Schools.
Charles Reed Bishop contributed much of his own money to help construct the first school buildings at the original Kalihi location on O‘ahu, including the Preparatory Department facilities constructed in 1888, as well as Bishop Hall constructed in 1891. Bernice Pauahi Bishop Memorial Chapel was built in 1897.
To honor his wife, Charles Reed Bishop founded the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in Honolulu in 1889, constructing Polynesian Hall and Hawaiian Hall on the same site as Kamehameha School. The school was relocated in the 1960s and Bishop Hall became part of the Bishop Museum, which was established to complement the Hawaiian education being provided for the students at Kamehameha Schools.
The Bishop Museum’s collection materials initially came from three prominent women who passed away in the mid-1880s: Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani, the granddaughter of King Kamehameha I; Princess Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop, the great-granddaughter of King Kamehameha I; and Queen Emma, the wife of King Kamehameha IV.
When Charles Reed Bishop passed away in 1915, his ashes were interred in Nu‘uanu, O‘ahu next to his wife in the Kamehameha Tomb at the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna‘ala. Honolulu’s Bishop Street, named after Charles Reed Bishop, is now the business and finance center of the State of Hawai‘i as well as the entire Pacific region. In 1969, the Bank of Bishop & Co. Ltd. was renamed First Hawaiian Bank, and remains today as the oldest financial institution in the state.
[Photographs: Bernice Pauahi Pākī Bishop; Pākī; Konia [Laura Konia]; Charles Reed Bishop]
The Sugarcane Era
Sugarcane was first processed and refined in the Hawaiian Islands in 1802 when a Chinese man on Lāna‘i set up boilers and a stone sugar mill shipped from China. Spaniard Francisco de Paula Marín, a physician and adviser of King Kamehameha I, manufactured sugar in 1819.
The first successful commercial sugar plantation in the Hawaiian Islands and the first to export the product was Kōloa Sugar Plantation, established in Kōloa, Kaua‘i in 1835 under the direction of William Hooper for the American firm Ladd & Co. Ladd & Co. was a Honolulu mercantile trading house founded by William Hooper, Peter Brinsmade, and William Ladd in 1833.
In 1851, David M. Weston of the East Maui Plantation invented a centrifugal machine that separated sugar from molasses, speeding up the drying process. The first steam-operated sugar mill in the Hawaiian Islands opened in Līhu‘e, Kaua‘i in 1853.
With the help of American businessmen living on the Hawaiian Islands in 1854, King Kamehameha IV (Alexander Liholiho ‘Iolani) encouraged the development of plantation agriculture as the main force of Hawai‘i’s economy.
In 1856, a 10-mile (16-km) long irrigation ditch was dug on Kaua‘i to supply water for the production of sugarcane at Līhu‘e Plantation, run by William Harrison Rice. The use of irrigation to grow sugarcane soon led to a massive expansion of sugarcane production as a commercial crop.
The United States’ Civil War caused the price of sugar to rise in 1861, the same year the vacuum pan was invented, increasing productivity by allowing boiling of sugar at lower temperatures.
In 1864, George N. Wilcox (1893-1933) leased Grove Farm sugar plantation in Līhu‘e, Kaua‘i and began using irrigation methods pioneered by William Harrison Rice to build Grove Farm into a major plantation. A trade agreement in 1867 between the United States and the Hawaiian Islands made it easier to sell Hawaiian sugar in the United States.
King Kalākaua negotiated the Reciprocity Treaty in 1875 and it was passed by the United States Congress on September 17, 1876, allowing Hawaiian products to be sold in the United States without customs or duties. In return, the United States was allowed to use Pearl Harbor as a naval base.
The Reciprocity Treaty resulted in a rapid expansion of the sugar industry in the Hawaiian Islands, which increased ten-fold over the next 15 years, and then continued to double each decade, providing an economic boost for the Islands and opening the door to the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States.
In 1877, the firm of Alexander & Baldwin completed the construction of the 17-mile (27-km) long Hāmākua irrigation ditch from Haleakalā to East Maui. Claus Spreckels helped secure and develop some 18,000 acres of leased Crown lands on Maui in 1878, leading to the establishment of the Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Co.
Spreckels constructed the 30-mile (48-km) long Ha‘ikū Ditch between 1878 and 1880 to carry 50 millions gallons (189 million liters) of water daily to sugarcane fields in Pu‘unēnē and Spreckelsville. Spreckels became known as the “Sugar King of Hawai‘i” and was later accused of corruption involving secret deals with King Kalākaua.
James Ashley bored the first artesian well in the Hawaiian Islands for James Campbell on July 1, 1879 near Campbell’s ranch in Honouliuli, O‘ahu. More wells were soon bored to provide water for the cultivation of sugarcane on thousands of acres of ‘Ewa, O‘ahu.
In 1880, 63 sugar plantations operated in the Islands, and all were controlled by the “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke.
In 1888, Colonel Zephaniah Swift Spalding of Kaua‘i’s Makee Sugar Plantation introduced the first diffusion process plant for manufacturing sugar. Passage of the McKinley Tariff by the United States in 1890 eliminated advantages of sugar producers in the Hawaiian Islands over foreign producers.
Construction of 22 steel cargo vessels was begun by the American-Hawaiian Steamship Company in 1900 for the purpose of transporting sugar. About 68,500 acres were planted with sugar in 1900, up from just 30,000 acres (12,140 ha) in 1880. In the early 1900s, 51 sugar companies operated at least 100 sugar mills.
The Kohala Ditch was completed in 1905 on Hawai‘i Island after 18 months of construction, tapping the rivers of the Kohala mountains to irrigate the region’s sugar plantations. Designed by the well-known hydraulic engineer M. M. O’Shaughnessy, the Kohala Ditch was an engineering feat that included flumes and tunnels spanning 17 miles (27 km), requiring a long and difficult construction process took 17 lives.
A power plant was built by Hawaiian Commercial & Sugar Company in 1916 to replace steam with electricity for milling sugar. Also in 1916, the Waiāhole tunnel was completed to bring water through the Ko‘olau mountains to central O‘ahu.
The mechanical sugarcane planter was developed in the 1920s, and by 1933 the amount of land in the Hawaiian Islands dedicated to sugar production reached a peak, totaling more than 250,000 acres, with the “Big Five” companies controlling about 96% of the sugar crop. A federal sugar act in 1940 eliminated restrictions on United States sales of sugar refined in the Hawaiian Islands.
In 1957, annual worker productivity on Hawaiian sugar plantations was the best in the world, reaching 65 tons per worker, up from 20 tons per worker two decades earlier.
Hawai‘i was admitted as the 50th state in 1959, and increases in jet travel allowed tourism to thrive, gradually lessening sugar’s domination of Hawai‘i’s economy. Total revenues from tourism exceeded those of the sugarcane industry for the first time in 1960.
Sugar production in the Hawaiian Islands peaked in 1966, with 1,234,121 tons of raw sugar produced.
Year Pounds of Sugar Exported
1850 750,238 (and 129,432 gallons molasses)
1870 19 million (and 216,662 gallons molasses)
1880 64 million
1890 260 million
1910 1 billion
1932 2 billion
1965 2.4 billion
1966 2.46 billion
A landmark ruling by Judge William S. Richardson in 1973 in the McBryde Sugar Company v. Robinson court case declared that water supplies must remain within their originating watershed.
Richardson’s term in the court was notable for expanding native Hawaiian rights and providing greater access to beaches and the waters around the Islands. Richardson was criticized by the legal profession and others, but championed by the public and by native Hawaiians.
The Sugar Act expired in 1975 and led to the end of quotas and tariffs imposed to maintain prices of United States sugar. Sugar prices increased from 11 to 65 cents per pound.
In subsequent years, many Hawaiian sugar plantations were shut down, including half of the industry when Alexander & Baldwin closed six plantations in 1982.
By 2005, just two sugar mills remain operating in the Hawaiian Islands, Alexander & Baldwin’s Cane & Sugar on Maui and Gay & Robinson’s Olokele Plantation on Kaua‘i.
The Overthrow of the Hawaiian Monarchy
In January of 1893, a small group of United States sugar planters and pro-annexation businessmen backed by 162 United States marines from the U.S.S. Boston led an insurrection against Queen Lili‘uokalani. They deposed the queen, abrogated the monarchy, and declared a Provisional Government with the goal of annexation of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States. Hawai‘i’s previous 98 years of rule under eight different monarchs was effectively ended.
The exact events of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy remain the subject of intense historical debate. The basic facts are as follows:
Princess Lili‘uokalani became queen on January 29, 1981. Cabinet Ministers waited for Lili‘uokalani at ‘Iolani Palace to have her swear allegiance to the Bayonet Constitution.
On January 14, 1893, Queen Lili‘uokalani informed her Cabinet members that she planned to proclaim a new constitution at the request of a majority of the Hawaiian people. After the prorogation (closing) of the Legislature at Ali‘iōlani Hale, the queen instructed her Cabinet Ministers to go to ‘Iolani Palace to sign the new constitution, which they had helped prepare.
When the Cabinet Ministers refused to sign the new constitution, Queen Lili‘uokalani decided to defer any action, and gave a speech from the lānai of ‘Iolani Palace, telling the many people outside who were gathered there in anticipation of a new constitution being announced to go home peacefully because she would not be able to declare a new constitution.
A group of annexation supporters then held a meeting and formed the “Committee of Public Safety.” They declared the queen’s actions treasonous, and made plans for a Provisional Government with the goal of eventually annexing the Hawaiian Islands to the United States.
In consultation with United States Minister to Hawai‘i John Leavitt Stevens, the Committee of Public Safety was assured on January 15, 1893 that Stevens would land troops from the U.S.S. Boston if any danger was posed to American lives or property.
The Committee of Public Safety called a meeting for the following day for all supporters of annexation. Supporters of Queen Lili‘uokalani also called for a meeting on the same day.
On January 16, 1893 Queen Lili‘uokalani declared in an official proclamation that changes to the constitution would only be made with the consent of the Legislature. The two mass meetings were held, one by supporters of annexation and the other by supporters of Queen Lili‘uokalani.
U.S. Minister Stevens, ordered the troops from the U.S.S. Boston ashore in Honolulu, saying the action was necessary to protect American lives and property. Stevens claimed the Americans were in danger and had no protection.
Troops from the U.S.S. Boston came ashore at 5 p.m. and marched down King Street past Ali‘iōlani Hale to Arion Hall, across from ‘Iolani Palace. Meanwhile, the Committee of Public Safety met to further their plans for a Provisional Government.
On January 17, 1893 Queen Lili‘uokalani requested assistance from U.S. Minister Stevens, but he refused. The Honolulu Rifles, an armed volunteer group, assembled in Ali‘iōlani Hale in opposition to the loyalist guard across the street at ‘Iolani Palace.
At 2:30 p.m., on the rear veranda of Ali‘iōlani Hale, a Provisional Government was proclaimed by members of the Committee of Public Safety, which included Sanford Dole, the Provisional Government’s first president. U.S. Minister Stevens recognized the Provisional Government as Hawai‘i’s lawful government.
That evening, about 100 armed men gathered around Ali‘iōlani Hale in support of the annexationists. They posted guards around Ali‘iōlani Hale, the new headquarters of the Provisional Government, and held drills on King Street in front of ‘Iolani Palace. Martial Law was declared, and troops from the U.S.S. Boston remained nearby. U.S. Minister Stevens raised the United States flag over the Hawaiian Islands on February 1, 1893 and troops from the U.S.S. Boston took over as official guards of Ali‘iōlani Hale, the center of the Provisional Government.
On March 4, 1893, Grover Cleveland succeeded Benjamin Harrison as President of the United States. Cleveland was a Democrat, replacing the pro-annexation administration of Harrison, a Republican. James H. Blount arrived on March 29, 1893 by order of the President to investigate the events leading to the overthrow of the Hawaiian government. Blount gave orders for the American flag to be taken down and the Hawaiian flag raised, and the United States naval forces were sent back to their ships.
In June, 1893, Sanford Ballard Dole, the President of the Provisional Government, ordered that the government’s executive departments be moved to ‘Iolani Palace, with the garrison occupying the adjacent ‘Iolani Barracks. The Palace location was thought to be better defensively in the case of an attack. The Provisional Government also passed a resolution renaming ‘Iolani Palace the “Executive Building,” and renaming Ali‘iōlani Hale the “Court House” (it was often called the “Judiciary Building”).
The Blount Report was given to President Cleveland on October 18, 1893. The report blamed the overthrow of the monarchy on U.S. Minister Stevens, and suggested restoring the Hawaiian government. President Cleveland denounced the overthrow as lawless because it was achieved under “false pretexts.”
On November 4, 1893, orders were given by President Cleveland to restore the power of Queen Lili‘uokalani. President Cleveland also sent word that he regretted the “unauthorized intervention” that took away the queen’s sovereignty.
The Provisional Government refused to restore Queen Lili‘uokalani to the throne, saying that only armed conflict would force them to give up power. President Cleveland did not support annexation, but he was reluctant to order the use of force against the group of Americans and their supporters, who were mostly Americans.
The Provisional Government called a Constitutional Convention in May, 1894 to draft the constitution of the “Republic of Hawai‘i.” In the courtroom of the Supreme Court at Ali‘iōlani Hale, the new constitution was written by nineteen delegates appointed by the Provisional Government along with 18 elected delegates.
On July 5, 1894, the leaders of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy proclaimed the Republic of Hawai‘i, with Sanford Ballard Dole as president.
On January 6, 1895, a small group of royalists, mostly native Hawaiians in support Queen Lili‘uokalani, attempted a counterrevolution to overthrow the Republic and restore the queen.
The uprising apparently took place without any participation by Queen Lili‘uokalani, who denied any involvement. Hundreds of men were arrested, including Robert W. Wilcox, who was condemned to death, but within a few months he was pardoned.
Martial Law was declared on January 7, 1895 and a military commission was appointed to court martial Queen Lili‘uokalani and others. Queen Lili‘uokalani was imprisoned in ‘Iolani Palace on January 16, 1895, and on January 24, 1895 she signed a formal abdication calling for the recognition of the Republic of Hawai‘i as the lawful government. Queen Lili‘uokalani later claimed that this abdication was invalid due to coercion, and that she signed the document only to spare the lives of her supporters.
On February 5, 1895, Queen Lili‘uokalani was arraigned before the military commission for treason, a charge that was later changed to misprision of treason (knowing of treason, the attempted counterrevolution, but not disclosing it).
Queen Lili‘uokalani was found guilty of misprision of treason on February 27, 1895 and sentenced to a fine of $5,000 and imprisonment with hard labor for five years. This sentence was not carried out, though Lili‘uokalani remained imprisoned in ‘Iolani Palace for seven months, until September 6, 1895. She was then confined to Washington Place until February 6, 1896, and then island-restricted until October 6, 1896. Queen Lili‘uokalani’s freedom was restricted for 21 months in all, from Jan. 16, 1895 until October 6 1896.
Martial Law in the Hawaiian Islands was ended on March 19, 1895. In all, 37 people were found guilty of treason and open rebellion, 141 guilty of treason, and 12 guilty of misprision.
Twenty-two people were exiled to the United States. President McKinley succeeded President Cleveland in 1897, and Queen Lili‘uokalani visited Washington D.C. to petition McKinley to restore the rights of the Hawaiian people, but her petition was not acted upon. (See Annexation—The Kū‘ē Petitions.)
The Provisional Government sent a petition to Washington D.C. in 1897, and on June 16, 1897 President McKinley sent an annexation treaty to the Senate. Queen Lili‘uokalani submitted a formal protest, which was ineffective.
The United States Senate later claimed that President McKinley’s act of sending the bill to the U.S. Senate amounted to a recognition of Hawai‘i’s Provisional Government. While acknowledging that the native monarchy was overthrown, they claimed that McKinley’s recognition of the Provisional Government meant the facts would not be reviewed further by the United States.
The Waikīkī Beachboys
In 1897, native Hawaiians in Waikīkī organized Hui Pākākā Nalu, charging tourists for ocean canoe rides. This was the forerunner of the Waikīkī Beachboys, a name given to a group of water sports instructors working on the beaches fronting the Royal Hawaiian and Moana Hotels from the 1920s to the 1950s. The first Waikīkī Beach Patrol was organized in the 1930s.
Many of the Beachboys had colorful names such as Toots, Chick, Steamboat, and Turkey. One of the most famous of the Beachboys was the legendary surfer and Olympic gold medallist Duke Kahanamoku.
Duke and other local surfers founded Hui Nalu (Club of the Waves) in 1911, and many of the club members eventually became Waikīkī Beachboys. Their clients along Waikīkī’s beachfront were mostly wealthy visitors who wanted to surf or ride an outrigger canoe in the waves. Clients also included Hawaiian royalty as well as the general public.
Many visitors to Waikīkī stayed for lengthy periods of time, and the Beachboys developed friendships with them, sharing the aloha spirit and insights into Hawaiian culture. There were also many gifted musicians among the Beachboys. Rumors of the Beachboys’ amorous adventures abounded, as they had many female clients.
After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, the United States entered World War II and Martial Law was imposed in the Islands, ending the carefree lifestyle many had known. The golden era of the Waikīkī Beachboys was over. In 1973, the Waikīkī Beachboys Canoe Club was formed to restore the original image of Waikīkī Beachboys, who embodied not only surfing and canoe paddling skills, but also a generous and open-hearted spirit of aloha.
[Photograph: Ala Wai Canal]
Aloha ‘Oe
Proudly sweeps the rain clouded by the cliffs
As onward it glides through the trees
It seems to be following the liko
The ‘āhihi lehua of the vale
(Chorus)
Farewell to thee, farewell to thee
Thou charming one who dwells among the bowers
One fond embrace before I now depart
Until we meet again.
Annexation—The Kū‘ē Petitions
After the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy in 1893, a small but powerful group of residents of the Hawaiian Islands led the movement for annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States. Annexation was also supported by many in Washington D.C., including President McKinley, a veteran of the U.S. Civil War and an avowed imperialist who was eager to increase the international prominence of the United States.
A large number of native Hawaiians, however, opposed annexation just as they had opposed the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. On September 7, 1897, two native Hawaiian groups held a mass rally at Palace Square in front of ‘Iolani Palace to begin a petition drive against annexation.
Another anti-annexation rally took place on October 8, 1897 to counter a visit to the Islands by pro-annexation senator John Morgan of Alabama.
The two groups formed in support of Queen Lili‘uokalani after the 1893 overthrow were Hui Kalai‘āina, formed in 1887 by native Hawaiians opposed to King Kalākaua’s signing of the Bayonet Constitution, and Hui Aloha ‘Āina (one for men (Hui Aloha ‘Āina o Na Kane) and one for women (Hui Aloha ‘Āina o Na Wahine)). Thousands of native Hawaiians united in their opposition to annexation attended the rally and then set about getting signatures from residents of all the Hawaiian Islands.
The Hui Aloha ‘Āina petition against annexation was titled “Palapala Hoopii Kue Hoohui Aina a Ka Lahui” (“Petition of the Nation Protesting Annexation,”) and contained 21,269 signatures. The population of the native Hawaiians at this time was about 40,000.
The Hui Kalai‘āina petition contained 17,000 signatures, and called for the restoration of the Hawaiian monarchy. (Note: The location of the Hui Kalai‘āina petition remains a mystery.) These signed documents are known as the Kū‘ē Petitions (kū‘ē means “to oppose, or protest”).
Agreeing that the main goal was preventing annexation, group leaders decided to present only the Hui Aloha ‘Āina petition to the U.S. government in order to avoid showing a division of opinion. James Keauiluna Kaulia, the president of Aloha ‘Āina, and David Kalauokalani, the president of Hui Kala‘āina, traveled to Washington D.C. and in December of 1897 consulted with Queen Lili‘uokalani before presenting the petitions to Senators Hoar and Pettigrew.
Traveling to Washington were four Hawaiians: James Kaulia, David Kalauokalani, William Auld, and John Richardson. During the decade after annexation, the deposed Queen Lili‘uokalani made five more trips to the United States to appeal for a settlement of the disputed Crown lands and fair treatment for the Hawaiian people.
The 566 pages of signatures were sent to the Senate Foreign Relations Committee and then discussed on the Senate floor in front of the whole Senate. (Note: The anti-annexation petitions, 556 pages in all, are now in the National Archives of the United States on the Mall in Washington D.C..)
Queen Lili‘uokalani also presented an Official Protest to the Treaty of Annexation on June 17, 1897. The protest states, in part, “I declare such a treaty to be an act of wrong toward the native and part-native people of Hawaii, an invasion of the rights of the ruling chiefs, in violation of international rights both toward my people and toward friendly nations with whom they have made treaties, the perpetuation oft he fraud whereby the constitutional government was overthrown, and, finally, an act of gross injustice to me.”[49]
By the time the native Hawaiian representatives left Washington D.C. in February, 1898, they had succeeded in persuading numerous pro-annexation senators to change their minds, leaving the Senate twelve votes short of passing the treaty (a 2/3 majority was required for ratification) and successfully stalling the political process of annexation. Some Senators pushed for a vote among the residents of the Hawaiian Islands, but pro-annexation Senators opposed this as they knew a vote would doom their cause.
On June 15, 1898, the Spanish-American War moved to the Pacific’s Spanish Philippines, and the Hawaiian Islands became strategically important as a coaling base for the United States fleet.
On July 6, 1898, a simple majority passed a Joint Resolution of Congress approving annexation. Known as the Newlands Resolution (after Congressman Frances Newlands), it was signed by President McKinley on July 7, 1898, and thus the Hawaiian Islands were annexed to the United States.
The official transfer of power from the Republic of Hawai‘i to the United States took place on August 12, 1898. The Hawaiian flag at ‘Iolani Palace was taken down and replaced with the United States flag, which was raised over the Territory of Hawai‘i, with Sanford Ballard Dole as the first governor.
About 1.8 million acres (.73 million ha) of Hawaiian Crown lands and government lands were ceded to the federal government as a result of annexation.
The Newlands Resolution Annexing Hawai‘i to the United States
“Whereas, the Government of the Republic of Hawai‘i having, in due form, signified its consent, in the manner provided by its constitution, to cede absolutely and without reserve to the United States of America all rights of sovereignty of whatsoever kind in and over the Hawaiian Islands and their dependencies, and also to cede and transfer to the United States the absolute fee and ownership of all public, Government, or Crown lands, public buildings or edifices, ports, harbors, military equipment, and all other public property of every kind and description belonging to the Government of the Hawaiian Islands.”
“Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress Assembled, that said cession is accepted, ratified, and confirmed, and that the said Hawaiian Islands and their dependencies be, and they are hereby, annexed as a part of the territory of the United States and are subject to the sovereign dominion thereof, and that all and singular the property and rights hereinbefore mentioned are vested in the United States of America.”
“The existing treaties of the Hawaiian Islands with foreign nations shall forthwith cease and determine, being replaced by such treaties as may exist, or as may be hereafter concluded, between the United States and such foreign nations.”
Approved July 7th, 1898
William McKinley
Princess Ka‘iulani—Heir to a Vanished Throne
Princess Ka‘iulani (1875-1899), the niece of Queen Lili‘uokalani and King Kalākaua, was proclaimed heir apparent to the HawaiianKingdom when Queen Lili‘uokalani ascended to the throne in 1891.
Princess Ka‘iulani was the daughter of Archibald Scott Cleghorn and Miriam Likelike (the sister of King Kalākaua and Queen Lili‘uokalani). Her full name was Victoria Kawēkiu J. Lunalilo Kalaninuiahilapalapa Ka‘iulani Cleghorn.
The young princess attended boarding school in England, and was a talented artist, musician, horseback rider and swimmer. She was also active in many charitable causes.
Robert Louis Stevenson had visited Princess Ka‘iulani in Waikīkī, and when she departed for England he wrote a celebrated poem:
Forth from her land to mine she goes,
The island maid, the island rose,
Light of heart and bright of face
The daughter of a double race.
Her islands here in Southern sun
Shall mourn their Kaiulani gone.
And I, in her dear banyan’s shade,
Look vainly for my little maid.
But our Scots Islands far away
Shall glitter with unwanted day,
And cast for once their tempest by
To smile in Kaiulani’s eye.
Robert Louis Stevenson, 1889
Princess Ka‘iulani had many peacocks (also known by the Hawaiian word pīkake), and she was referred to by some as the “Princess of the Peacocks.” The birds roamed the gardens of fragrant, white Arabian jasmine flowers at Princess Ka‘iulani’s spacious Waikīkī estate known as ‘Āinahau, which was built by her father, Archibald Scott Cleghorn, the governor of O‘ahu, and was the palace of her uncle, King Kalākaua.
The blossom of the white Arabian jasmine flower was a favorite of Princess Ka‘iulani. From its association with the young princess, the Arabian jasmine flower later became known by the Hawaiian term pīkake.
On March 6, 1899, at the age of 23, the last Hawaiian princess passed away at ‘Āinahau, where her favored flowers grew and where her peacocks roamed. The princess had become ill after going horseback riding in a rainstorm, and though her death was attributed to a fever, many believe she died of a broken heart as the last Hawaiian princess and heiress to a vanished throne. On the night she died the peacocks (pīkake) are said to have made extremely loud vocal displays of their grief.
The Organic Act
On April 30, 1900 United States President McKinley signed the Organic Act establishing a Territorial government in the Hawaiian Islands. As a result, Hawaiian citizens of the Republic became American citizens of the Territory of Hawai‘i. On June 14, 1900 the Hawaiian Islands were officially incorporated as a Territory of the United States.
The first governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i was Sanford Ballard Dole (1844-1926), one of the original revolutionaries involved in the 1893 overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy. Dole then served as president of the Provisional Government from 1893 to 1894, President of the Republic of Hawai‘i from 1895 to 1898, and finally as the governor of the Territory of Hawai‘i until 1903.
In November of 1900, Robert W. Wilcox, a member of the Home Rule Party and previously a participant in two attempted revolutions, was elected as the Territory’s first delegate to Congress (as a non-voting member). The Home Rule Party was organized by former royalists against the overthrow of the monarchy.
When the Hawaiian Islands became a Territory, Hawaiian residents became United States citizens, but were not allowed to vote in presidential elections. Hawai‘i was allowed to send one representative to Congress, and this delegate could debate and introduce bills, but could not vote.
Hawaiian voters elected a House of Representatives and a Territorial Senate. The United States Congress could veto any bill passed by the Hawai‘i Legislature.
The Pineapple Industry
Spaniard Francisco de Paula Marín (1774-1837), a physician and adviser of King Kamehameha I, planted the first pineapples in the Islands in 1813. Captain John Kidwell introduced the Cayenne variety of pineapple in 1885 in Mānoa, and it soon became the main variety grown in the Islands. In 1898, Alfred W. Eames cultivated and sold fresh pineapple, and his company later became Del Monte Fresh Produce Inc.
James Drummond Dole (1877-1958) formed the Hawaiian Pineapple Company on December 4, 1901, and he began growing the fruit on 60 acres in Wahiawā, O‘ahu. Dole’s first harvest occurred in 1903, resulting in the canning of 1,893 cases, increasing to 125,000 cases by 1905. In 1906, Dole constructed a pineapple cannery on O‘ahu in the Iwilei district. At the time it was the largest fruit factory in the world.
The processes of shelling and coring pineapples was mechanized in 1911 with the invention of the Ginaca machine, patented by Dole employee Henry Ginaca. In 1914, the Libby, McNeill & Libby pineapple cannery opened in Kalihi, employing about 1,000 workers.
Dole purchased 98% of the island of Lāna‘i in 1922 for $1,100,000, and soon had 19,000 acres of pineapples planted, producing almost one-third of the world’s pineapple crop. Dole became known as the “Pineapple King” and the industry dominated Lāna‘i for the next 65 years, producing as many as 250 million pineapples per year.
In 1930, eight pineapple canneries packed a total of nine million cases. The Hawaiian Islands led the world in pineapple production in 1940, and by 1946, nine pineapple companies operated nine canneries and 13 plantations on 60,000 acres, employing up to 20,000 people, making it the second largest industry in the Hawaiian Islands with products valued at $75 million annually. Pineapple production peaked in 1955, with 76,700 acres planted.
In 1985, businessman David H. Murdock purchased 98% of the island of Lāna‘i and initiated the construction of expensive townhouses as well as two new hotels: the Mānele Bay Hotel on the beach, and the Lodge at Kō‘ele in the mountains.
The last major commercial pineapple harvest on Lāna‘i took place in 1992 and the plantation was closed, though some pineapple “show fields” still adorn the landscape.
Lāna‘i City
Lāna‘i City is located about 1,700 feet above sea level and set beneath the hills of Lāna‘ihale on the island of Lāna‘i. Today Lāna‘i City remains the island’s central population area, and many brightly painted, early 1900s era homes line the streets.
A tourist oriented economy has replaced the industrious company town once awakened each morning by the plantation whistle.
[Photograph: Lāna‘i City]
Native Reef Fish of the Hawaiian Islands
About 1,143 species of fish are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including 149 endemic (unique) fish species, and five native freshwater fish species. Hawai‘i’s native fish also include five freshwater species, known as ‘o‘opu, which spend part of their lives in the ocean.
The five native ‘o‘opu fish species are endemic (unique) to the Hawaiian Islands and include four species in the family Gobiidae (commonly called gobies) and one species in the family Eleotridae (‘o‘opu ‘akupa, Eleotris sandwicensis).
All five Hawaiian ‘o‘opu species are born as larvae in freshwater streams. The tiny larvae are then washed down into the ocean where they develop into fish before returning to the stream where they were born and swimming back up through the current.
‘O‘opu have specially adapted pelvic fins, which are fused to form a sucking disc, allowing the fish to climb up rocks and waterfalls and reach the upper levels of the streams to lay eggs and complete their life cycle.
The list below is not a complete list, but contains some of the most prominent reef fish species in the Hawaiian Islands.
Hawai‘i’s native reef fish include:
Military Bases in the Hawaiian Islands
In 1887, King Kalākaua signed a lease of Pearl Harbor to the United States for eight years as a result of the Reciprocity Treaty. (See The Sugarcane Era.) Camp McKinley, a tent encampment of United States infantry and engineers, was set up at Waikīkī’s Kapi‘olani Park on August 16, 1898. This was the first United States Army camp in the Islands, and home to the First New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment.
Kahauiki Military Reservation was established in Honolulu in 1905, becoming the first permanent United States Army post in the Hawaiian Islands. The post was renamed Shafter Military Reservation in 1907 in honor of Civil War Medal of Honor winner, Major General William R. Shafter (1835-1906).
Fort Ruger Military Reservation was established at Diamond Head (Lē‘ahi) in 1906. The Reservation was named in honor of Major General Thomas H. Ruger, who served from 1871 to 1876 as the superintendent of the United States Military Academy at West Point.
A network of tunnels was carved into the mountain, and cannon emplacements were placed atop the crater rim along with observation posts and bunkers. Fort Ruger was reinforced during World War II, though the guns were never fired.
The fort included Battery Harlow (1910-1943); Battery Birkhimer (1916-1943); Battery Granger Adams (1935-1946); Battery Dodge (1915-1925); Battery Mills (1916-1925); Battery 407 (1944); Battery Hulings (1915-1925); and Battery Ruger (1937-1943).
In 1907, Fort Armstrong was built on Honolulu’s Ka‘akaukukui Reef near Kalehuawehe, a place known for its healing, cleansing baths. Fort Armstrong was named after Brigadier General Samuel C. Armstrong (1839-1893), son of Reverend Richard Armstrong (1805-1860), who arrived in 1832.
Fort Kamehameha Military Reservation was established in 1907 at the entrance to Pearl Harbor at Hickam Air Force Base, becoming the only United States fort to be named after a foreign king. Soon constructed was a series of coastal artillery batteries, a “Ring of Steel” including long-range guns and mortars to fortify O‘ahu’s harbors.
Coastal batteries at Fort Kamehameha included Battery Selfridge, Battery Randolph, Battery Jackson, Battery Hawkins, Battery Hasbrouck, and Battery Closson.
Battery Selfridge (1911) was the first to be constructed at Fort Kamehameha, with two twelve-inch disappearing rifles able to fire 1,046-pound projectiles 17,000 yards.
Battery Selfridge was named after Army aviator First Lieutenant Thomas E. Selfridge. Selfridge died when he flew as an observer in Orville Wright’s plane as it was being demonstrated to the Army. The plane lost a propeller at 150 feet, damaging a wing and causing it to crash, seriously injuring Wright. Selfridge was the first death in a heavier-than-air craft crash.
See For DeRussy below for information about Battery Randolph (1911). Battery Jackson (1914) had two six-inch guns able to fire 106-pound projectiles 14,600 yards. Battery Jackson was named after Civil War veteran Brigadier-General Richard H. Jackson.
Battery Hawkins (1914) had two three-inch rapid fire rifled cannon able to fire 15-pound projectiles 11,100 yards (within range of the entrance to Pearl Harbor). Battery Hawkins was named after Brigadier-General Hamilton Smith Hawkins, who led troops in the famous charge up the hill at the Battle of San Juan Hill (Cuba, 1898).
Battery Hasbrouck (1914) had eight twelve-inch mortars able to fire projectiles 15,200 yards. Battery Hasbrouck was named after West Point graduate and Civil War veteran Brigadier-General Henry C. Hasbrouck.
Battery Closson (1920) had two twelve-inch guns able to fire 975-pound projectiles 17.1 miles (27.5 km). Battery Closson was named after civilian veteran Brigadier-General Henry Whitney Closson (1832-1917).
In 1908, construction of naval facilities began in Pearl Harbor, formerly known by the Hawaiian name “Pu‘uloa.” Schofield Barracks Military Reservation was established in 1909 on 14,000 acres (5,666 ha) in Wahiawā, O‘ahu, eventually becoming the biggest permanent United States Army post. The Barracks were named for President Andrew Johnson’s Secretary of War, Lieutenant General John M. Schofield (1831-1906).
Fort DeRussy was constructed in 1915 to protect Pearl Harbor and Honolulu. Two battery locations within the fort held large cannons, which were later replaced with antiaircraft guns.
The fort was disbanded on June 28, 1950. The guns were removed and the site was designated an Armed Forces Recreation Area. In the 1970s the fort’s Battery Randolph became home to the U.S. Army Museum of Hawai‘i.
Camp McCarthy opened on the grounds of the old state capitol in 1917 as a state national guard camp. In 1917, Pearl Harbor (Ford Island) Military Reservation (Pearl Harbor Naval Base) was designed to protect Pearl Harbor, and the site included Battery Adair (1917-1925) and Battery Boyd (1917-1925). Pearl Harbor naval station was established in 1918. In 1919, an Army-Navy air facility opened at Luke Field on Ford Island.
Barbers Point Military Reservation was established in 1921 at Barbers Point Beach. Battery Barbers Point was operational from 1937-1942. Wheeler Field, now known as Wheeler Air Force Base, was established in Wahiawā, O‘ahu near Schofield Barracks in 1922. The base was named after Sheldon H. Wheeler, an Air Force major who died in a plane crash in 1921.
Kāne‘ohe Bay was dredged in 1939 by the Navy to create an air station, but the unit stationed there was decommissioned in 1949 and moved to Barbers Point Naval Air Station.
The Kāne‘ohe Bay location was reopened in 1952 as Marine Corps Air Station Kāne‘ohe Bay. In 1993, a federal commission voted to close the Barbers Point site, also known by its Hawaiian name Kalaeloa, which was returned to the state in 1999. Note: Some less significant military sites/batteries are not included in this list.
The U.S. Military
It wasn’t long after the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States in 1898 that the U.S. military began utilizing the Islands for military purposes.
In 1903, U.S. warships carrying 3,000 men arrived in Honolulu Harbor to take on supplies. The warships included the cruisers New Orleans, Albany, Cincinnati, and Raleigh; battleships Wisconsin and Oregon; and the flagship Kentucky.
On March 25, 1915, the Navy submarine Skate (F-4), one of four based in the Islands, exploded and sank 306 feet (93 m) to the bottom of Honolulu Harbor about ¾-mile (1.2 km) offshore, killing the 21-man crew.
The incident was the first submarine disaster in American naval history. The wreck of the submarine was too deep for divers to reach, and five months passed before the submarine could be brought to the surface.
On February 4, 1916 in Honolulu Harbor, the crews of seven interned steamships, including the German cruiser Geier, set their vessels on fire to prevent them from being used by the United States military. The U.S. was officially neutral in the conflict until declaring war with Germany on April 6, 1917.
The Pearl Harbor barracks became the home of the U.S. Marine Corps in 1923. In 1927 the War Memorial Natatorium was built on the waterfront at the eastern end of Waikīkī as a memorial to the 179 men and women of the Hawaiian Islands that died as soldiers in World War I. (See War Memorial Natatorium.)
Japanese bombers attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, entering the United States into World War II. (See Pearl Harbor.) On June 4, 1942, American fighter pilots and dive bombers sank four carriers of the Japanese naval fleet near Midway Atoll in the Battle of Midway, securing the strategic Navy base location for the duration of the war.
On June 5, 1942, U.S. Admiral Nimitz (1885-1966), the commander of the Pacific Fleet, announced the victory over the Japanese Fleet at Midway. The Battle of Midway became a turning point of World War II.
On February 1, 1943, the government announced the formation of the all-Nisei (second generation Japanese-American) 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team. About 10,000 Hawai‘i Nisei volunteered within days, though only 1,256 United States Mainland Nisei volunteered.
The volunteers wanted to demonstrate their loyalty to the U.S. despite the harsh racism they experienced in the wake of the Pearl Harbor attack. (See The 442nd/100th.)
On September 2, 1943, the all-Nisei 100th Infantry Battalion from Hawai‘i landed in Oran, North Africa, and then in June of 1944 they were joined by the 442nd Infantry Regiment. On February 13, 1944, the United States Navy submarine rescue vehicle U.S.S. Macaw, on a mission to retrieve the submarine U.S.S. Flier, ran aground at Midway Atoll due to bad weather. A crew manned the ship’s pumps until a March storm finished off the vessel.
Between 1944 and 1946, five thousand Italian prisoners of war captured in 1943 by the British in North Africa were held at four locations on O‘ahu: Schofield, Kalihi Valley, Kāne‘ohe, and Sand Island. In all, approximately 50,000 Italian P.O.W.’s captured in North Africa were shipped to the United States.
In June of 1945, about 250,000 U.S. Army troops and 250,000 Navy and Marine Corps members were stationed in the Hawaiian Islands. Millions of servicemen passed through the Islands on their way to combat areas in the Pacific.
Victory in Japan Day (“V-J Day”) was declared on August 15, 1945 after the United States dropped nuclear bombs on Japan in Hiroshima (August 6) and Nagasaki (August 9), leading to the imminent defeat of Japan. The forces of Japan officially surrendered on the deck of the U.S.S. Missouri battleship on September 2, 1945.
In 1948, sixteen of twenty crew members of a fully loaded Superfortress were killed in a fiery crash at Hickam field. North Korea invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950, beginning the Korean War. The United States sent troops to the war, including an estimated 17,000 Hawaiian residents, and 341 were killed with another 79 missing in action. The war ended on July 27, 1953.
From November 27 to December 9, 1950, the United States First Marine Division, including the 32nd Infantry Regiment named “The Queen’s Own” by Queen Lili‘uokalani in 1916, engaged in a fighting withdrawal from the Chosin Reservoir in North Korea. Facing extremely low temperatures as well as huge numbers of Chinese troops, the United States forces inflicted heavy damage on ten Chinese infantry divisions.
In 1957, the communist regime of North Vietnam invaded South Vietnam, beginning the Vietnam War. The conflict lasted until 1975, with 221 Hawaiian residents dying in the war, and an estimated 13,000 Hawaiian residents taking part, including many who were wounded and then treated at O‘ahu’s Tripler Army Medical Center.
Four Air Force members were killed in 1957 when their six-jet B-47 bomber crashed into a Wai‘anae Range mountainside at 400 miles (644 km) per hour. In 1959, the Swordfish became the first nuclear submarine to homeport in Pearl Harbor. The Swordfish submarine was deactivated on November 19, 1987.
On January 17, 1991, Operation Desert Storm began in the Persian Gulf in response to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1989. The war eventually required the services of more than 7,000 troops based in Kāne‘ohe before Iraq accepted United Nations conditions and resolutions on April 7, 1990.
Kaua‘i’s Pacific Missile Range Facility began conducting STARS missile tests in 1993. The Korean-Vietnam War Memorial was dedicated at Hawai‘i’s State Capitol in Honolulu in 1994.
On March 9, 2003, the U.S.S. Cheyenne, a Pearl Harbor-based submarine, launched the first Tomahawk missile to begin the second Iraq War. The target was a bunker believed to be the location of Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
The biennial Rim of the Pacific (RIMPAC) naval exercises that took place in Hawaiian waters from June 29 to July 27, 2004 involved more than 35 ships, 90 aircraft, 7 submarines and 11,000 soldiers, airmen, sailors, Marines, and Coast Guard. The RIMPAC exercises also took place in 2000, 2002, and 2006.
Immigrant Laborers
When the Masters and Servants Act passed Hawai‘i’s legislature in 1850, it established a contract labor system that began the mass importation of laborers to work on the sugar plantations. The Act allowed persons over twenty years of age to sign a contract binding them to an employer for up to five years.
Under the Masters and Servants Act, workers could be punished for absenteeism or refusal to work, resulting in an extended term of service usually twice as long as the time of work missed.
The first contract laborers to come to the Hawaiian Islands arrived in 1851 from China on the Thetis, with 195 men and 20 boys on board. Pay for the men was $3/month plus room and board.
The Chinese workers were referred to as coolies. Houseboys earned $2/month. Workers from the South Sea Islands began arriving in 1859.
The first mass emigration of Japanese workers coming to the Hawaiian Islands to work on sugar plantations included 142 men and six women who arrived aboard the Scioto in 1868. These initial migrants, mostly tradesmen and craftsmen, did not have contracts or government permission, and were called gannenmono (“first year men”), referring to the first year of Japan’s Meiji era.
Portuguese workers arrived aboard the Priscilla from the Madeira Islands in 1878, beginning an influx of laborers from that region that totaled 20,000 by 1913. Most Portuguese came from the Madeira and Azores Islands.
Being Europeans, the Portuguese were given land and citizenship (after 1898), and unlike Asian workers, the Portuguese were often hired as lunas (overseers), supervising Asian workers for Caucasian owners.
The Portuguese workers were virtually all Catholics, thus strengthening the presence of the Catholic church in the Islands.
More than 3,500 workers arrived from China in 1879, and Norwegian and German workers began arriving in 1881. King Kalākaua visited Japan in March of 1881 and asked Emperor Meiji to allow workers to come to the Hawaiian Islands where there was a shortage of laborers to work on the sugar plantations.
The two leaders signed a treaty in 1885 permitting the large-scale immigration of laborers. The first official (government sponsored) Japanese contract workers—676 Japanese men and 158 Japanese women—arrived in Honolulu on the City of Tokio on February 8, 1885.
The importation of Chinese laborers was halted in 1886 by the passage of the Hawaiian Kingdom Chinese Exclusion Act. Laborers employed on Hawaiian plantations totaled 25,881 in 1898.
Also in 1898, the Hawaiian Islands were annexed to the United States via the Newlands Resolution, which stated, “There shall be no further immigration of Chinese into the Hawaiian Islands, except upon such conditions as are now or may hereafter be allowed by the laws of the United States; no Chinese, by reason of anything herein contained, shall be allowed to enter the United States from the Hawaiian Islands.”
On June 14, 1900, the Organic Act went into effect and contract labor was no longer legal. Within one month 8,000 laborers went on strike demanding higher wages and better working conditions as well as the hiring of Japanese lunas (overseers).
On December 23, 1900, the SS City of Rio de Janeiro arrived with 56 contract laborers who became the first Puerto Rican residents of the Hawaiian Islands, with more than 2,000 arriving during the next two decades. The SS China arrived in 1900 with the first Okinawan immigrant workers. By 1902, Japanese workers having arrived over the previous two decades totaled more than 31,000.
The first Korean contract laborers arrived aboard the Gaelic on January 13, 1903, and by the end of 1905 more than 7,500 Korean workers had arrived. The first fifteen Filipino farm workers, known as sakada, arrived on the Doric on December 20, 1906. Spaniard workers arrived in 1907.
On May 9, 1909, Japanese sugarcane plantation workers on O‘ahu’s ‘Aiea Plantation went on strike, followed by other plantation workers, totalling 7,000 strikers in less than one month. The island-wide strike lasted until August, 1909, costing the industry millions of dollars.
Honolulu journalists and merchants formed the Higher Wages Association in 1909 and made pro-labor demands on the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association. The rejection of these demands led to a strike by sugar workers.
By 1910, 75% of the annual sugar crop was controlled by Hawai‘i’s “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke.
In the following decades, living conditions on plantations became exceedingly harsh for many plantation workers who had little recourse against extremely powerful plantation owners. Significant labor unrest on sugarcane plantations in the Hawaiian Islands led to many strikes and protests.
By 1916, more than 18,000 Filipino workers had arrived, rising to 120,000 by 1931 as Filipinos replaced Japanese as the majority of plantation workers. Many more Filipinos arrived in the Hawaiian Islands after the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act allowed reunification of family members as well as professionals and skilled workers.
The Filipino Labor Union was established in 1919 by Filipino labor leader Pablo Manlapit to improve working conditions and demand higher wages for Filipino laborers.
Japanese comprised more than 40% of the total population of the Hawaiian Islands in 1920 when the Japanese Labor Federation was established to negotiate for better working conditions.
The Filipino leader Manlapit along with Japanese labor leaders led the Higher Wages Movement, but the Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association continued to reject their demands. Separate strikes by Japanese and Filipino workers in 1920 were unsuccessful, and more than 12,000 workers were evicted.
In 1924, immigration from Japan was prohibited when the U.S. Congress passed the Federal Immigration Act. At the time, the total number of Japanese immigrants was about 200,000 since they began arriving in 1885.
On September 9, 1924 on Kaua‘i, 16 Filipino sugarcane plantation workers and four Hanapēpē police officers died as a result of a brutal suppression of an eight-month strike. The event later becomes known as the Hanapēpē Massacre.
The strike had begun months earlier, on April 1, 1924, when it was called for by Filipino labor leader Pablo Manlapit (a Tagalog). The Filipinos were protesting the fact that they earned only about $10 per day, which was only about half as much as Chinese and Japanese plantation workers.
The striking Filipino plantation workers were primarily Visayans (from the northern Philippines). They sometimes had disagreements with other Filipino sugar plantation workers, including the Ilocanos (from the south-central Philippines). When two Ilocano boys rode their bikes from their camp at Makaweli to Hanapēpē on September 8, 1924 to buy shoes, they were confronted by about 100 Visayans who wanted them to join their strike.
The two Ilocano workers resisted and were held by the Visayans in a former Japanese schoolhouse. The next day police arrived to rescue the two workers being held by the strikers.
The police retrieved the two workers and were leaving the Japanese schoolhouse without any problems when the first shots were suddenly fired, which quickly led to a pitched battle lasting several hours, with police hunting down the fleeing workers including some who hid in the sugarcane fields. More than 100 workers are arrested and more than 50 are imprisoned up to four years for “rioting.”
News reports of the incident reported that the first shots were fired by workers, but later accounts and interviews determined it was unclear who began the shooting,
Some have blamed the incident on the lack of training among the sheriffs and armed police officers who were sent to retrieve the workers. These “special service” police officers were said to be predominantly local farmers and hunters (mostly Chinese, Portuguese, and Hawaiians) who were deputized as police officers, and were not prepared for such a tense and volatile situation.
More than 200 National Guard soldiers arrived in the days after the incident to keep order. A “mass funeral” was held for 15 of the 16 workers, who were buried in rough wooden caskets in one large trench dug above Hanapēpē Bay, near a Chinese graveyard where one of the sheriff deputies was buried.
By 1930, Filipinos comprised 70% of the plantation work force in the Hawaiian Islands, up from 19% in 1917. The Filipino Labor Federation was revitalized in 1932 by Pablo Manlapit and renamed Vibora Luviminda. In 1933, Manlapit formed the Hawai‘i Labor Association.
A 1937 strike in Pu‘unēnē, Maui won Filipino workers significant benefits, but those responsible for organizing the strike were arrested. Labor leader Pablo Manlapit was permanently deported. (See Unions.)
Duke Kahanamoku—Surfer, Olympian, Movie Star, Sheriff
Duke Paoa Kahinu Mokoe Hulihohola Kahanamoku was a muscular man, standing 6 feet, 1 inch tall. He was known for his humility and kindness as well as his soft-spoken demeanor.
Growing up near Kālia Beach in Waikīkī, Duke Kahanamoku surfed Waikīkī in 1905, beginning the rebirth of Hawaiian surfing, which had largely disappeared in the Hawaiian Islands after the arrival of New England missionaries in the early 1800s. Duke’s brother also surfed.
Duke’s 16-foot (4.9-m) surfboard was made of koa (Acacia koa) and weighed 114 pounds (52 kg).
In 1911, Duke and his friends organized Hui Nalu (Club of the Waves), a swimming, paddling, and surfing club. The main reason for the formation of Hui Nalu was to meet the United States’ requirement that swimmers had to belong to a recognized club if they wanted official sanction for any aquatic records. Also in 1911, Duke set three world records in freestyle swimming in HonoluluHarbor.
[Photograph: Duke Kahanamoku]
On July 6, 1912, Duke Kahanamoku won a gold medal in swimming in the Stockholm, Sweden Olympics, completing the 100-meter freestyle event in a world record time of 63.4 seconds, and also winning a silver medal in the 4x200-meter freestyle relay.
In the 1920 Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium, Duke won two more gold medals, breaking his own 100-meter freestyle world record. He also helped to set a world record in the freestyle relay, earning yet another gold medal. Hawaiian Pua Kealoha Warren Kealoha became the youngest male gold medallist in Olympic history when he won the 100-meter backstroke in the Antwerp Olympics.
At age 34, in the 1924Paris Olympics, Duke took the silver medal in the 100-meter freestyle, losing to Johnny Weissmuller, who later became famous as the actor who played Tarzan.
Other Hawaiians winning medals in the Paris Olympics included: Warren Kealoha (gold medal in the 100-meter backstroke); Sam Kahanamoku (bronze medal in the 100-meter freestyle); Marchen Wehselau (silver medal in the woman’s 100-meter freestyle); and a gold medal for the women’s relay team.
Duke Kahanamoku earned a total of six Olympic medals (three gold, two silver, one bronze) in four different Olympics. Other swimming victories for Duke Kahanamoku included 100-meter freestyle victories in the 1916, 1917, and 1920 American Athletic Union Outdoor Championships.
Duke was known for his use of the “flutter kick,” which he used instead of the common scissors kick. This became known as the Hawaiian crawl and eventually was called the American crawl.
Duke is also credited with saving many lives through brave ocean rescues, including using his surfboard to single-handedly save eight lives from a capsized boat in rough waters in Coronal del Mar, California on June 14, 1925.
He kanaka no kaulu hānai.
A man from the top of the cliff.
Praise of a hero.[50]
From 1922 to 1933, Duke had a career in Hollywood, appearing in more than 20 movies and playing opposite such stars as John Wayne. On August 2, 1940, Duke married Nadine Alexander. He also served as Sheriff of the City and County Honolulu for 26 years, from 1934 to 1960 (13 consecutive terms).
Always known as a generous and caring person, Duke Kahanamoku was officially appointed as Hawai‘i’s “Ambassador of Aloha” in 1960. Newspapers around the world showed pictures of Duke dancing hula with Britain’s Queen Elizabeth during her visit to the Islands. When President Kennedy visited the Hawaiian Islands, he also
In 1964 Duke was honored at the Word’s Fair as Sports Champion of the Century
In 1965, Duke became the first person ever inducted into both the Surfing Hall of Fame and the Swimming Hall of Fame.
Duke Kahanamoku passed away on January 22, 1968, at the age of 77. Thousands attended the “Beachboy” funeral ceremony, and Duke’s ashes were scattered in the waters off Waikīkī.
In 1984, Duke was inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame. In 1999, Surfer Magazine declared Duke Kahanamoku the Surfer of the Century.
A ceremony to dedicate the new United States postage stamp featuring Duke Kahanamoku took place on Saturday, August 24, 2002, which was the 112th anniversary of Duke’s birth.
A Hawaiian legend, Duke Kahanamoku was a first class Hawaiian waterman, an Olympic champion, a lifesaver, movie star, sheriff, and the quintessential representative of the Hawaiian spirit of aloha. Duke Kahanamoku will forever be remembered as a real-life folk hero for the people of the Hawaiian Islands.
“In Hawai‘i, we greet friends, loved ones or strangers with aloha, which means with love. Aloha is the key word to the universal spirit of real hospitality, which makes Hawai‘i renowned as the world’s center of understanding and fellowship. Try meeting or leaving people with Aloha. You’ll be surprised by their reaction. I believe it and it is my creed. Aloha to you.”
Plaque on the Duke Kahanamoku Statue in Waikīkī.
Duke Kahanamoku’s Olympic Medals
Olympics Medal Event Comments
1912 (Stockholm, Sweden) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record
Silver 4x200-Meter Freestyle Relay Anchored team
1920 (Antwerp, Belgium) Gold 100-Meter Freestyle World Record
Gold 4x200-meter Freestyle World Record
Water Polo Team Fourth Place
1924 (Paris, France) Silver 100-Meter-Freestyle Duke’s Age: 34
1932 (Los Angeles, Cal.) Bronze Water Polo Team Duke’s Age: 42
[Photograph: Picture of Duke stamp; picture of Duke Kahanamoku in a movie scene]
Historic Waikīkī
Waikiki means “Spouting water,” a reminder that the region was once covered with wetlands and marshes. In ancient times, Waikīkī encompassed more than 2,000 acres of marshland. The entire area was a vast drainage basin for the Ko‘olau Mountain Range. Early Hawaiians settlers converted the marshland into loko i‘a (fishponds), lo‘i kalo (taro patches), and other agricultural uses. Fertile and productive, the lands of Waikīkī were fed by the waters of the Mānoa and Makiki Valleys.
[Photograph: Old Waikīkī]
Waikīkī was also the site of the 1795 landing of Kamehameha the Great’s war canoes during his last military conquest, which culminated in the Battle of Nu‘uanu. In the late 1800s, duck ponds replaced many areas of Waikīkī that were formerly taro patches and fishponds. Land converted into duck ponds included the area that is now the site of the Ala Moana Shopping Center. By the 1870s, Waikīkī was dominated by rice fields planted primarily by Chinese immigrants.
In 1893, the Sans Souci Hotel opened in Waikīkī along the shoreline of Kapi‘olani Park, and hosted Robert Louis Stevenson for a five week visit.[51] Stevenson sang its praises, as did many other influential tourists.
[Photograph: Robert Louis Stevenson with Queen Lili‘uokalani.
On March 11, 1901, the Moana Hotel opened in Waikīkī, becoming the tallest building in the Hawaiian Islands. Designed by architect Oliver Green Traphagen for Matson Navigation Company, the 75-room hotel was known as the “First Lady of Waikīkī.”
Fifteen years later, the Moana Hotel added 100 more rooms as well as a seaside courtyard. King George V of the United Kingdom and Edward, Prince of Wales stayed at the hotel in 1920, garnering national attention.
In 1902, Waikīkī’s horse-driven tram cars were replaced by an electric trolley (tram line) connecting Waikīkī and downtown Honolulu. The tram line and hotel construction began the process of popularizing Waikīkī as a resort destination.
Waikīkī gradually became a place of quiet palm-lined beaches where the wealthy built their gingerbread-trimmed cottages. It was also home to Hawaiian royalty, and was considered a place of healing, peace, and hospitality.
Beginning in 1907, plans were made to develop tourism and commercial properties in Waikīkī, including street-widening and bridge building. The marshlands of Waikīkī were drained by the building of the AlaWaiCanal, constructed from 1919 to 1928 with funds provided by the Waikīkī Reclamation Project. The Wakīkī Reclamation Commission was formed by the Territorial Government in 1907.
The prominent waterway runs for 25 blocks and separates Waikīkī from Honolulu. Filling Waikīkī’s duck ponds, taro patches, rice paddies, and marshland with coral rubble created some of the most valuable real estate the Hawaiian Islands.
[Photograph: Ala Wai Canal]
On September 25, 1926, Aloha Tower opens on the waterfront at Honolulu Harbor, becoming the first skyscraper in the Hawaiian Islands and tallest building. Designed by architect Arthur Reynolds, the square-shaped tower stands 184 feet, 2 inches high with a domed cupola with balconied openings and topped with a 40-foot flagstaff and seven-ton clock.
The clock in Aloha Tower was the biggest in the Territory of Hawai‘i and one of the biggest in the United States. Each side of the tower has a clock face and the word “Aloha.”
On February 1, 1927, the Royal Hawaiian Hotel opened in Waikīkī with the Royal Hawaiian Band playing for 1,200 guests. An earlier Royal Hawaiian Hotel was located near ‘Iolani Palace at the site of the rehabilitated YMCA building. That first Royal Hawaiian was torn down when the new Royal Hawaiian was constructed.
Nicknamed the “Pink Palace of the Pacific,” the Moorish-style hotel began the restructuring of Waikīkī’s coastline. The Royal Hawaiian Hotel cost $4 million and was designed by New York’s Warren and Wetmore, featuring elegant chandeliers, high ceilings, pink stucco walls, and pink turrets.
Construction of the Royal Hawaiian utilized thousands of blocks of sandstone, about 35,000 barrels of cement, 50 tons (45 mtons) of stucco, and 75 miles (121 km) of wire. At least 9,000 gallons (34,100 liters) of paint were used. The Royal Hawaiian was leased to the Navy in 1942 to house more than 200,000 Marines and sailors during their 10-day leaves. On February 1, 1947 the hotel reopened to the public.
The Royal Hawaiian was built and owned by the Matson Navigation Company, which also built a $7.5-million premier cruise ship, the Malolo, which held up to 650 passengers and provided luxurious transportation to the fine new hotel. The Matsonia began service between Honolulu and San Francisco in 1914.
By the time of William Matson’s death in 1917, he ran a fleet of 14 large, modern ships, providing the fastest freight service in the Pacific.
The opening of Aloha Tower and the Royal Hawaiian Hotel increased Waikīkī’s reputation as a playground for the rich and famous. Guests such as Nelson Rockefeller, Henry Ford II, Babe Ruth, and Charlie Chaplin enjoyed the Royal Hawaiian Hotel’s accommodations.
Over the next several decades the hotel attracted a whole multitude of heirs, heiresses, and Hollywood stars such as Douglas Fairbanks and Mary Pickford. President Franklin D. Roosevelt stayed at the Royal Hawaiian Hotel during World War II.
The Moana Hotel is now called the Moana Surfrider Hotel and is a National Historical Landmark, as is the Royal Hawaiian Hotel.
[Photograph: Royal Hawaiian Hotel]
Island Emblems
In 1923 the Territorial Legislature designated an emblem for each Hawaiian Island. The State of Hawai‘i also has its own emblem. These symbols are all flowers or plants, except for Ni‘ihau’s emblem, which is a seashell. Each Hawaiian Island is also represented by a color associated with its emblem.
The State of Hawai‘i’s emblem is pua ma‘o hau hele, also known as the yellow hibiscus. When hibiscus was named the official flower of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1923, the Legislature didn’t specify any particular one of the many varieties of the hibiscus, and the various colors and types of hibiscus (including numerous introduced species) were said by some to represent the unique ethnic mix of the Hawaiian Islands.
Eventually many considered the native red hibiscus or the red Chinese species to be the state flower. Hawai‘i’s State Legislature clarified the issue in 1988 when it named the endangered native yellow hibiscus, Hibiscus brackenridgei, to be the official state flower. Hibiscus brackenridgei is on the federal endangered species list.
[Photograph: Pua ma‘o hau hele lei]
Symbols of the Hawaiian Islands
Island Emblem Color Name Species
Hawai‘i Pua Lehua Red ‘Ōhi‘a lehua (flower) Metrosideros species
Maui Pua Lokelani Pink Lokelani (flower) Rosa species (Damask Rose)
Moloka‘i Pua Kukui Green (leaves) Kukui (flower) Aleurites moluccana (Candlenut)
Lāna‘i Kauna‘oa Orange Kauna‘oa (vine) Cuscuta sandwichiana (Dodder)
Kaho‘olawe Hinahina Silver-gray Hinahina (leaves) Heliotropum anomalum var. argenteum
O‘ahu Pua ‘Ilima Yellow ‘Ilima (flowers) Sida fallax
Kaua‘i Mokihana Purple Mokihana (berries) Pelea anisata
Ni‘ihau Pūpū Ni‘ihau White Pūpū Ni‘ihau (shells) Kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca)
Momi (Euplica varians)
Laiki (Mitrella margarita).
[Photographs: Pua lehua lei; pua lokelani lei; pua kukui lei; kauna‘oa lei; hinahina lei; pua ‘ilima lei; mokihana lei; kahelelani; momi; and laiki in Ni‘ihau shell lei.]
Hawai‘i Island
The emblem of Hawai‘i Island (the Big Island) is pua lehua, the blossom of the native ‘ōhi‘a lehua tree (Metrosideros species). Lehua flowers are tufts of scarlet red, orange, yellow, or white (rarely).
Beautiful lei are woven from the flowers, unopened buds and young silvery leaves (liko) of ‘ōhi‘a lehua. ‘Ōhi‘a lehua is also considered sacred to Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes.
Maui
Maui’s emblem is pua lokelani (Rosa species), the aromatic flower of the small pink damask rose.
Pua lokelani, also known as the “rose of heaven,” is a post-contact introduced species that is often used for lei and commonly mixed with other flowers as well as ferns.
Moloka‘i
Moloka‘i’s emblem is pua kukui, the flower of the kukui tree (Aleurites moluccana, candlenut), which is also the official tree of the State of Hawai‘i.
Kukui’s small white flowers have five petals, grow in clusters, and are covered with a silvery-gray down. The leaves and the flowers are strung into lei, as are the polished kukui nuts.
The oil from kukui nuts was traditionally used as a light source, and for various other purposes including numerous medicinal uses.
Lāna‘i
Lāna‘i’s emblem is kauna‘oa (Cuscuta sandwichiana), a rusty-orange vine that is also known as dodder. Kauna‘oa has tiny round fruits and pointed flowers. The stringy stems are often braided together into strands for lei.
Kaho‘olawe
Kaho‘olawe’s emblem is a perennial herb called hinahina (Heliotropium anomalum var. argenteum).
Hinahina grows on the beach above the high water line, and has hairy, silvery-green leaves and stems, and fragrant white flowers with yellow centers. The leaves and flowers of hinahina are twisted into open-ended garlands.
Today the non-native Spanish moss (also called Florida moss, gray beard, and hinahina) is often substituted for the native hinahina.
O‘ahu
O‘ahu’s emblem is pua ‘ilima, the flower of ‘ilima (Sida fallax). ‘Ilima is a small, thin hibiscus flower that is yellow to orange in color, and about one inch across with five petals. ‘Ilima is a popular lei flower in the Hawaiian Islands today, just as it was in ancient Hawai‘i. Honor and respect among dignitaries is often shown with a velvety rope of carefully strung, bright orange ‘ilima petals.
‘Ilima flowers are extremely thin, and a lei may take 700 to 1,000 of the blossoms. ‘Ilima flowers are sometimes interwoven with maile.
Kaua‘i
Kaua‘i’s emblem is the fruit of the mokihana plant (Pelea anisata), a member of the rue family. Mokihana’s yellowish-green to purplish seed capsules are about ½-inch (1.3 cm) in diameter.
A mokihana lei is made by stringing together the seed capsules after piercing them through their centers. Mokihana is often strung together with strands of maile.
Mokihana’s seed capsules are leathery to the touch, and have a very strong anise-like fragrance that becomes stronger as the seeds dry. Some people are sensitive to the oily substance from mokihana, which may cause blisters.
Traditional lei stringers are proud of the scars on their fingers from stringing mokihana lei.
Ni‘ihau
Ni‘ihau’s emblem is the prized Ni‘ihau shell, pūpū Ni‘ihau, which is actually a general term for three different varieties of shells collected on the island beaches and strung into beautiful lei.
The three primary types of shells used for the traditional Ni‘ihau shell lei are kahelelani (Leptothyra verruca), momi (Euplica varians) and laiki (Mitrella margarita). The colors of the shells range from deep brown to pearly white.
While these shells are also found on other Hawaiian Islands, they lack the rich luster of the prized Ni‘ihau shell lei. Pūpū Ni‘ihau show many variations caused by waves and sunlight as well as genetic differences. At least 30 different Hawaiian names describe the particular colors and patterns.
Lei Day—May 1
May Day is Lei Day in the Hawaiian Islands. On May 1, everyone is encouraged to make, give away, and wear lei. Lei Day became an official holiday of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1929.
Mainland visitor Don Blanding, a journalist and poet, helped popularize the concept of Lei Day. Some say the holiday has its origins in 1927 when, on May 1 in downtown Honolulu, some lei lovers gathered.
Others consider the beginning of the holiday to be in 1928 when Nina Bowman was chosen as the first Lei Day Queen. 1928 was also the year that Red Hawke penned the song, “May Day is Lei Day in Hawai‘i.”
In 1934 the Honolulu city government began sponsoring a celebration of the holiday. Most schools celebrate Lei Day with festivals, and there are many events held throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu selects its Lei Day Queen on the first Saturday of March.
Island Flowers and Lei
The lei is the very symbol of aloha. In ancient Hawai‘i, respect and honor was bestowed upon someone by placing a lei upon their head and shoulders, which are considered sacred parts of the body. The Hawaiian goddess associated with lei making is Kukuena, whose daughter Laka may take the form of ‘ilima.
[Photograph: Person presenting another with a lei]
Ancient Hawaiians utilized various lei materials, including flowers, ferns, fern allies, vines, seeds, nuts, feathers, wood, shells, and teeth. The lei niho palaoa (whale tooth pendant) utilized the tooth of the sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus). Also used in lei was human hair as well as bones, including human finger bones.
In ancient Hawai‘i, lei were often woven to pay paid tribute to gods, show reverence, and give thanks for all that was provided by the land and sea. Particular lei had ceremonial and medicinal uses. For example, a lei woven from hala fruitlets was worn during Makahiki, the ancient harvest festival, to symbolize the passing of the old year and the beginning of a new year.
A lei for the head is known as lei po‘o, while a lei worn around the neck is known as lei ‘ā‘ī. Lei made to be worn on the wrists or ankles are known as kūpe‘e. A lei worn around the neck should be worn not just hanging in the front, but more centered, so both the front and back are comfortably arranged.
To show appreciation to the giver of a lei, one may give a kiss and an embrace. It is said that if one makes a lei for another and thinks of that person as they make it, the lei will carry those feelings and expressions of love.
After Western contact was established in 1778, many introduced plant species were utilized for making lei. For example, the missionaries who came to convert natives to Christianity brought roses. The Chinese who came to work in the sugarcane fields brought pīkake (Arabian jasmine) and pakalana (Chinese violet). From Tahiti came plumeria, from Mexico came Bougainvillea, and from the Philippines came the jade vine, and all of these blossoms were fashioned into beautiful lei. Later many other flowers were introduced and lei gained even more popularity as a symbol of aloha.
E lei no au i ko aloha
I will wear your love as a wreath
I will cherish your love as a beautiful adornment.[52]
Today the lei remains an important symbol of friendship, love, and aloha. The lei is a traditional welcome, and is used on many different occasions, including birthdays, dances, graduations, weddings, anniversaries, and of course Lei Day. Lei are also made and worn for lū‘au, the traditional Hawaiian feasts often involving large gatherings of ‘ohana (extended family).
Lei are commonly given on Secretary’s Day, Father’s Day, and Mother’s Day, and to anyone leaving or arriving in the Hawaiian Islands. Lei are also given to honor athletes at the end of a season or career. They are also placed on the bier at funerals, and on gravestones to pay respect to the departed.
[Photo: King Kamehameha Hula Competition]
[Photo caption:]
The King Kamehameha Hula Competition celebrates the ancient practice of hula, and many spectacular lei are worn by the participants. Aloha Week and many local and statewide hula events also are celebrated with plenteous lei. In Island parades, pā‘ū riders on horses are adorned with extravagant displays of lei and greenery.
The King Kamehameha Floral Parade takes place in the summer and stretches out for nearly 4 miles (6.4 km) from downtown Honolulu to Waikīkī with colorful pā‘ū riders, floats and brass bands, including the Royal Hawaiian Band.
Beginning at ‘Iolani Palace, the parade passes by the statue of King Kamehameha and then takes Punchbowl Street to Ala Moana, then following Kalākaua Avenue to Kapi‘olani Park.
[Photograph: Floral Parade]
Lei Making Methods
The wili method (wili means “to twist or wind”) involves winding flowers, leaves, fruits, or ferns around a solid core. Traditionally this core was made from a coconut palm midrib, a kī (ti) leaf, a piece of a banana plant stalk, lau hala (leaves of hala), or more modern material (e.g., pipe cleaners). Wili also refers to the twisting of the material itself or to the process of twisting finished strands together.
The hīpu‘u method (also called kīpu‘u) involves knotting stems or vines such as maile into a lei. The hili method involves braiding or plaiting material such as the pala‘ā fern. The hili (braided) method is also used for making kī (ti) and maile lei.
The haku method is similar to the hili method, but with flowers or fruits added during the plaiting process, or sewn face out onto a wreath of greenery. The haku method is also used with various non-traditional flowers, such as zinnias, roses, chrysanthemums, and pansies. The traditional meaning of haku is “to arrange” or “to compose,” and involves incorporating the lei materials into a braid, securing the blossoms around a central core using a kī (ti) leaf or a piece of banana stalk, hau, raffia, or other material.
The humupapa method (also known as kui papa) involves sewing flowers and plant materials onto a backing, traditionally kī (ti) leaves that have been folded and deboned, or dried fibers of mai‘a (banana stalk). Humupapa was also one of the methods used for feather lei.
The kui method involves stringing flowers (e.g., ‘ilima) or fruits through their centers lengthwise (kui pololei); stringing the blossoms crosswise through the calyx or corolla tube, and arranging them around the string facing outwards (kui poepoe); or stringing the blossoms flat or crosswise through the calyx or stem, and arranging them alternately on each side of the string (kui lau method, also now called lei maunaloa).
The Micronesian-style lei involves tying or weaving the stems and blossoms into a flat collar and securing them with bast or raffia. This plaiting may be done with two, three, or four strands.
[Illustration: Lei constructed using wili, hīpu‘u, hili, kui, haku, humupapa and Micronesian-style methods]
Honolulu Hale
Built in 1927, Honolulu Hale opened in 1929 to serve as Honolulu’s City Hall with offices for the mayor and city council. Located at 530 South King Street, the building was designed by architects Charles William Dickey, Hart Wood and others, and modeled after Florence, Italy’s 13th century Bargello Palace, featuring pillars and arches, decorative balconies, ceiling frescoes, and a tiled roof.
Inside the front door of Honolulu Hale is a bell from the World War II ship U.S.S. Honolulu, with a commemorative plaque that states, “Launched August 26, 1937. Commissioned June 15, 1938.” The spacious lobby of the building is the site of art exhibits and other events, and the building’s central open-air courtyard is the site of musical performances and other events.
War Memorial Natatorium
In 1927, the War Memorial Natatorium was built on the waterfront at the eastern end of Waikīkī as a memorial to the 179 men and women of the Hawaiian Islands that died as soldiers in World War I. The memorial includes a 20-foot (6.1-m) high Memorial Archway with a Beaux Arts facade and a 100-meter-long, tide-fed, saltwater pool.
Champion swimmers such as Duke Kahanamoku and Johnny Weissmuller used the War Memorial Natatorium pool for training. The pool remains today as the largest saltwater pool in the United States, though it is in serious disrepair. A court order in 1999 allowed the City of Honolulu to proceed with an $11 million restoration project that disallowed work on the pool itself until state rules were met.
In May of 2004, a section of the pool’s deck collapsed, and the rest of the structure was determined to be at risk of collapsing unless the sea walls and pool deck were shored up and stabilized. Scheduled restoration work was cancelled by Honolulu mayor Mufi Hannemann on January 3, 2005, his first day in office. (See War Memorial Natatorium.)
[Photograph: War Memorial Natatorium]
Aviation
Aviation in the Hawaiian Islands began on October 10, 1910 when Malcolm and Elbert Tuttle (ages 14 and 13) carried their home-made, 40-pound (18 kg) glider to the top of O‘ahu’s Kaimukī Crater where Malcolm flew the craft, which measured about 15 feet (4.6 m) long and 18 feet (5.5 m) across, for a distance of about 40 feet (12.2 m) at a height of about 10 feet (3 m) off the ground.
On December 31, 1910, about seven years after the Wright brothers made their famous first flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, the first airplane flight in the Hawaiian Islands took place at O‘ahu’s Moanalua Polo Field when J. C. “Bud” Mars flew a Curtiss P18 biplane, the Honolulu Skylark, to an altitude of 500 feet (152 m).
Thousands of onlookers paid $1 each to watch the pioneering flight, and on a subsequent flight Mars reached 1,500 feet (457 m). Mars was with a group from New York’s Glenn Curtiss Aircraft Company who had brought two Curtiss P18 biplanes to the Hawaiian Islands.
On June 10, 1911, Clarence Walker crashed his biplane into a hala tree in Hilo and lived. This was the first airplane crash in the Hawaiian Islands. Tom Gunn, a pioneer of Hawaiian aviation, completed the first passenger flight in the Hawaiian Islands on July 13, 1913 when he took two people (a theater worker and a tailor) for a flight over Schofield Barracks.
The first interisland flight in the Hawaiian Islands was completed on March 15, 1918 by Army Major Harold M. Clark of the Fort Kamehameha Aero Squadron, who flew from Honolulu to Moloka‘i and back.
Corporal Mark Grace, a member of the Sixth Aero Squadron, became the first aviation fatality in the Hawaiian Islands on November 19, 1918 when his plane went into a tailspin and crashed. Two Army seaplanes flew from Luke Field at Pearl Harbor to Hilo in 1919, carrying the first interisland mail.
Wheeler Field (now known as Wheeler Air Force Base) was established in 1922 near Schofield Barracks in Wahiawā, O‘ahu. The base was named after Sheldon H. Wheeler, an Air Force major who died in a plane crash in 1921.
On August 31, 1925, Commander John Rodgers and his four-man crew flew a two-engine PN-9 Navy seaplane from near San Francisco toward the Hawaiian Islands, attempting the first flight between the Hawaiian Islands and the United States Mainland.
The plane ran out of gas 300 miles (483 km) from Maui, and the crew used improvised sails and tow assistance to reach Kaua‘i’s Ahukini Harbor on September 10, 1925. John Rodgers Airport, the first official civilian airfield in the Hawaiian Islands, was dedicated in Honolulu on March 21, 1927, and was later renamed Honolulu International Airport. Hilo Airport was dedicated in 1928.
On June 28, 29, 1927, Albert Hegenberger and Lester Maitland, two lieutenants in the United States Army flew the Fokker C-2-3 Wright 220 tri-motor plane Bird of Paradise to complete the first non-stop flight to the Hawaiian Islands (Wheeler Field at Schofield Barracks, O‘ahu) from the United States Mainland (Oakland, California) in 25 hours and 50 minutes. At the time it was the longest all-water flight.
On July 14, 1927, Emily Bronte and pilot Ernest Smith crash landed their 27-foot (8.2-m) monoplane named The City of Oakland on Moloka‘i, becoming the first civilians to fly to the Hawaiian Islands from the United States Mainland (Oakland, California), covering about 2,200 miles (3,541 km) in 26 hours and 36 minutes.
On August 16, 1927, eight planes competed in the Dole Air Derby, leaving Oakland, California for the Hawaiian Islands in an attempt to win prizes of $25,000 and $10,000 offered by James Drummond Dole, president of Hawaiian Pineapple Company. This was the first race from the United States Mainland to the Hawaiian Islands.
Two planes crashed on take-off, two planes encountered difficulties and had to turn back, and two planes disappeared over the Pacific Ocean. In all, ten lives were lost in what was billed as the first trans-oceanic flight race.
The winner of the trans-oceanic race was Art Goebel (with navigator William Davis) in the monoplane Woolaroc, with just 4 gallons (15 liters) of fuel to spare. Taking second place was Martin Jensen (with navigator Paul Schluter) in the Aloha.
On May 31, 1928, Charles Kingsford-Smith and a three-person crew flew the Fokker tri-motor plane, Southern Cross from Oakland, California to Australia via the Hawaiian Islands and Fiji, finishing the first complete crossing of the Pacific Ocean by air when they arrived in Sydney on June 10, 1928. Interisland airmail service was established on October 8, 1928. Hawaiian Airways, Ltd., the first interisland airline, began regular sightseeing trips between the Hawaiian Islands on November 9, 1929, but the company went out of business in the following year.
Inter-Island Airways Ltd. (later renamed Hawaiian Airlines), was founded on November 11, 1929 by Stanley C. Kennedy (1890-1968), a resident of the Hawaiian Islands and a World War I Navy pilot. Kennedy soon began interisland commercial air service operations using a Bellanca monoplane and two Sikorsky S-38-C 7-passenger amphibious airplanes, launching a new era of aviation in the Hawaiian Islands.
The planes initially made three weekly round trips between Honolulu’s John Rodgers Airport (now called Honolulu International Airport) and Hilo, with stops on Maui (the flight took about 3 hours and 15 minutes). Trips to Moloka‘i and Lāna‘i were made by prior arrangement. Outrigger canoes were used to ferry passengers from the water to the shore.
Stanley C. Kennedy was the son of James Kennedy, an interisland shipping boss. After attending Punahou School and Stanford University, Stanley earned a Silver Star in World War I flying H-16 flying boats over the North Sea. He became head of Inter-Island Steam Navigation in 1932.
In 1931, a 16½ hour Army glider plane flight taking off from the Kāne‘ohe experimental grounds was completed by Lieutenant John C. Crain in a glider designed by Lieutenant W. A. Cocke Jr.. In October of 1934, Charles Kingsford-Smith and Patrick Gordon Taylor flew the single-engine Lockheed Altair Lady Southern Cross from Brisbane, Australia to Oakland, California via Fiji and Honolulu, completing the first eastbound flight from the Hawaiian Islands to the United States Mainland, arriving in Oakland on November 3, 1934.
Amelia Earhart completed the first solo flight from the Hawaiian Islands (Wheeler Field, O‘ahu) to the United States Mainland (Oakland, California) on January 11-12, 1935 in a single-engine Lockheed Vega monoplane.
On July 2, 1937, Amelia Earhart’s plane disappeared en route to Howland Island from Papa New Guinea on the second leg of an attempted 27,000-mile (43,452-km) trip around the world, 7,000 miles (11,265 km) short of her goal of becoming the first woman to fly around the world.
On April 17, 1935, the 19-ton, 32-passenger amphibian Pan American Clipper Ship made its pioneer flight from Alameda, California to the Hawaiian Islands with no passengers, landing at Pearl Harbor after a 19 hour and 48 minute flight (an average flight speed of about 140 miles per hour (225 kilometers per hour)). The pilot, Captain Edwin Musick, and his crew of five, were greeted by about 2,500 people including Governor Joseph B. Poindexter.
In November of 1935, Pan American World Airways begin mail service across the Pacific Ocean.
On October 21, 22, 1936, Pan American World Airways flew a Martin M-130 flying boat, the Hawaii Clipper, from San Francisco to Honolulu with seven customers who paid $360 each (one-way), for the 21 hour and 33 minute flight. The plane had a range of 3,200 miles (5,150 kilometers) and could carry 52 passengers.
The plane’s cabin resembled a luxury hotel. Dinner was served on linen tablecloths with fine china. After dinner passengers played bridge and then slept in plush rooms.
Pan American soon ran twelve flights daily in and out of Honolulu on their “luxury flying boats,” and also ran flights from San Francisco to Manila, via Honolulu.
Inter-Island Airways Ltd. was renamed Hawaiian Airlines in 1941, and the company introduced a 24-passenger DC-3 airplane. After being interrupted by World War II, commercial airlines resumed service in 1945, and the first to begin was Pan American World Airways.
On July 26, 1946, Honolulu publisher Rudy Tongg founded Trans-Pacific Airlines (later renamed Aloha Airlines). The first flight carried 21 passengers to Hilo from Honolulu in a war surplus DC-3.
On October 26, 1948, Captain Paul Ramsey piloted the first jet aircraft flight in the Hawaiian Islands, flying the Lockheed TO-1 Shooting Star from Barbers Point Naval Air Station to Honolulu and back in 25 minutes. In 1952, the 44-passenger Convair 340 airplane provided the first pressurized and air-conditioned cabins in the Hawaiian Islands.
Trans-Pacific Airlines was renamed Aloha Airlines in 1958 under company president Dr. Hung Wo Ching and his brother Hung Wai Ching, who served on the board. The company also used a new fleet of Jetprop F-27’s. Hawaiian Airlines purchased a four-engine DC-6 in 1958 for trans-Pacific military charters.
On July 29, 1959, commercial jet service between the Hawaiian Islands, Australia, Nadi, and San Francisco was offered by Qantas Empire Airways, utilizing Boeing 707 aircraft, beginning with the arrival of the City of Sydney after its 4 hour and 49 minute flight from San Francisco. Greeting the plane was the Royal Hawaiian Band playing “Waltzing Matilda.” Pan American soon offered flights from Tokyo to the west coast of the United States, stopping at Honolulu and Wake Island.
In 1966, Hawaiian Airlines introduced the first interisland jet, a 99-passenger McDonnell Douglas DC-9, reducing interisland travel time to one half hour or less.
In 1969, Aloha Airlines replaced their fleet with Boeing 737-200s, and in 1970 Pan American began flying 362-passenger Boeing 747 jumbo jets to the Hawaiian Islands from Los Angeles and San Francisco.
Maui resident and famous American aviator Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974) passed away at his home in Kīpahulu near Hāna, Maui in 1974, and he is buried at Palapala Ho‘omau Congregational Church. His wife, Anne Morrow Lindbergh passed away in 2001, and is also buried there.
Charles Lindbergh was known affectionately as the “Lone Eagle” for his completion of the first solo flight across the Atlantic. The inscription on his granite headstone is taken from the Bible’s Psalm 139, and reads, “If I take the wings of morning, and dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea...”
On November 12, 1986, a British Airways Concorde became the first supersonic transport (SST) flight to come to the Hawaiian Islands, flying from Oakland to Honolulu in a record two hours and fifteen minutes.
In September of 2002, Hawaiian Airlines and Aloha Airlines received federal approval of an antitrust exemption allowing the two airlines to coordinate capacity on interisland flights. Both airlines later declared bankruptcy (Hawaiian Airlines in 2003; Aloha Airlines in 2004).
The Massie Trial
On September 12, 1931, Thalia Massie, the 20-year-old wife of United States Navy lieutenant Thomas H. Massie, attended a party at Honolulu’s Ala Wai Inn (a Honolulu nightclub formerly on the site of the present location of the Hawai‘i Convention Center), and was later found beaten and assaulted with her jaw broken in two places.
Thalia Massie told authorities that she had been forced into a car and taken to AlaMoanaPark where she was raped. Five Hawaiian and Japanese plantation workers who allegedly raped Thalia Massie (a Caucasian) were detained that night and taken to her hospital room, where she apparently identified the driver of the car, though later evidence claimed she only identified the attackers as “Hawaiian.”
Despite evidence pointing to the innocence of the detained men, they were assumed guilty by the national press, which ran stories about the brute locals preying on white women. The accused men were later set free due to lack of evidence, with a deadlocked jury that had taken 97 ballots in more than 100 hours of deliberation.
The first trial of the accused men ended in a deadlock, and a mistrial was declared. The release of the accused men fueled racial tensions and violence in Honolulu, including animosity between the military and local residents. The story garnered national attention.
A few days after the mistrial was declared, one of the defendants, 20-year-old Joseph Kahāhāwai, who was said to have been the leader of the “School Street gang,” was kidnapped by Thalia Massie’s husband and mother and two sailors, and then shot and killed.
They placed the slain Kahāhāwai’s in the trunk of their car and drove toward the rocky coastline near Koko Crater where they planned to dump the body. During the drive they were stopped by police and Kahāhāwai’s body was discovered in the back of the car.
All four—Lt. Thomas H. Massie, Mrs. Granville Fortescue, E. J. Lord, and Albert O. Jones—were indicted for second degree murder. Thomas H. Massie took responsibility for shooting Kahāhāwai, but his lawyer, the renowned Clarence Darrow, told the court his client was temporarily insane.
The four were convicted only of manslaughter by Judge Charles S. Davis, and they were sentenced to ten years hard labor at O‘ahu Prison. Governor Lawrence Judd immediately commuted the sentence to one hour, to be served in his office.
The attack on Thalia Massie, as well as the subsequent vigilante action and controversial court decisions contributed to racial tensions in the Islands for years to come. Thalia Massie later lived in Florida where she committed suicide in 1963.
Communication
The first electric telegraph in Honolulu was put into operation on October 19, 1872. Charles H. Dickey installed the first commercial telegraph system in the Hawaiian Islands in 1877 between his stores in Ha‘ikū and Makawao on Maui, and the system was soon connected to Wailuku and Lahaina.
The first telephone line in the Hawaiian Islands was installed between Wailuku, Maui and Kahului in 1878 by the East Maui Telegraph Company under the direction of Charles H. Dickey. The Hawaiian Bell Telephone Company, organized by Charles O. Berger, was incorporated on December 30, 1880.
In 1889, the first interisland undersea cable connected Moloka‘i and Maui. The first interisland radio message was sent in November of 1900 from Kaimukī, Honolulu to Moloka‘i, via a kite flying at Wai‘alae, Maui. Commercial radio service was established on March 2, 1901, allowing communication between the Islands.
The Hawaiian Islands were linked to the United States on December 28, 1902 by a Commercial Pacific Cable Company telegraph cable beneath the Pacific Ocean. The submarine cable, laid by the cable ship Silvertown, was more than 2,000 miles (3,219 km) long, extending from Ocean Beach in San Francisco to Waikīkī’s San Souci Beach.
The first message across the new undersea cable was sent to San Francisco from Waikīkī on January 1, 1903. The westward extension of the undersea cable to Midway, Guam, and the Philippines was completed on July 4, 1903, allowing the first round-the-world message. President Theodore Roosevelt sent a message to the United States and all of its properties and territories, wishing all a happy Independence Day.
The first wireless message between the United States and Japan was relayed from Tokyo through Kahuku, O‘ahu to New York on July 27, 1915.
The first radio broadcast to California from the Hawaiian Islands took place in 1930 when KGMB transmitted a ten-minute Christmas program. Honolulu and London were connected by commercial radio service in 1932. On November 2, 1933, the Mutual Telephone Company established interisland radio telephone service.
The Hawaii Calls radio series began on July 3, 1935. Webley Edwards produced and directed the show from beachside at Waikīkī’s Royal Hawaiian Hotel and later the Moana Hotel (now the Sheraton Moana Surfrider).
Hawaii Calls featured top Hawaiian music, including live performances by many top Hawaiian artists. The show was broadcast on hundreds of radio stations all around the world and ran until 1975, making it the longest running radio program ever.
The first scheduled television show in the Hawaiian Islands was broadcast by station KGMB-TV on December 1, 1952. The programming began with a series of live interviews that were followed by a Gene Autry movie.
On May 5, 1957, the first color television program in the Hawaiian Islands was broadcast, though only about 50 residents of O‘ahu owned color televisions at the time. The program was shown by station KHVH-TV and included color slides and a Bugs Bunny cartoon.
The first message sent via an undersea telephone cable connecting the United States and the Hawaiian Islands was sent to New York on October 8, 1957. In 1964, an $84 million undersea cable linked Tokyo and the Hawaiian Islands.
On October 26, 1966, a small, drum-shaped communication satellite, officially known as Intelsat II and affectionately known as the “Lani Bird,” broadcasted the Islands’ first live television show from the United States Mainland.
Pearl Harbor
On Dec. 7, 1941, more than 350 Japanese bomber planes attacked Pearl Harbor and other O‘ahu military sites. The first planes to arrive struck the Mōkapu Peninsula’s Pacific Naval Air Base, killing or wounding 84 Americans and damaging 36 seaplanes.
Seven minutes later, at 7:55 a.m., the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor began, entering the United States into World War II. Newly installed United States Army radar equipment at ‘Ōpana had picked up a large blip, but assumed it was from incoming American B-17’s, and ignored the danger.
Deaths of United States military personnel at Pearl Harbor totaled 2,323, with 60 civilians also killed in the attack. Another 1,178 people were wounded.
Eight huge American battleships were sunk or damaged, along with three light cruisers, three destroyers, and four smaller ships. In all, 21 United States ships were damaged (19 sunk) and 347 planes were destroyed in the Pearl Harbor attack, including planes on Ford Island and at Wheeler Airfield. (Note: At the time of the attack, Pearl Harbor held 145 vessels, including 96 warships.)[53]
The United States suffered a total of 3,566 naval and military casualties in the attack along the deaths of 48 O‘ahu residents.
1,177 men perished in the fiery sinking of the U.S.S. Arizona, which was at its moorings on Battleship Row, and sunk just nine minutes after being hit by a 1,760-pound (798-kg) armor-piercing bomb. The bodies of 945 of the crew members of the Arizona were never recovered, and remain entombed in the sunken vessel; 334 of the crew members survived. The U.S.S. Oklahoma was struck by several torpedoes, trapping 400 men in the ship as it rolled completely over.
United States anti-aircraft guns responded to the attack 15 minutes after the start of the bombing and destroyed 29 Japanese planes and sunk five midget submarines.
The first shot of December 7, 1941 came from the destroyer USS Ward, which sank a 78-foot (24-m) Japanese miniature submarine outside Pearl Harbor more than an hour before the aerial attack by the Japanese planes began.
A 4-inch (10-cm) shell pierced the submarine’s conning tower, depth charges were dropped, and the submarine sank. (Note: The Japanese miniature submarine was located on August 28, 2002 by the deep-diving submersibles of the Hawai‘i Undersea Research Laboratory of the University of Hawai‘i.)
One Japanese pilot crash landed on Ni‘ihau after the Pearl Harbor attack. Ni‘ihau resident Benehakaka Kanahele’s confrontation with the downed pilot was the only combat in the Islands against an armed enemy during World War II.
Other sites on O‘ahu that were hit included Hickam, Wheeler, Bellows, and Kāne‘ohe airfields as well as ‘Ewa Marine Corp Air Station and Schofield Barracks. In all, fifty-five Japanese airmen and 9 submariners were killed along with one man captured.
On December 30, 1941, Japanese submarines shelled the ports of Kahului on Maui, Nāwiliwili on Kaua‘i, and Hilo on Hawai‘i Island. On January 28, 1942, a Japanese submarine torpedoed the Army transport ship Royal T. Frank in Hawaiian waters, killing 21 people. A lone Japanese plane bombed Honolulu on March 2, 1942, and throughout the Islands there was a general fear of being attacked by Japan.
On September 2, 1945, the forces of Japan officially surrendered on the deck of the U.S.S. Missouri battleship, now berthed at Pearl Harbor’s Battleship Row. Victory in Japan Day (“V-J Day”) was declared on August 15, 1945 after the United States dropped nuclear bombs on Japan in Hiroshima (August 6, 1945) and Nagasaki (August 9, 1945), leading to the imminent defeat of Japan.
Martial Law
In response to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Martial Law was declared in the Hawaiian Islands at 4:30 p.m. on December 7, 1941 by Territorial governor Joseph B. Poindexter, in consultation with United States President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, suspending the writ of habeas corpus and stripping Poindexter of his administrative powers.
With the imposition of Martial Law, Governor Poindexter turned civilian duties over to Lieutenant General Walter Short, who became military governor of the Islands. All residents of the Hawaiian Islands were subject to the Uniform Code of Military Justice, and the Territorial constitution was suspended, as was the authority of the Supreme Court and the Legislature. Civilian courts were replaced with military judges.
Honolulu’s ‘Iolani Palace was barricaded and trenches were dug around the building for security. The building was used by a military governor, Major General Thomas H. Greene, appointed from the United States Judge Advocate General’s Corps.
Martial Law imposed many restrictions on residents of the Hawaiian Islands, including enforced blackouts from 6 p.m. to 6 a.m. Curfews were imposed and blackout wardens patrolled neighborhoods.
All residents over the age of six were fingerprinted, and the media was censored along with all mail (questionable letters were confiscated). Civilians were required to turn over all communication devices as well as all cameras and weapons.
Food and gas were rationed, saloons were closed, alcohol was prohibited, and business hours were restricted. Japanese-owned property was confiscated including stores, schools, and banks.
The United States military was allowed to take whatever land it needed, and the Army eventually controlled about one-third of O‘ahu, including the campus of Punahou School, which was taken over by the Corps of Engineers. All civilian residents in the Islands were fingerprinted and given personal identification cards that had to be in their possession at all times.
Laws imposed by the military governor were known as General Orders, and any transgressions were dealt with by military tribunals—there were no appeals. Many Japanese were arrested and interned under suspicion of espionage or sabotage, though none were ever found guilty. (See The 442nd/100th.)
In 1943, the Territorial Government regained control of most civilian functions, but Martial Law would remain in effect until October of 1944, into the term of governor Ingram M. Stainback. Curfews, censorship and gas rationing ended in 1945.
In 1946, the declaration of Martial Law in the Hawaiian Islands was determined to be unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court.
The 442nd/100th—Hawai‘i’s Nisei Soldiers
After the 1941 attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor, the U.S. government discharged 5,000 Japanese-American soldiers and declared Japanese-Americans “4-C,” non-draftable enemy aliens. The Japanese and Japanese-American population of the Hawaiian Islands at this time was about 100,000, including 35,000 first generation Japanese.
Many of the most influential Japanese in the Hawaiian Islands were detained, including community leaders, ministers, Buddhist priests, and principals of Japanese schools. Initially these Japanese and Japanese-Americans detainees were taken to Sand Island, which began its use as an internment camp on December 8, 1941.
In all, about 1,500 residents of the Hawaiian Islands were part of about 115,000 Americans of Japanese ancestry interned in ten internment camps on the United States Mainland. (Note: The Civil Liberties Act of 1988 provided restitution for the internment, allocating $1.6 billion to 82,000 people in 1999.)
Despite the United States government’s suspicions about Japanese residents of the Hawaiian Islands, and the harsh and often racist treatment Japanese-Americans received after the Pearl Harbor attack, many wished to show their loyalty and join the war effort.
Initial plans called for 1,500 volunteer soldiers from the Hawaiian Islands—more than 10,000 volunteered. Recruiting was not as successful on the United States Mainland where recruiters hoped for 3,000 soldiers but only 1,200 volunteered.
Nisei soldiers formed a civilian workforce called the Varsity Victory Volunteers to help build roads, construct barracks, and dig ditches. The War Department appreciated these efforts, and in 1943 created an all-Nisei combat unit.
In the summer of 1942, approximately 1,300 Americans of Japanese ancestry from the Hawaiian Islands traveled to Wisconsin’s Camp McCoy for training, and then formed the 100th Infantry Battalion.
On February 1, 1943, the government announced the formation of the 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team, initially consisting of Nisei (second generation Japanese-American) volunteers from the Hawaiian Islands and the United States Mainland who wanted to demonstrate their loyalty to the United States.
In June of 1944 in Italy, the 100th Infantry Battalion joined ranks with the 442nd Infantry Regimental Combat Team. The 442nd/100th, which was comprised mostly of Hawai‘i’s Nisei soldiers, fought in Italy before participating in the invasion in southern France. For their heroic efforts despite heavy losses in Italy, France, and Germany, the 442nd became known as the “Purple Heart Battalion.”
The motto of the 442nd was “Go For Broke,” a Hawaiian slang term referring to risking everything. In October of 1944 they broke through German forces and liberated the French town of Bruyeres from the Nazis, and then rescued 211 members of the “Lost Battalion,” a Texas Battalion (1st Battalion, 141st Infantry Battalion, 36th Infantry Division), in Biffontaine, losing more than half of their own soldiers in the process—800 soldiers in a one month period. The “Lost Battalion,” known as the “Alamo Regiment” was trapped behind enemy lines for five days, surrounded by Germans and out of food and ammunition. The rescue of the “Lost Battalion” was considered a pivotal battle in the war, and one of the most famous battles of military history.
The 442nd/100th, which eventually became the most decorated unit in United States history, earning more than 18,000 total awards for their stellar war performance record, and their valorous fighting in numerous battles despite suffering high casualty rates. Awards given to the 442nd included 9,486 Purple Hearts, 52 Distinguished Service Crosses, 8 Distinguished Unit Citations, and 21 Congressional Medals of Honor.
Tsunamis
One of the first recorded tsunamis in the Hawaiian Islands was generated near Chile and hit Kahului, Maui on November 7, 1837. At least 15 people were killed as livestock, canoes, and the village’s 26 grass houses were swept inland and deposited in a small lake. In Hilo, 100 houses were destroyed.
Nearly every European-style home in the Ka‘ū district of Hawai‘i Island was destroyed on April 2, 1868 when an earthquake measuring 8.0 on the Richter scale caused a mudslide and localized tsunami. The mud flow buried a village of 31 people along with about 50 animals, killing 40 people in all. The tsunami killed 48 people when water surged ashore up to 60 feet (18 m) high, sweeping away the ancient village of ‘Āpua in Puna.
On May 9, 1877, a large earthquake occurred near Peru, resulting in a tsunami that arrived in Hilo before dawn killing 45 people and destroying 37 houses. An 8.0 earthquake on the Tonga Trench in 1901 generated a 4-foot (1.2-m) high tsunami that hit Kailua-Kona, causing minor damage.
A 5-foot (1.5-m) high tsunami arrived in Hilo in 1918, doing little damage. An earthquake in the Aleutian Islands on February 23, 1923 generated a tsunami that caused waves more than 20 feet (6 m) high to hit the Waiākea area of Hilo, and also caused significant damage in Kahului, Maui.
On April 1, 1946, an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generated a tsunami that killed 159 people in Hilo and Laupāhoehoe on Hawai‘i Island, and also hit Maui and Kaua‘i. The tsunami destroyed 500 buildings in Hilo and damaged about 1,000 other structures, killing 96 people. The third tsunami wave was reportedly the biggest of some 15 waves that swept inland, killing people and destroying property.
Water surged as high as 56 feet (17 m) above sea level in some places, and more than 33 feet (10 m) above sea level in Hilo. The tsunami caused an estimated $26 million damage in all, including railroads, bridges, piers and ships.
Other affected coastal areas on Hawai‘i Island included Laupāhoehoe, where 24 people were killed. The 1946 tsunami also hit other Hawaiian Islands, killing 17 people on Kaua‘i, 13 on Maui, and six on O‘ahu, including one at Makapu‘u, two at Kahuku, and three at Kahana.
On March 9, 1957, an earthquake in the Aleutian Islands generated a tsunami that destroyed 75 homes on Kaua‘i’s northern shore. On May 22, 1960, a large earthquake generated near Chile about 6,600 miles (10,600 km) from the Hawaiian Islands moved a piece of land the size of California 30 feet (9 m) in just minutes.
About 15 hours later, on the morning of May 23, Hilo was hit by at least seven significant tsunami waves over a two-hour period. The third wave was the most destructive, creating a bore in Hilo Bay that rushed ashore over a 4-mile (6.4 km) section of the Hilo waterfront at a speed reported to be more than 37 miles per hour (60 km./hr.), surging water as high as 36 feet (11 m) above sea level. The tsunami killed 61 people and also destroyed 229 homes and 308 public buildings and businesses.
One of North America’s largest earthquakes ever recorded occurred in Alaska in 1964, registering a magnitude of 8.4 on the Richter scale and generating tsunami waves that caused flooding in Kahului, Maui, and Hilo.
On November 29, 1975, two strong earthquakes shook the southeast region of Hawai‘i Island, causing a small eruption of Kīlauea Volcano and generating a localized tsunami that came ashore near the site of an old Hawaiian village that is now a campground area called Halapē. One of the 1975 earthquakes registered at least 7.2 on the Richter scale.
The ground in the area sank some 12 feet (3.7 m) and rocks fell from the cliffs above. The tsunami wave swept campers onto a rugged lava field and washed some of them into a huge crack in the lava, killing two people and injuring many more. A tsunami warning in Honolulu in 1986 caused massive traffic jams, but turned out to be a false alarm.
Major Tsunamis of Hawaiian Islands
Date Deaths in Hawai‘i Islands Affected Origin of Earthquake
1837 15 Hawai‘i, Maui Chile
1868 47 Hawai‘i Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami)
1877 5 Hawai‘i Peru
1901 0 Hawai‘i Tonga Trench
1923 1 Hawai‘i Kamchatka, Russia
1923 1 O‘ahu, Maui, Hawai‘i Aleutians
1933 0 Hawai‘i Japan
1946 159 Hawai‘i, Maui, O‘ahu, Kaua‘i Aleutians
1951 0 Hawai‘i Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami)
1952 0 Hawai‘i Northwest Pacific
1957 0 Kaua‘i, O‘ahu Aleutians
1960 61 Hawai‘i Chile
1964 0 Maui Alaska
1975 2 Hawai‘i Hawai‘i Island (localized tsunami)
Mimiki ke kai, ahuwale ka papa leho.
When the sea draws out in the tidal wave, the rocks
where the cowries hide are exposed.
Secrets will out on the day of wrath.[liv]
Earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions all may cause tsunamis, which have killed more people in the Hawaiian Islands than all other natural disasters combined. A typical tsunami has a wavelength of 50 to 300 miles (80 to 483 km), with some wavelengths exceeding 465 miles (748 km).
A tsunami may travel across the ocean at about 475 miles/hour (764 km./hr.)—the deeper the ocean, the faster the tsunami travels. The time it takes one complete wave to pass a given point is known as the wave’s period, and a typical tsunami may have a period from 9 to 30 minutes.
When traveling across the open ocean, a tsunami is typically only several feet high. This low wave height is due to the fact that a tsunami’s wavelength reaches all the way to the seafloor, which may be more than 20,000 feet (6,100 m) from the ocean’s surface. Often the full terror of a tsunami becomes apparent only when the wave finally reaches shallow waters.
[Photograph: Tsunami]
Kaha aku la ka nalu o ku‘u ‘āina.
The surf of my land has swept everything away.[lv]
Nēnē—The Hawaiian Goose
Many thousands of years ago, some Canadian geese were blown off course or perhaps caught in a storm, and ended up in the Hawaiian Islands. Their descendents evolved into an endemic (unique) Hawaiian goose species that is now Hawai‘i’s official state bird.
The nēnē (Branta sandvicensis) is about two feet long, which is a typical size for a goose. The nēnē’s head, face, and the back of its neck (the nape) are black, and the cheeks and the sides of the neck are a light tan color, with a buffy striped pattern (distinct horizontal bands). The nēnē’s lower body has this same light brown color and is striped, but the top of the body is a darker gray or brown.
The nēnē’s bill is black, as are its legs and feet. The webbing between the toes on the nēnē’s feet is much reduced compared to the fuller webbing on the feet of its ancestor, the Canadian goose. This adaptation is better for walking on high, dry lava flows and other nēnē habitats. When nēnē fly they make a “ney ney” sound, but on the ground nēnē sometimes make a different noise, slightly similar to a cow’s moo. Nēnē aren’t very shy, and sometimes approach humans.
Nēnē eat grasses, seeds, buds, flowers, berries and leaves, and are especially fond of native plants such as berries of naupaka, ‘ōhelo, kūkaenēnē, pūkiawe and ‘ulei (Hawaiian hawthorn). Nēnē prefer high, dry areas like old lava flows as well as wetlands and forest uplands. The nēnē builds its nest on the ground and lines it with feathers. One reason the nēnē became so endangered is due to ground predators including mongooses, pigs, rats, and domestic animals.
By the age of two, nēnē begin laying eggs. They nest between October and March, and one nēnē may lay from two to five (usually four or five) creamy, white eggs. They sit on the eggs for about 30 days while the eggs incubate. Sometimes the mother leaves the nest during this time and when she does, she covers the eggs with the downy feathers that are part of the nest lining.
During nesting, the adults go through a four to six week process called molting, at which time the adult birds cannot fly. The infant chick is able to run around just as soon as the chick’s downy feathers dry. The parents provide food for the baby until the hatchling is about 10 to 12 weeks old, when the gosling learns to fly.
Predatory animals, habitat destruction, hunting, and egg collecting decimated nēnē populations of all the Hawaiian Islands. By 1951, there were only about 30 nēnē left in the wild as well as some captive nēnē in European and American zoos.
Beginning in 1949, scientists began raising nēnē in captivity. More than 1,600 birds were raised at Pōhakuloa on Hawai‘i Island. Beginning in 1951, nēnē were also raised at England’s Slimbridge Wildfowl Trust.
In all, more than 2,000 nēnē were raised in captivity between 1960 and 1990 and released on three of the Hawaiian Islands (Kaua‘i, Maui, and Hawai‘i). Today the wild nēnē population has increased to more than 2,000 birds statewide. Kaua‘i is considered the ideal place for nēnē because there are no mongooses, as there are on the other main Hawaiian Islands.
On Kaua‘i the population of nēnē has rapidly grown, and they are seen in various low elevation habitats (e.g., lower Hanalei Valley) as well as higher elevations (e.g., Kōke‘e State Park). On other Hawaiian Islands, however, nēnē populations are generally restricted to higher elevations.
[Photograph: Nēnē]
Unions
In 1935, the U.S. Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act, opening the way for the systematic organization of unions that would have profound impacts on business and industry in the Hawaiian Islands.
That same year, the first union newspaper—Voice of Labor—was published, and a local branch of the ILA, an international longshore union, instigated a dockworker’s strike in Hilo that led to the reinstatement of some workers. The International Longshoremen’s & Warehousemen’s Union (ILWU) eventually became a major political and labor influence.
On August 1, 1938, the Hilo Longshoremen’s Association went on strike against the Inter-Island Steamship Navigation Company. After marching down Kūhiō Road, about 250 workers and their supporters staged a peaceful sit-in at the Hilo wharf where the Inter-Island Steamship Company vessel Waialeale was arriving from Honolulu with armed strikebreakers on board.
When the ship arrived, police and strikebreakers attacked the striking workers with bayonets, tear gas and fire hoses, and guns, and fired buck shot and bird shot injuring 51 people. The event came to be known as the “Hilo Massacre” and “Bloody Monday.”
The incident spurred a period of strikes and violence that spanned over the next two years and led to the shutdown of the docks of the Inter-Island Steamship Company. On the 50th anniversary of the event, a monument was placed at the Hilo dock.
In 1940, a strike by longshore plantation workers at Kaua‘i’s Ahukini port lasted 298 days, the longest to date. By this time the ILWU had become a formidable union under the leadership of regional director Jack Hall.
Passage of the Hawai‘i Employment Relations Act in 1945 empowered agricultural workers and allowed the ILWU to begin organizing workers on pineapple and sugar plantations.
On September 1, 1946, 28,000 workers from 33 sugar plantations went on a statewide strike against the Hawai‘i Employers Council. The ILWU represented the strikers in this action, which became known as the Great Hawai‘i Sugar Strike and lasted 79 days. The union was victorious, and ILWU national chief Harry Bridges stated that Hawai‘i was no longer a feudal colony.
On May 1, 1949, the ILWU led by Jack Hall went on strike against Hawai‘i’s “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke. The strike shut down the docks as the union demanded wage parity with workers on the United States Mainland.
The ILWU strike lasted 157 days and became known as the Great Hawaiian Dock Strike, crippling the flow of goods to the Islands, which were almost totally dependent upon shipping. The strike resulted in statewide food shortages and caused the bankruptcy of many small businesses. Labor organizers were accused of participation in a Communist plot (this was during the McCarthy era).
On April 1, 1950, the House Un-American Activities Committee held hearings at ‘Iolani Palace in Honolulu to investigate alleged Communist infiltration of the labor movement, issuing subpoenas to 70 people including Honolulu ILWU leader Jack Kawano. When Kawano and 38 others refused to testify, the “Reluctant 39” were charged with contempt of Congress. The U.S. Supreme Court later threw out the charges.
On August 28, 1951, seven union organizers, including Jack Hall, the ILWU’s regional director in the Hawaiian Islands, were indicted for violating the Smith Act (advocating the use of force or violence to overthrow the U.S. government). The seven were convicted after a seven-month trial in 1952-53, with one of the men sentenced to three years in prison and six of the men given five year terms.
The verdict led to an all-Islands walkout of union members. Jack Hall served no time while the six others served just one week before being bailed out. In 1955, the AFL and CIO merged into one union.
After repeated appeals, and then a 1957 U.S. Supreme Court ruling that the teaching of Communism is not illegal, the “Hawai‘i Seven” verdict was overturned in 1958 by the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.
A strike by sugar plantation laborers in 1958 lasted 128 days, with a settlement reached on June 9, 1958, resulting in the return to work of 13,000 workers who received significant wage gains and a three year contract. Governor William F. Quinn presented the proposal that led to the resolution of the strike.
The Honolulu Advertiser and the Honolulu Star-Bulletin were shut down by a 44-day strike in 1963. Transit workers of the Honolulu Rapid Transit company (a private company) began a 67-day strike on March 1, 1967, the longest transit workers strike in the Hawaiian Islands. Teamsters Local 996 represented the workers.
Hawai‘i Democrats established the nation’s first right-to-strike law for public-employee unions in 1968, strengthening a powerful union lobby that began to significantly influence political change. In 1970, the Hawai‘i Public Employment Relations Act was passed, allowing County and State workers to join unions, file grievances, and bargain for contracts with better wages and working conditions.
On October 9, 1970, two thousand hotel workers represented by the ILWU went on strike in what became the largest hotel worker’s strike the Hawaiian Islands, lasting 75 days.
On January 1, 1971, transit workers represented by Hawai‘i Teamsters Local 996 went on strike against the Honolulu Rapid Transit, a private company owned by Harry Weinberg. The strike lasted for two months, inconveniencing some 70,000 commuters and leading to the creation of a city transportation system negotiated by Mayor Frank Fasi.
A strike by dockworkers on the West Coast and in the Hawaiian Islands began on July 1, 1971, with about 15,000 members stopping work until October of 1971 when President Nixon halted the strike for 90 days. The strike resumed the day after Christmas and continued until February, lasting 134 days in all.
A strike by United Airlines pilots and flight attendants in 1985 lasted four weeks, costing the State of Hawai‘i an estimated $100 million in lost revenue. Public education in the state was shut down on April 5, 2001 by two major strikes involving 3,000 University of Hawai‘i faculty and 10,000 public school teachers, the state’s first combined upper and lower education strike. University of Hawai‘i faculty were represented by the UHPA, and the public school teachers were represented by the HSTA.
Major unions in the Hawaiian Islands today include: International Brotherhood of Carpenters & Joiners, Hawai‘i Carpenters Union; International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers; International Brotherhood of Teamsters; Hawai‘i Government Employees Association (HGEA/AFSCME); Hawai‘i State Teacher’s Association (HSTA-NEA); Hotel Employees & Restaurant Employees (HERE); International Longshoremen’s & Warehousemen’s Union; and United Public Workers (UPW/AFSCME).
The Democratic Revolution
During the first half of the 1900s, Caucasian, Republican interests connected to the sugar plantation economy dominated politics in the Hawaiian Islands, which was controlled by Hawai‘i’s “Big Five” companies: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke.
Largely excluded from political power were native Hawaiians as well as the many ethnic groups that came to the Hawaiian Islands as contract laborers—Chinese, Japanese, Portuguese, Filipinos, Puerto Ricans, Okinawans, Spanish, Koreans, and others. The political landscape of the Hawaiian Islands changed rapidly in the mid-1950s when returning World War II veterans, many of whom were distinguished members of the renowned 442nd Infantry Regiment, began to assert their political power.
Japanese-Americans led the new political movement and formed alliances with other ethnic groups, including Filipinos. These increasingly powerful ethnic groups were supported by landowners and business leaders who helped them win important election victories in what became known as the Democratic Revolution of 1954 (six Democrats (Nisei) had been elected to the Territorial Legislature in 1946).
Favoring statehood, liberal labor benefits, land reform, and equality in education, the Democrats gained a majority in the Territorial House of Representatives and two years later won both Houses. In 1954, Democrats won 55 of the 76 election contests, gaining control of five of the six branches of the Territorial government.
In 1962, former Honolulu police captain and U.S. Representative John Burns was elected governor of the State of Hawai‘i, and for the first time Democrats controlled both the executive and legislative branches of the state’s government.
John Burns served as the governor of the State of Hawai‘i until 1974, and he is considered the founder of a Democratic political dynasty in the State of Hawai‘i that lasted until the election of Linda Lingle in 2002.
Daniel Inouye
Born in Honolulu on September 7, 1924, Daniel Inouye was the first of four children of Hyotaro and Kame Inouye. As a child, Inouye attended McKinley High School in Honolulu and worked at various jobs, including parking cars at Honolulu Stadium. In 1943 at the age of 18, Inouye enlisted in the Army, and from 1944 to 1947 he served in the United States Army’s renowned 442nd Infantry Regiment.
Designated a Sergeant, Inouye fought in the Italian campaign where he became a combat platoon leader. Fighting in the French Vosges Mountains in the fall of 1944, Inouye won a Bronze Star when he helped rescue “The Lost Battalion,” a Texas Battalion (141st Regiment, 36th Infantry Division) that was surrounded by German forces. Inouye also became a Second Lieutenant.
During an attack on a well-defended hill in Italy, a bullet tore through Inouye’s abdomen and came out his back, just missing his spine. As platoon leader, he alone continued to advance, and threw two hand grenades at the machine gun position that had pinned down his men.
As Inouye advanced, a German rifle grenade hit him from close range and tore up his right arm. With his left hand, he threw his last grenade and then fired his submachine gun before finally being stopped when he was hit yet again, this time by a bullet in the leg. Twenty-five Germans were killed and eight captured in the attack led by Inouye.
After nearly two years in the hospital, Inouye returned home in 1947 with the second highest award for military valor, the Distinguished Service Cross. This award was later upgraded to a Medal of Honor (the highest award), which was presented to Inouye by the President of the United States on June 21, 2000.
Twenty-two other former 442nd members also received the Medal of Honor. Inouye also earned a Purple Heart with cluster and a Bronze Star, along with a dozen other citations and medals.
After attending the University of Hawai‘i (1950) and George Washington University Law School (1952), Inouye became Honolulu’s Deputy Public Prosecutor in 1954. Inouye’s involvement in politics began during the era of McCarthyism, which was particularly directed against those supporting unions in the Hawaiian Islands.
When Inouye and other Democrats were accused of being Communists, Inouye responded: “We bitterly resent having our loyalty and patriotism questioned. I gave this arm to fight Fascists,” he said, shaking his empty right sleeve, adding, “...If my country wants the other one to fight Communists, it can have it.”
Inouye was elected to the House of Representatives of the Territory of Hawai‘i in 1954, re-elected in 1956, then elected to the Territorial Senate in 1958. When Inouye was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1959 after Hawai‘i became the 50th state, he became the State of Hawai‘i’s first Congressman and the first Japanese-American in the United States House or Congress.
At Inouye’s swearing in the Speaker stated “Raise your right hand and repeat after me.” Inouye proudly raised his left hand and stated the oath of office.
Inouye was re-elected to the House in 1960, elected to the U.S. Senate in 1962, and then repeatedly re-elected to the Senate. In 1968, he served as the Keynote Speaker at the Democratic National Convention and gained fame during the nationally televised Watergate hearings in the 1970s and later as chairman of the Senate Iran-Contra hearings.
In 1993, Inouye helped arrange the return of the island of Kaho‘olawe to the State of Hawai‘i. Inouye received 76% of the votes when he won his 7th term in 1998. He is now serving his eighth consecutive term and is the Senate’s third most senior member.
Inouye has been involved in many defense-related issues and serves on the Senate Defense Appropriations Committee, and he continues to lobby for legislation that creates job for residents of the Hawaiian Islands. Inouye’s extensive political influence has helped to allocate hundreds of millions of federal dollars to programs in the State of Hawai‘i.
[Photograph: Daniel Inouye]
Ala Moana
The Ala Moana Shopping Center opened on August 3, 1959, the same year Hawai‘i was admitted as the 50th state. The shopping center sits on an area that was marshland in the early 1900s. Much of the land was more than three feet (1 m) underwater and covered with duck farms.
The Hawaiian Dredging Company, led by Walter F. Dillingham, purchased 50 acres (20 ha) of the swamp land in 1912 and brought coral there from nearby dredging projects.
Plans for a shopping center were begun in 1848 by Walter Dillingham’s son, Lowell, who was president of Hawaiian Land Company (a Hawaiian Dredging Company affiliate).
In 1931, the City and County of Honolulu acted to clean up the region, which had also been the site of a refuse dump. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt dedicated Moana Park in 1934, and it was renamed Ala Moana in 1947.
Eventually sand was brought to the beachfront area, and the two-story Ala Moana Shopping Center was built on an adjacent 50 acres (20 ha) of land using coral fill dredged from the offshore reef.
Construction on the shopping center began in 1957. At the initial opening of the $28 million, two-level shopping center on August 13, 1959, there were 87 stores, totalling 680 square feet (63 sq.m.) of space), and 5,000 parking stalls. Some of the stores at Ala Moana were Woolworth, Longs, Sears, McInerney’s, Hartfields, Carousel, Chandler’s, Foodland, Shirokiya, and Uyehara’s Service Station.
The second phase of Ala Moana opened in 1966, increasing the shopping center’s area to 1.35 million square feet (.12 million sq. m) with a total of 155 stores, including Liberty House as well as J.C. Penney, which expanded to the fourth level in 1976.
The center’s total area increased to 1.5 million square feet (.14 million sq.m.) by 1980 when Liberty House added a fourth level.
In 1982 the Ala Moana shopping center and two nearby office buildings were sold for $300 million to Daiea, Inc. (a Japanese retail company) and Equitable (an insurance company). Daiea bought Equitable’s 40% stake for $410 million in 1995.
A boom in Japanese tourism fueled the mall’s fourth major expansion in 1990. A third level was added in the mall’s center where high-end fashion merchandise was sold.
In 1996, construction began on a 160,000 square foot (14,864 sq.m.) Neiman Marcus store (opening in 1998), and another 160,000 square feet (14,900 sq.m.) of space on the third level (opening in 1999) to house 30 more stores and restaurants.
Statehood
A general election plebiscite on November 5, 1940 favored statehood by a 2 to 1 margin. After World War II ended in 1945, the Hawaiian statehood movement grew, and control economic, political and social life in the Hawaiian Islands was increasingly dominated by Caucasian and Republican corporate interests that were strengthened by the dominant trading and sugar firms, including the powerful “Big Five”: Theo H. Davies; American Factors (Amfac); C. Brewer & Co.; Alexander & Baldwin; and Castle & Cooke.
A constitutional convention convened on April 4, 1950 to create a state constitution to present to the United States Congress. The convention produced a draft document in October of 1950 that was approved by the Legislature. On November 7, 1950 the measure was put the voters in a general election and ratified by a 3-1 margin.
On Honolulu’s Bishop Street in 1954, proponents of statehood gathered 150,000 signatures on a petition about 3 miles (5 km) long, written on a roll of blank newsprint. Hawai‘i’s delegates to Congress—John Burns, Joseph Farrington, and Elizabeth Farrington—pushed for statehood.
When Alaska became a state in 1958, it removed some significant political obstacles to the Hawaiian Islands becoming a state, and made statehood virtually imminent.
The United States Senate passed a measure on March 11, 1959, followed by the U.S. House of Representatives on March 12, 1959. United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Act into law on March 18, 1959, though it required a plebiscite of Hawaiian residents for approval. This occurred on June 27, 1959 when residents of the Hawaiian Islands voted in favor of statehood, and the plebiscite passed 17 to 1, with only Ni‘ihau opposing it.
The first general election was held on July 28, 1959 and William F. Quinn was elected governor of the State of Hawai‘i. Oren E. Long and Hiram L. Fong were elected to be Hawai‘i’s first senators. Daniel K. Inouye was elected to the United States House of Representatives, becoming the first American congressman of Japanese descent to serve in the House of Representatives.
On August 21, 1959, President Eisenhower signed the Statehood Proclamation and Hawai‘i was officially admitted as the 50th state. The State of Hawai‘i’s population at this time was about 622,000 people, with more than 240,000 annual visitors. On July 4, 1960, a 50th star was added to the flag of the United States, and Hawai‘i’s state flag was formally accepted.
As a result of statehood, 1.8 million acres (.73 million ha) of ceded lands were transferred to the State of Hawai‘i by the United States government to be held in trust for five purposes: public education; public use; public improvements; farm and home ownership; and the betterment of Native Hawaiians.
The U.S.S. Arizona Memorial
The U.S.S. Arizona Memorial in Pearl Harbor honors those who died in the Dec. 7, 1941 Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, an event that entered the United States into World War II. The Memorial is an open structure that is 184 feet (56 m) long, and positioned directly over the wreck of the U.S.S. Arizona where 1,177 died and 900 remain entombed.
The architect of the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial was an Austrian named Alfred Preis who fled the Nazis in 1939 and later moved to the Hawaiian Islands. President Dwight D. Eisenhower approved the creation of the Memorial in 1958, and it was officially dedicated on Memorial Day, May 31, 1962. An Elvis Presley benefit concert at Honolulu’s Bloch Arena raised about $64,000 toward the $500,000 cost of the shrine.
Designated as a National Historical Landmark in 1989, the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial is now one of the most visited attractions in the Hawaiian Islands. About 1.5 million people tour the Memorial each year.
Mormons in the Hawaiian Islands—The Polynesian Cultural Center
On December 12, 1850, ten Mormons arrived from the California gold camps and became the first Mormon missionaries in the Hawaiian Islands. One of these men was George Q. Cannon, a leader in the effort to translate the Book of Mormon into the Hawaiian language.
On August 8, 1851 at Kealakou, Maui, the first branch of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was established. In 1855 Cannon published the Hawaiian translation of the Book of Mormon, titled Ka Buke a Moramona.
On July 4, 1861 Walter Murray Gibson (1822-1888) arrived after becoming a Mormon missionary. With the approval of Brigham Young to convert Pacific Islanders, Gibson became the leader of a colony of Mormons on Lāna‘i whose leader had returned to Utah three years earlier due to the Mormon War.
Mormon church elders later found out that Gibson had used church funds to purchase about half of Lāna‘i and put it in his own name. He was excommunicated in 1864. In 1865, the Mormons from Lāna‘i purchased 6,000 acres (2,428 ha) and in the Lā‘ie region at the base of O‘ahu’s Ko‘olau Mountains.
Gibson moved to Hawai‘i Island in 1872, and was appointed as King Kalākaua’s minister of foreign affairs in 1882. Gibson was forced out of the position during the 1887 revolution that led to the Bayonet Constitution.
In 1919, the Mormons used volcanic rocks and crushed coral to build a smaller version of the Mormon temple located in Salt Lake City, Utah. Costing $500,000, the temple was dedicated on November 27, 1919 and became the first Mormon temple built outside of the continental United States.
In 1955, Mormons established the Latter Day Saints Church College of Hawai‘i in Lā‘ie, and Mormon President David O. McKay dedicated the College in 1958. By 1971, Church College had about 1,300 students, many of whom came from various Pacific Islands.
In 1974 the school became a branch campus of Provo, Utah’s Brigham Young University, a four-year college with an enrollment of about 2,000 undergraduates. The Mormon temple is considered the “cornerstone” of the college.
The success of Polynesian shows put on by the college in the 1950s led to the construction of the Polynesian Cultural Center, which opened on October 12, 1963. Founded by the Mormon Church, the Polynesian Cultural Center is run by the college and staffed by students. A significant expansion in 1975 made the Lā‘ie site a major O‘ahu attraction.
Today the Polynesian Cultural Center encompasses 42 acres (17 ha), including seven theme villages arranged around lagoons. The villages represent various cultures of Polynesia, including the Marquesas, Samoa, Fiji, New Zealand, Tahiti, Tonga, and the Hawaiian Islands, each with its own unique music, dances, and crafts, which include coconut cracking, tree climbing, and fire starting as well as participatory activities such as lei making and rope making.
A daily highlight at the Polynesian Cultural Center is the 90-minute post-dinner show with erupting volcanoes and other special effects. About 900,000 people visit the Polynesian Cultural Center each year, making it O‘ahu’s second most visited attraction after the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial.
The Merrie Monarch Festival
Premiering in 1964 as part of the Hilo Festival, the Merrie Monarch Festival became an organized hula competition in 1971. Television coverage of the event began in 1981, and today the Merrie Monarch is the premier hula event in the state, and also the largest.
The Merrie Monarch Festival is named in honor of King David La‘amea Kalākaua, who reigned from 1874 to 1891 and was known as the Merrie Monarch for his revival of hula and other Hawaiian customs. When King Kalākaua held a coronation ceremony for himself in February of 1883 at the newly built ‘Iolani Palace in Honolulu, Hawaiian men chanted and pounded on pā ipu (gourd drums) and women in traditional dress performed hula.
King Kalākaua encouraged the traditional Hawaiian activities despite the protests of the era’s missionaries and other influential families of the day (beginning in 1820, the missionaries had exerted a steady influence on the native Hawaiians, discouraging traditional cultural and religious beliefs and practices, including hula). Kalākaua was attacked in the newspapers for allowing “paganism.”
Starting each year on Easter Sunday, the Merrie Monarch Festival hula competition is a prominent showcase of the living Hawaiian culture of hula and mele. The Merrie Monarch Festival has long been planned and organized under the leadership of “Auntie Dottie,” a.k.a. Dorothy Thompson.
Stringent guidelines require Merrie Monarch contestants to present the judges with fact sheets detailing their research and the rationale for their performance. Costumes are also required to fit the time portrayed in the chant or dance.
The Merrie Monarch is just one of numerous annual gatherings, festivals, and competitions held throughout the Hawaiian Islands.
Hula and Mele
According to legend, the first hula occurred when Pele, the goddess of fire and volcanoes, wanted her sisters to entertain her with song and dance. Only Pele’s youngest sister, Hi‘iaka, would comply, and she performed gracefully and powerfully for Pele to the amazement of all. Today hula is a beautiful art form and culturally significant practice that embraces and perpetuates Hawaiian history, legends, and culture.
Kuhi no ka lima, hele no ka maka.
Where the hands move, there let the eyes follow.
A rule in hula.[lvi]
With no written language, the ancient Hawaiians recorded their histories, genealogies, legends, and the phenomena of their gods through the creation and memorization of chants known as oli and dances called hula.
An oli is a chant that traditionally was not accompanied by dance. Often long phrases are chanted in a single breath, with each phrase ending with an ‘i‘i (trill). Mele is a more general word that refers to any type of song or chant.
A hula master, or kumu hula, trains the hula dancers in a school called a hālau. The dancers are trained not only in the dance movements but also in the philosophy of the hula. In ancient Hawai‘i, one who trained from childhood in the art of chanting was known as haku mele, a prestigious accomplishment that gave the person a high ranking status in the society.
Committed to memory, the long oli (chants) were passed down through generations. Chants were often accompanied by dancers performing the sacred art of hula. Wreathed with the woven ferns of the forest, the ancient Hawaiians chanted and danced to give thanks for what they had, preserving the stories that deeply enriched their island existence.
Considered a narrative movement, hula embraces the meanings of the chants while releasing the grace and spirit of the dancer. The essence of hula is to go inward, to touch one’s center. Dancers are especially aware of their feet touching the earth, and of the earth itself, which is felt to be the source of the power of the dance.
The two main forms of hula are ‘auana (also spelled ‘auwana) and kahiko. ‘Auana is the more modern style of hula, which is characterized by undulating movements and is usually accompanied by a Hawaiian band. Kahiko (which means “ancient”), is the older and more traditional form of hula. In kahiko, an invocation precedes each dance, and the women often wear knee-length skirts made from flat green kī (ti) leaves. They may wear a necklace made from the polished nuts of the kukui (candlenut tree), or lei ‘ā‘ī (draping vines or flowers). Bracelets of ferns around their wrists and ankles are known as kūpe‘e. The lei po‘o encircles the dancer’s head, which is traditionally graced with long, dark flowing hair.
Hula and mele chants are the ancient way that Hawaiians tell their stories, pay reverence to nature, and celebrate the beauty of the heart of the Hawaiian people, their love and aloha. Traditionally, hula and mele help Hawaiians recount their origins and give thanks for all of the many natural wonders that enrich their world, including the animals, birds, fish, flowers, trees, mountains, streams, ocean, wind, and sky.
There are tales of migrations, genealogies, myths, customs, and traditions. There are stories of longing for loved ones, grief over deaths, heroic explorations, and love. There is acknowledgement of the ‘āina (land) and the history of the Hawaiian culture, a culture sustained by an oral tradition captured in the lyrics of the chants.
Chants are enhanced by hula, and both are integral parts of Hawaiian spirituality that carry on the ancient legends and history of the Hawaiian people. Hula brings forth the meanings of the chants, similar to how the form of poetry may give life to a poem. Performed by those trained in the art, hula and mele are infused with all the power and history of the Hawaiian people.
With their spoken words, the ancient Hawaiians passed on their own history and beliefs, recounting the complex genealogies of their ancestors and carrying on their oral traditions. The chants and dances also perpetuated an extensive knowledge of their natural world including species of the land, air, and water as well as the currents of the ocean and winds, the migrating patterns of birds, the movements of the stars and the phases of the moon through the months and seasons.
Preparing for the Dance
On the morning before performing hula, dancers traditionally walk up the mountain trails into the rainforest. There, with humility and reverence for the ‘āina (land), they take into their hands the verdant leaves and gently begin to weave and braid them into the strands of lei that will soon encircle their heads, necks, and arms.
The dancers may gather the lacy pala‘ā fern, and most frequently the palapalai fern, and in post-contact times the hardier laua‘e fern. The forest plants they use are symbolic—the palapalai fern is a representation of the hula goddess Laka; pala‘ā is an incarnation of Pele’s sister, Hi‘iaka; blossoms of ‘a‘ali‘i symbolize strength.
Offerings to gods were also made with numerous other native plants. Lama, ‘ie‘ie, and maile were considered sacred to the hula goddess Laka. A small koa tree might be placed on Laka’s hula altar to bring strength and fearlessness to the dancer.
Hula students also learn about the ‘āina and how to respect and care for the ferns and flowers, conserving plants for future generations. The dancers give thanks to the source of the plants, the fragrant maile and leaves of ki (ti) and woodland ferns, and ask permission for their use, paying reverence to Laka, the goddess of the forest and hula, as well as other ancient (kahiko) Hawaiian gods. Today many hālau also thank the god of Christianity.
Traditional instruments that accompany hula include the pahu hula, a drum made from the trunk of a niu (coconut palm) or ‘uala (breadfruit tree), with a sharkskin drumhead. Drumming sticks are called lā‘au ho‘okani pahu. Also used are pū‘ili (split bamboo rattles) and the ‘ulī‘ulī, a gourd rattle that contains seeds and is adorned at the top with colorful feathers.
[Photograph: Hula and Mele; Traditional Instruments]
The Spirit of AlohaAt its core, the ancient Hawaiian culture embodies the concept of aloha, emphasizing giving without the expectation of return, and a spirit of loving, sharing and caring for all the ‘ohana (extended family). This spirit of aloha was such an integral part of ancient Hawaiian life that it continues strongly today despite the vast changes that have come over the land and people.
Ua hilo ‘ia i ke aho a ke aloha.
Braided with the cords of love.
Held in the bond of affection.[lvii]
[Photograph: Hula dancing at Merrie Monarch Festival (2005 photo)]
The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe—Rediscovering the Past
In the 1970s, members of the Polynesian Voyaging Society constructed a voyaging canoe called the Hōkūle‘a (hōkū means “star” and le‘a means “happiness,” or “joy”). The Hōkūle‘a was built to show that migrating Polynesians could have sailed east against the prevailing winds. Launched on March 8, 1975, the Hōkūle‘a completed its first voyage to Tahiti in 1976.
The Hōkūle‘a has two 62-foot long kuamo‘o (hulls), eight ‘iako (crossbeams) joining the two hulls, two kia (masts), and pola (decking). Weighing about eight tons, the canoe reaches speeds up to twelve knots and can carry more than five tons, including a typical crew of twelve to sixteen people with supplies.
When Nainoa Thompson led the crew that sailed the Hōkūle‘a to Tahiti and back in 1980, he became the first Hawaiian to navigate a voyaging canoe in centuries. Many more Hōkūle‘a voyages have now been completed, including a voyage to the Marquesas and back in 1995.
The Hōkūle‘a crew sailed around the Hawaiian Islands in 1996-1997, allowing thousands of school children to visit or sail on the vessel. There was also a 1999 journey to Rapa Nui (Easter Island). Voyagers have now sailed the canoe well over 110,000 nautical miles, including six major continental and Pan-Pacific voyages.
A complete restoration of the Hōkūle‘a was finished in January of 2003 after nearly a year of work that included replacing approximately 5 miles (8 km) of ropes and cordage that holds the canoe together.
In September of that year the Hōkūle‘a sailed 150 miles (241 km) northwest of Kaua‘i to Nihoa, which was inhabited by Hawaiians in ancient times (but not inhabited when Captain Cook first arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778).
In 2004, the Hōkūle‘a sailed to Kaua‘i’s Hanalei Bay before again sailing to Nihoa and then completing a 1,200-mile (1,900-km) round trip through the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands to Kure Atoll and back. The Hōkūle‘a also sailed to Kaho‘olawe to celebrate the end of military bombing on that island and its return to Hawaiians as a place to relearn old traditions.
Hele ‘e ka wa‘a.
The speed of a canoe.
Said of a fast traveler.[lviii]
[Photograph: Hōkūle‘a]
Kaho‘olawe Returned
In 1920, the United States military began using the island of Kaho‘olawe as a bombing range for ships and aircraft. In 1939, the Territory of Hawai‘i leased the southern tip of Kaho‘olawe to the United States Army for use as an artillery range.
After the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor the U.S. Navy gained exclusive use of Kaho‘olawe for bombing practice and gunnery training. On February 20, 1953, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed an executive order placing Kaho‘olawe under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy.
On January 4, 1976, nine people led the first protest occupation of Kaho‘olawe in an effort to stop the use of the island as a military bombing target. Seven of the protesters—Kimo Aluli, Ian Lind, Ellen Miles, Stephen Morse, Gail Kawaipuna Prejean, Walter Ritte and Karla Villalba—were arrested within hours.
Two of the protesters, Walter Ritte Jr. and Emmett Aluli, were able to get inland from the shore without being caught. Ritte and Aluli remained on the island for nearly three days before surrendering.
Following the occupation, the stories told by Ritte and Aluli of what they saw—widespread destruction, and desecration that included bombed heiau (ancient sacred sites)—inspired activists and fueled a passionate protest movement that sought to stop the bombing of Kaho‘olawe.
After the initial occupation, Ritte and Aluli returned to Kaho‘olawe with Ritte’s sister and wife, and again they evaded the military for days. In all, there were at least twelve occupations of Kaho‘olawe after the initial landing by the “Kaho‘olawe Nine”.
In the weeks after the initial protest, the county councils of Kaua‘i and Hawai‘i Island urged an end to the use of Kaho‘olawe as bombing target. Native Hawaiians organized a grass-roots protest movement known as Protect Kaho‘olawe ‘Ohana and filed a lawsuit in federal court attempting to halt the bombing.
In March of 1977 James “Kimo” Mitchell and his cousin George Jarrett Helm Jr., the leader of Protect Kaho‘olawe ‘Ohana while paddling their surfboards to Kaho‘olawe during another attempt to reclaim the island for native Hawaiians.
In 1980, Protect Kaho‘olawe ‘Ohana entered into an agreement with the United States Navy. The consent decree authorized an archeological survey as well as goat eradication. Clearance of weapons materials from the island’s surface began even though military training on Kaho‘olawe continued.
On March 18, 1981, Kaho‘olawe was placed on the National Register of Historic Places. On October 22, 1990, U.S. President George Bush ended the use of Kaho‘olawe for bombing practice, and created a congressional commission to work out a return of the island to Hawaiians.
In 1993, the United States Navy received a $400 million authorization from the U.S. Congress to clean ordnance from Kaho‘olawe during the following decade. In 1994, under a congressional appropriations act and presidential order, the island of Kaho‘olawe was returned to the State of Hawai‘i.
In July of 1997, Parsons-UXB Joint Venture was given a contract to clear ordnance, and employed archaeologists, surveyors, environmental specialists, heavy equipment operators, and others to complete the work.
On November 11, 2003 the Navy transferred control of access to Kaho‘olawe to the State of Hawai‘i. By the end of 2003, the cleanup efforts had succeeded in clearing more than 20,000 acres (8,100 ha) of the island’s surface to 4 feet (1.2 m) deep. More than 90,000 pieces of ordnance were disposed of, including 2000-pound (907 kg) bombs. More than 8.5 million pounds (3.9 million kg.) of weapon fragments were gathered.
Also retrieved during the Kaho‘olawe cleanup were about 12,000 tires that had been used to mark targets. A $3 million rain catchment tank was installed at the Kaho‘olawe’s summit to provide water for newly planted native species, including more than 20,000 plants in the crater of Lua Makika volcano.
In 2004 the voyaging canoes Makali‘i, Hōkūle‘a, and Hōkūalaka‘i sailed to Kaho‘olawe to celebrate its return to Hawaiians and begin its use as a place to relearn old traditions. Meeting the voyaging canoes at Kaho‘olawe was Mau Piailug, the renowned Micronesian master navigator who helped train Hawaiian navigators and revive the ancient art of non-instrument wayfinding.
Eddie Would Go
In 1978, the Hōkūle‘a voyaging canoe capsized off Moloka‘i. Crew member Eddie Aikau, a respected lifeguard, surfer, and Hawaiian waterman, paddled a surfboard toward land to get help, but was never seen again. The rest of the crew was eventually rescued. (See The Hōkūle‘a Voyaging Canoe.)
Eddie was the son of Solomon “Pops” Aikau and his wife Henrietta, and the third of six children. Born May 4, 1946 in Kahului, Maui, Edward Ryan Aikau was a full-blooded Hawaiian. Eddie’s father took the family surfing frequently during Eddie’s childhood, allowing him to improve his surfing skills with a classic 75-pound (34-kg) surfboard.
In 1967, Eddie surfed 15-foot (4.6-m) Sunset Beach waves, and on November 19 of that year he startled Hawai‘i’s top surfers by taking off on an estimated 40-foot (12-m) set wave at Waimea Bay. Also in 1967, Eddie took sixth place in his first major surf contest, the Duke Kahanamoku Classic.
In 1968, Eddie became Waimea Bay’s first lifeguard, and went on to save the lives of many people who otherwise might have drowned in the rough ocean waters of the Hawaiian Islands. Eddie was a North Shore lifeguard during the 1960s and 1970s, and was voted Lifeguard of the Year in 1971. He later appeared in surf movies. A talented musician, Eddie also wrote songs and was proficient at slack-key guitar.
In 1978, Eddie was chosen to be one of the 16-member crew invited to sail on the Hōkūle‘a, a 62-foot (18.9-m) Polynesian voyaging canoe to Tahiti. The Hōkūle‘a had no modern navigation or communication equipment, and was built to reenact the ancient voyages of the Polynesians who first settled the Hawaiian Islands.
On the night of March 16, 1978 the Hōkūle‘a capsized in large swells and gale-force winds about 12 miles (19 km) off the island of Lāna‘i in the Kaiwi Channel, forcing the 15 crew members to cling to the voyaging canoe’s overturned hull. Eddie Aikau volunteered to paddle his twelve-foot tandem surfboard toward Lāna‘i for help.
As Eddie stroked away from the capsized Hōkūle‘a, he stopped and tossed off his life preserver, which was hampering his paddling. Then as he rose to the peak of a swell, Eddie turned and gave the crew a final wave goodbye and paddled into the distance. Eddie Aikau was never seen again.
A Hawaiian Airlines plane later saw a flare shot up by the Hōkūle‘a, and soon a Coast Guard helicopter arrived and tossed a metal cage down to the stranded crew. An intensive air-sea search and rescue effort was launched to find Eddie, but after five days the search was called off.
In 1987, a surf contest was initiated in honor of Eddie Aikau. The In Memory of Eddie Aikau Big Wave Invitational is known locally as “The Eddie,” and matches the world’s best big wave surfers against each other in the biggest of waves. The surfing contest only commences if the waves reach the heights considered worthy of the Aikau name, which is at least 40 foot (12 m) faces, locally referred to as at least 20 to 30 foot (6 to 9 m) waves, measuring by the back of the waves.
The first Eddie was won on February 21, 1987 by Clyde Aikau, the brother of Eddie Aikau. Other past winners of the Eddie include: Keone Downing (January 21, 1990); Noah Johnson (January 1, 1999); Ross Clarke-Jones (January 14, 2001); Kelly Slater (January 7, 2002); and Bruce Irons (Dec. 15, 2005).
Eddie Aikau was known for his humility, and for never seeking thanks or praise for his many heroic deeds. Today the saying “Eddie Would Go” recalls Eddie Aikau’s selflessness and bravery, and the phrase is frequently seen on local bumper stickers and heard throughout the Islands.
Pu‘uwai hao kila.
Heart of steel.
Fearless[lix]
[Photograph: Eddie Aikau]
Recent Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano
The most recent activity on Kīlauea Volcano is a flank eruption on the East Rift Zone. It began on January 3, 1983 at Nāpau Crater with 250-foot fountains of lava. In June of 1983, the activity moved to Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Vent with lava shooting up to 1,400 feet (427 m) high and eventually reaching the Royal Gardens subdivision about 4 miles (6.4 km) from Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō. In 1983 and 1984, 16 homes were buried and/or burned. In 1984 at Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō, explosions of fountaining lava reached heights of more than 1,500 feet (457 m).
Eruptive activity moved to Kupaianaha Vent in July, 1986, and soon the lava was flowing through the community of Kapa‘ahu and across the coastal highway. Later in 1986, 14 houses in the community of Kalapana were destroyed.
In the spring and summer of 1990, numerous homes in and around Kalapana Gardens were destroyed along with the county store and the Mauna Kea Congregational Church. The destruction totaled 181 homes by the end of 1990. The black sand beach on crescent-shaped Kaimū Bay was filled with lava. In 1992 the eruptions moved from Kupaianaha Vent back to Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō.
In 1997, amidst a swarm of earthquakes, Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater erupted and collapsed, sending abrasive red cinder dust (fine-grained lithic tephra) over dozens of square miles of Kīlauea’s eastern flank. The iron in the volcanic rock oxidized as it was ejected, creating red dust-sized particles that were a kind of volcanic rust.
The floor of Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater fell nearly 500 feet (152 m). About 3 miles (4.8 km) up the East Rift Zone from Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater, and 9 miles (14.5 km) east of Kīlauea’s summit, curtains of fiery lava up to 100 feet (30 m) tall shot from fissures in the Earth. Two miles west, at Nāpau Crater, a 24-hour eruption occurred.
In May of 2001, the Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Vent flow covered almost a mile of an unpaved access road, blocking nearly 1,500 people from the lots they owned. A significant increase in lava flows from Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō began on May 12, 2002, the same date that Mauna Loa showed volcanic activity.
Kīlauea’s May 12, 2002 outbreak of lava first reached the ocean along the Puna coast on July 19, 2002. As many as 4,000 visitors per day flocked to the area to see the increased activity, including streams of lava cascading up to 45 feet (14 m) off the seacliffs into the ocean.
Since May of 2002, the lava flows of Kīlauea Volcano have added more than 10 acres (4 ha) of land to Hawai‘i Island, and created new black sand beaches along the island’s southeast shore. The eruptions have also sparked bush fires that have burned thousands of acres. In 2004 and 2005, spectacular lava flows into the ocean drew a record numbers of visitors.
Updates on volcanic activity may be seen at the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park website (www.nps.gov/havo) and the United States Geological Service (USGS) Hawaiian Volcano Observatory website (http://hvo.wr.usgs.gov).
[Photograph: Pu‘u ‘Ō‘ō Crater collapse; lava destruction]
‘Onipa‘a Centennial Observance
From January 13th to January 18th of 1993, the ‘Onipa‘a Centennial Observance of the 100th anniversary of the overthrow of the Hawaiian monarchy took place in downtown Honolulu. On January 17, the day of the anniversary of the overthrow, a procession of pro-sovereignty marchers estimated to exceed 10,000 people marched from Aloha Tower to ‘Iolani Palace.
As part of the Centennial, Governor John Waihee ordered the American flag lowered and the Hawaiian flag raised on government buildings in the area of the Capitol District, though this was discouraged by other officials, including Senators Akaka and Inouye, and Representative Patsy Mink.
Native Hawaiians and their supporters called for the restoration of Hawaiian sovereignty, declaring the overthrow of the monarchy an illegal act, and demanding the shutdown of military bases and return of stolen lands.
‘Onipa‘a means “Stand firm,” or “Steadfast,” and was the motto of Queen Lili‘uokalani.
Historic Eruptions of Kīlauea Volcano
Kīlauea Volcano extends over an area of about 600 square miles (1,554 sq.km.) of the southcentral region of Hawai‘i Island, and the summit caldera is up to 2½ miles (4 km) across and 400 feet (122 m) deep. Kīlauea Volcano is currently the most continuously active volcano on Earth, having covered more than 500 square miles (1,300 sq.km.) with lava in the last 1,100 years, and erupting almost continuously since 1983.
Kīlauea Volcano has erupted at least 20 times since 1959. In 1960, a Kīlauea lava flow destroyed the town of Kapoho (“The depression”[lx]). In 1969, a lava flow from the ‘Ālo‘i and ‘Alae craters near Kīlauea Crater approached ‘Apua, Hawai‘i. A 1971 eruption from Kīlauea’s Mauna Ulu (“Growing Mountain”[lxi]) vent poured into the sea near Kealakomo (“The entrance path”[lxii]), and added 97 acres (39 ha) of new land to Hawai‘i Island.
A flank eruption on the East Rift Zone of Kīlauea Volcano began in 1983 and has continued almost uninterrupted to the present day, releasing more than 67 billion cubic feet (1.9 billion cubic meters) of lava covering at least 40.7 square miles (105 square kilometers), and increasing the island’s size by more than 535 acres (217 ha). From January 3, 1983 to 1986, Kīlauea (“Much spreading”[lxiii]) erupted spectacular fountains of lava.
The aptly named Chain of Craters Road in Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park descends 3,700 feet (1,128 m) from the summit of Kīlauea Volcano to the sea. In 1986, lava flows block a section of the road, which was eventually reopened and then later closed again by lava flows.
Since 1986, more than 9 miles (14.5 km) of the original road have been covered. Volcanic activity increased on May 12, 2002, once again sending lava flows over Chain of Craters Road.
Within Kīlauea Caldera at the volcano’s summit is Halema‘uma‘u Crater, which is about 3,000 feet (914 m) across. Halema‘uma‘u Crater was about 1,200 feet (366 m) deep in 1924, but eruptions as recently as 1974 and 1982 poured lava onto the crater floor and filled it to its present depth, about 280 feet (85 m).
Halema‘uma‘u was a lava lake during a century of continuous volcanic activity until 1924 when a violent steam eruption occurred and the lava lake drained out. Since then approximately 40 more eruptions have occurred in the area of the summit and rift zones that run down the volcano’s flanks.
Today pungent sulfur fumes continue to steam up from mineral-encrusted cracks on Halema‘uma‘u’s black-rock floor.
Kīlauea Iki (“Little Kīlauea”), a smaller crater in the summit area, last displayed a stunning fire show in 1959 when fountains of lava erupted to heights of 1,900 feet (579 m), the highest ever recorded in the Islands. On September 13, 1977, Kīlauea Volcano began erupting intermittently, and this continued until September 28, 1977. Since that time Kīlauea’s summit area has seen only two eruption events, and each lasted less than one day.
Ka ‘ohu kāku o Kīlauea.
The draping mists of Kīlauea.
The mists in the crater of Kīlauea look like drapery along its cliffs.[lxiv]
Historic Eruptions of Mauna Kea and Hualālai Volcanoes
The towering Mauna Kea Volcano last erupted about 4,500 years ago. Mauna Kea rises up more than 6 miles (10 km) from the ocean bottom, and 13,796 feet (4,205 m) above sea level. Measured from base to summit, Mauna Kea is more than 1,000 feet (305 m) taller than Mount Everest, which is the tallest mountain on Earth measured from sea level.
Historic eruptions of Hualālai Volcano include three eruptions between 800 and 1100, an eruption around 1300. Hualālai erupted again in 1800-1801 above Ka‘ūpūlehu at an elevation of about 5,750 feet (1,753 m), sending lava flows to the ocean. Both Mauna Kea Volcano and Hualālai Volcano are considered dormant but not extinct.
Historic Eruptions of Mauna Loa Volcano
Mauna Loa Volcano is the most massive mountain on Earth, rising 13,677 feet (4,169 m) above sea level, and descending another 18,000 feet (5,486 m) below the sea. Mauna Loa’s total size is about 10,000 cubic miles (, making it more than 100 times as large as Washington’s Mount Rainier.
In the last 1,100 years, Mauna Loa’s eruptions have poured lava over some 1,000 square miles (2,590 sq. km.), which is about half of the volcano’s total land area. Mauna Loa has erupted 37 times since 1832, and 14 times in the last 100 years.
Moku‘āweoweo, the summit caldera of Mauna Loa, is about three miles long, 1½ miles (2.4 km) wide, and 600 feet (183 m) deep, having filled in somewhat from its depth of more than 985 feet (300 m) in 1794.
In 1852, a Mauna Loa lava flow came within seven miles of Hilo. An 1868 lava flow from Mauna Loa Volcano entered the Pacific Ocean to the west of South Point in Kā‘ū. The volcanic activity also formed the 240-foot (73-m) high littoral cone known as Pu‘uhou (“New hill”[lxv]). In 1877 lava from Mauna Loa’s summit crater flowed through the Kona district and into the sea near Ka‘awaloa.
Lava flows from Mauna Loa eruptions have repeatedly threatened the town of Hilo. When it happened in 1880, the flowing lava took 280 days to reach the edge of Hilo, causing great concern. King Kamehameha’s granddaughter, Princess Ruth Ke‘elikōlani, traveled to the area and offered chants and gifts. This is said to have supplicated the wrath of the volcano goddess Pele, and the lava flows stopped just on the edge of town.
In 1887, strong earthquakes shook the Ka‘ū district and lava flowed from the summit of Mauna Loa through Kahuku in Ka‘ū and then into the ocean.
When lava flows again threatened Hilo (including defense facilities) in 1930 and 1942, the Army Air Corps attempted unsuccessfully to divert or disperse the flows by dropping bombs. Lava flows from a Mauna Loa eruption reached the South Kona area in 1950, and it only took about three hours for the flowing lava to reach the ocean.
The 1950 event lasted for 23 days, destroying many homes and ranches. A 1975 Mauna Loa summit eruption lasted for several days and blocked a road near the summit.
A 22-day eruption of Mauna Loa in 1984 sent lava flowing for 16 miles (26 km) down to the 3,200-foot (975-m) level of the mountain, and covered more than 18 square miles (47 sq. km). The flow came close enough to Hilo to make many people very nervous.
On May 12, 2002, Mauna Loa’s summit caldera, Moku‘āweoweo, gradually began swelling, and outward spreading began along a northeast rift (facing Puna and Hilo) at an elevation on the volcano between about 10,000 and 13,000 feet (3,000 and 4,000 m).
Though the swelling decreased in early 2003, researchers remain cautious, as the pattern of swelling was similar to what occurred previous to the 1975 and 1984 eruptions, and the rate of swelling was actually higher in 2002 than it was before the 1975 and 1984 eruptions.
Hawaiian Volcano Observatory volcanologists continue to monitor geophysical data from Mauna Loa using tiltmeters and global positioning system instruments on the volcano. A Mauna Loa eruption could threaten Hilo (to the east) as well as Kona and its Gold Coast resorts (to the west). Subdivisions above South Point, near Mauna Loa’s southwest rift zone, are considered the most likely to be inundated by a Mauna Loa eruption.
Mary Kawena Pūku‘i (1895-1986)
As the author or co-author of more than 50 books, Mary Kawena Pūku‘i is perhaps the most influential Hawaiian scholar of modern times. Several of her books are now the primary reference tools used by Hawaiian scholars.
Pūku‘i was born in 1985 in Ka‘ū and grew up on Hawai‘i Island. The lineage of her mother, a native Hawaiian, contained respected medical kāhuna, and her grandfather (on her father’s side) was a 17th century poet.
Pūku‘i was raised by her maternal grandmother and studied hula, chants, and legends while speaking only Hawaiian. After the death of her grandmother she lived with her parents speaking English as well as Hawaiian.
Pūku‘i grew up during a time when the mass immigration of sugar plantation laborers threatened to overwhelm the Hawaiian culture. Pūku‘i collected Hawaiian stories to preserve that which was being lost to the influx of foreigners.
In 1957, Mary Kawena Pūku‘i and Samuel H. Elbert published the first edition of the Hawaiian-English Dictionary,[lxvi]and then in 1986 a revised and enlarged edition was completed. Containing more than 26,000 Hawaiian word, the Pūku‘i and Elbert dictionary is considered the definitive source for Hawaiian word spellings (e.g., diacritical marks), meanings, and pronunciation.
The Hawaiian-English Dictionary[lxvii] fueled the Hawaiian language movement that was an integral part of the Hawaiian Renaissance. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 1963.)
Two other prominent works by Mary Kawena Pūku‘i are Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition,[lxviii]published in 1974, and ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings,[lxix]published in 1983.
A widely-respected kumu hula, Pūku‘i composed more than 150 chants and songs, and her early works included three papers on hula. Pūku‘i joined the staff of the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum in 1837, where she became an associate emeritus in Hawaiian culture and worked there for more than a quarter century.
Mary Kawena Pūku‘i, one of Hawai‘i’s most revered scholars of Hawaiian culture, literature, and language, died in 1986 at the age of 91 in Honolulu. Her legacy is the continuing and pervasive use by modern scholars of the comprehensive resources she developed during her prolific lifetime.
Senator Daniel Akaka
The first United States House member and the first United States Senator of Native Hawaiian ancestry, Daniel Kahikina Akaka was elected as a Congressman in 1976 and served in that capacity from 1977 to 1990, winning seven consecutive elections.
Akaka was born in Honolulu on September 11, 1924, the youngest of seven children. He graduated from Kamehameha School in 1942, and he served in World War II in the United States Army Corps of Engineers from 1945-47. In 1948, Akaka married Mary Mildred “Millie” Chong and they had five children.
Akaka graduated from the University of Hawai‘i in 1952 and worked as a teacher from 1953-60. He was a vice-principal from 1960-63 and a principal from 1963-68, receiving his masters in 1966.
At the urging of Governor George Ariyoshi, Akaka ran for the U.S. House in 1976 and won. He served in that position until April of 1960 when he was appointed to the United States Senate after the death of Spark M. Matsunaga. Akaka then won a special election to complete Matsunaga’s unexpired four-year term.
In 1994, Akaka was elected to a six-year term and then re-elected in 2000 with more than 70% of the vote. Akaka is currently the only Chinese-American Senator.
Akaka now serves on numerous Senate committees including the Armed Services Committee, and the Energy and Natural Resources Committee. Akaka is also concerned with reconciling the relationship between Native Hawaiians and the Federal Government, and chairs the Hawai‘i Congressional Task Force on Native Hawaiian Issues.
Akaka also authored Public Law 103-150 (the Apology Bill), an apology to native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i in 1893, acknowledging the 100th anniversary of the overthrow. The bill was written as a Joint Resolution of Congress and signed by President Clinton on November 23, 1993. (See The U.S. Apology to the Native Hawaiians, Chapter 12.)
More recently, Akaka sponsored the Native Hawaiian Reorganization Act (Akaka Bill), which sought to protect Hawaiian entitlements and provide federal recognition to native Hawaiians.
The Akaka Bill was passed by the United States House in 2000 but then refused a vote in the Senate. The bill was blocked by the Senate again in 2002, and then approved by the Senate Indian Affairs Committee in 2003 before being blocked by Republicans.
In 2004, the House Resources Committee passed the Akaka Bill. Then it was dropped in exchange for a promise that it would be put to a floor vote of the Senate the following year. In 2005, however, a vote on the bill was blocked by a group of Republican senators. The Akaka Bill apparently met its final demise in 2006, although new approaches are being developed to deal with a variety of issues affecting native Hawaiians.
On June 23, 2006 the Office of Hawaiian Affairs approved a plan of action called Ho‘oulu Lāhui Aloha (“To Raise a Beloved Nation”) to develop a Native Hawaiian registry known as Kau Inoa, which will serve as the voting base in forming a new entity that will seek self-government rights, including the right to form a “nation-within-a-nation,” Hawaiians-only government, that will then attempt to negotiate with the state and federal governments over money, land, and other assets. As of July, 2006 more than 50,000 were registered. (See Chapter 11, Timeline: 2006, June 23.)
[Photograph: Daniel Akaka]
Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine
Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine began on Maui in August of 1991 when twelve master Island chefs formed an association to develop a world-class cuisine that has now won major international culinary awards.
The twelve chefs that conceptualized “Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine” are Sam Choy, Mark Ellman, Roger Dikon, Beverly Gannon, Jean-Marie Josselin, Amy Ferguson Ota, George Mavrothalassitis, Philippe Padovani, Peter Merriman, Gary Strehl, Roy Yamaguchi, and Alan Wong.
The cuisine centers around fresh local fish and vegetables as well as exotic Island fruits, and utilizes a blend of culinary techniques from both the Eastern and Western traditions.
The multicultural techniques of Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine derive from the rich history of immigration in the Hawaiian Islands, when waves of foreigners from many different countries—Asia, Europe, and South America—arrived to work on the sugar plantations.
Elements of Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine are taken from the various ethnic dishes brought by immigrants: char siu, tofu, and soybeans from the Chinese; sashimi and wasabi from the Japanese; sweet breads, malasadas and sausage from the Portuguese; and bagoong (fish sauce), jicama, and marungary from the Filipinos.
Many dishes of the new cuisine are a blend of these and other cultural elements—including Hawaiian, Samoan, Spanish, and Korean—such as might have developed in the community cookhouses of the plantation villages in the Hawaiian Islands from the end of the 1800s through the first half of the 1900s.
Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine has now become a movement, a modern cuisine that emphasizes creative uses of ingredients such as soy, ginger, and garlic to create tasty and aromatic dishes that are increasingly popular with residents as well as visitors.
The new cuisine differs from local-style food such as one might find at a lū‘au, or traditional Hawaiian feast, which usually centers around kālua pig cooked in an imu (underground earthen oven), and traditionally includes poi (mashed taro root) and such fare as lomi salmon, ‘opihi, squid, and chicken long rice.
The uniqueness of Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine is largely due to the use of fresh Island products, such as coffee and lobsters from Kona, fern shoots from Waipi‘o Valley, basil and asparagus from Maui, mint grown in Waimea, goat cheese from Puna, fiddlehead fern shoots picked in the mountains, and guava-smoked lamb from Hawaiian ranches.
Other distinctive Island ingredients include breadfruit, palm hearts, macadamia nuts and Hawaiian Vintage chocolate. Coconut milk is used in traditional dishes such as haupia (coconut pudding) as well as for creative new uses, such as Island-style coconut milk curry sauce and other flavorful fare.
Fresh Island fish comes in many types, from the standard favorite of ‘ahi (tuna), to opah (moonfish), ‘ōpakapaka (snapper), and shutome (swordfish). Other seafood utilized in Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine includes scallops and prawns, prepared with a variety of innovative sauces.
Freshly caught ‘ahi may be seared and served with liliko‘i shrimp butter, or cut into poke, seared, and then served with shoots of pīpīnola (native Hawaiian squash root). Dessert might include such tropical treats as liliko‘i chiffon pie.
Island chefs will continue to develop new culinary experiences, and Hawai‘i Regional Cuisine will continue to delight the discerning palettes of diners in the Islands and beyond.
Mauna Kea Astronomy
[Illustration: Overview of observatories atop Mauna Kea]
The 13,796-foot summit of Mauna Kea Volcano on Hawai‘i Island is above 40% of Earth’s atmosphere and well above the tropical inversion cloud layer, isolating the peak from moist sea-level air and making it the best site on Earth for astronomy. Thirteen major observatories atop the summit are operated by 11 countries. These telescopes comprise the world’s largest cluster of astronomical observatories.
Mauna Kea, kuahiwi ku ha‘o i ka mālie.
Mauna Kea, standing alone in the calm.[lxx]
The most prominent telescopes atop Mauna Kea are the twin Keck Telescopes, which became operable in 1992 and 1996 and are the largest optical-infrared telescopes in the world. Each Keck dome cost $70 million, measures 111 feet tall, and contains more than 700,000 cubic feet of volume.
The segmented mirror of each Keck Telescope is a perfect parabolic reflecting surface 32.8 feet in diameter. Each mirror is made up of 36 smaller hexagonal (six-sided) mirrors, each six feet across. Computers individually control these smaller mirrors so they all work in concert as if they are one giant mirror. To counteract gravity’s effects on the mirrors, computer-controlled precision pistons and sensors adjust the mirror segments individually (twice every second), to an accuracy of four nanometers, which is about 1/1000th the diameter of a human hair.
The Keck II telescope uses a new adaptive optics system in which deformable mirrors may change shape 670 times per second to cancel out atmospheric distortion. This produces images ten times sharper than previous images. Using an instrument called an interferometer, engineers and scientists succeeded in combining the light-gathering powers of the two 10-meter Keck telescopes in March of 2001. The interferometer manipulates light waves so that their peaks match, creating a much higher peak—this is called constructive interference, and it creates a stronger signal that allows scientists to produce images with a greater level of detail.
A series of small outrigger telescopes as well as a series of underground tunnels combine the light from the two giant Kecks, forming the world’s largest optical interferometer. In 2002, the scientists break the record for sighting the most distant objects ever seen by viewing a galaxy estimated to be 15.5 billion light years away. One light year is the distance light travels in one year, which is about 5.9 trillion miles.
The Keck telescopes and other Mauna Kea observatories are used to conduct research on the evolution of galaxies, planetary and star-forming nebulae, supernova remnants, star clusters, double stars, quasars, and intergalactic gases as well as red, white and brown dwarfs. Red dwarfs are the lowest mass stars, while brown dwarfs are bigger than planets yet smaller than stars, and lack the internal energy (core nuclear reactions) of stars.
An international team of astronomers with the University of Hawai‘i was able to view the distant galaxy by using a galaxy cluster about six billion light years away to magnify the light in a process known as gravitational lensing.
The dual Keck telescopes were used in 2003 to obtain the best view to date of the universe’s most primordial objects, including an ancient galaxy where stars began forming when the universe was only about two billion years old.
Other Telescopes atop Mauna Kea:
- University of Hawai‘i .6-meter optical telescope #1, and #2 (1968, 1969).
- University of Hawai‘i 2.2-meter optical/infrared telescope (1970).
- NASA IRTF 3-meter infrared telescope (1979).
- United Kingdom 3.8-meter infrared telescope (1979).
- Canada-France-Hawai‘i 3.6-meter optical/infrared telescope (1979).
- James Clerk Maxwell 15-meter submillimeter telescope (1986).
- Caltech 10.4-meter submillimeter telescope (1986).
- Very Long Baseline Array Antenna 25-meter radio telescope (1992).
- Subaru 8.3-meter optical/infrared Japan National telescope (1999).
- Gemini Northern 8-meter optical/infrared telescope (1999).
- Smithsonian Submillimeter Array 8 6-meter (2003).
[Photograph: Keck Telescope showing outriggers, snow]Hurricane ‘Iniki Devastates Kaua‘i
On September 11, 1992, Hurricane ‘Iniki made a direct hit on the island of Kaua‘i, causing more than $3 billion in property damage. Kaua‘i residents endured ferocious winds as they huddled in shelters throughout the island. Airborne debris crashed violently into buildings and smashed windows. Whole roofs detached and broke apart as they lifted upward and disappearing into the vortices of wind. Entire houses were blown off their foundations.
Then suddenly the wind stopped, and some people went outside. It was still cloudy all around, but straight above there was pure blue sky, which was a welcome sight amidst all the destruction. The hurricane had not passed, however, but instead was actually directly overhead! They were right in the middle of the hurricane’s eye!
Within minutes, as the hurricane’s eye moved past, the full force of the hurricane was again felt, this time all at once as the devastating winds easily exceeded 100 miles per hour. Because the wind was now going in the opposite direction, structures that had been weakened to the point of collapse by the first half of the hurricane were now quickly finished off as the destruction continued.
As Hurricane ‘Iniki proceeded over the island of Kaua‘i, one ferocious gust of wind within the hurricane was clocked at 227 miles per hour, a digital measurement that was taken by wind gauging equipment at the Navy’s Mākaha Ridge radar station just before the equipment was blown off the mountain!
Hurricane ‘Iniki damaged more than 70% of Kaua‘i’s homes. In all, about 14,000 homes and apartments were damaged, including 1,421 that were completely destroyed. The north shore community of Princeville topped the list with 279 homes destroyed. At the time of the hurricane there were 8,200 hotel, condo, and bed and breakfast rooms on Kaua‘i, and ‘Iniki shut down 90% of them.
[Photograph: Hurricane]
Hurricanes
The recorded history of Hawaiian hurricanes began in 1850 when an unnamed storm thought to be a hurricane hit Lahaina, Maui on February 15th and 16th of that year and destroyed an estimated 100 homes. The palace of King Kamehameha III (Kauikeaouli) was left in ruins and at least five people were killed aboard the ship Sophia.
On August 9, 1871, an unnamed hurricane hit Maui, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i Island causing an estimated $10,000 in damage and destroying about 150 houses in Kohala.
Hurricane Hiki hit Kaua‘i on August 15-17, 1950, bringing winds that reached 68 miles per hour. Extensive flooding occurred at Waimea where more than 52 inches fell in four days, causing $200,000 damage. Winds from Hurricane Hiki also reached 50 mph in Ni‘ihau and 48 mph on Lāna‘i. A farmer in Kohala was killed when he touched wires blown down by strong winds.
Hurricane Dot passed over Kaua‘i on August 6, 1959, bringing winds well over 100 miles/hour and causing $20 million in damage. On November 3, 1982, Hurricane ‘Iwa passed between Kaua‘i and Ni‘ihau, bringing gusts of wind with speeds of more than 100 miles/hour and causing damages totaling $239 million.
Hurricane Estelle caused $2 million damage on Hawai‘i Island, Maui, and O‘ahu on July 23, 1986. Hurricane ‘Iniki hits Kaua‘i on September 11, 1992, causing $3 billion in damage. (See Hurricane ‘Iniki Devastates Kaua‘i.)
The U.S. Apology to the Native Hawaiians
On November 23, 1993, United States President William J. Clinton signed Public Law 103-150, an apology to native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawai‘i in 1893. Acknowledging the 100th anniversary of the overthrow, the apology was written as a Joint Resolution of Congress. The law reads (in part) as follows:
“Whereas, prior to the arrival of the first Europeans in 1778, the Native Hawaiian people lived in a highly organized, self-sufficient, subsistent social system based on communal land tenure with a sophisticated language, culture, and religion;
Whereas a unified monarchical government of the Hawaiian Islands was established in 1810 under Kamehameha I, the first King of Hawaii;
Whereas, from 1826 until 1893, the United States recognized the independence of the Kingdom of Hawaii, extended full and complete diplomatic recognition to the Hawaiian Government, and entered into treaties and conventions with the Hawaiian monarchs to govern commerce and navigation in 1826, 1842, 1849, 1875, and 1887;
Whereas the Congregational Church (now known as the United Church of Christ), through its American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, sponsored and sent more than 100 missionaries to the Kingdom of Hawaii between 1820 and 1850;
Whereas, on January 14, 1893, John L. Stevens (hereafter referred to in this Resolution as the “United States Minister”), the United States Minister assigned to the sovereign and independent Kingdom of Hawaii conspired with a small group of non-Hawaiian residents of the Kingdom of Hawaii, including citizens of the United States, to overthrow the indigenous and lawful Government of Hawaii;
Whereas, in pursuance of the conspiracy to overthrow the Government of Hawaii, the United States Minister and the naval representatives of the United States caused armed naval forces of the United States to invade the sovereign Hawaiian nation on January 16, 1893, and to position themselves near the Hawaiian Government buildings and the Iolani Palace to intimidate Queen Liliuokalani and her Government;
Whereas, on the afternoon of January 17, 1893, a Committee of Safety that represented the American and European sugar planters, descendents of the missionaries, and financiers deposed the Hawaiian monarchy and proclaimed the establishment of a Provisional Government;
Whereas the United States Minister thereupon extended diplomatic recognition to the Provisional Government that was formed by the conspirators without the consent of the Native Hawaiian people or the lawful Government of Hawaii and in violation of treaties between the two nations and of international law;
Whereas, soon thereafter, when informed of the risk of bloodshed with resistance, Queen Liliuokalani issued the following statement yielding her authority to the United States Government rather than to the Provisional Government:
“I Liliuokalani, by the Grace of God and under the Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Queen, do hereby solemnly protest against any and all acts done against myself and the Constitutional Government of the Hawaiian Kingdom by certain persons claiming to have established a Provisional Government of and for this Kingdom.
“That I yield to the superior force of the United States of America whose Minister Plenipotentiary, His Excellency John L. Stevens, has caused United States troops to be landed at Honolulu and declared that he would support the Provisional Government.
“Now to avoid any collision of armed forces, and perhaps the loss of life, I do this under protest and impelled by said force yield my authority until such time as the Government of the United States shall, upon facts being presented to it, undo the action of its representatives and reinstate me in the authority which I claim as the Constitutional Sovereign of the Hawaiian Islands.”
Done at Honolulu this 17th day of January, A.D. 1893;
Whereas the indigenous Hawaiian people never directly relinquished their claims to their inherent sovereignty as a people or over their national lands to the United States, either through their monarchy or through a plebiscite or referendum;
Whereas the health and well-being of the native Hawaiian people is intrinsically tied to their deep feelings and attachment to the land;
Whereas, the long-range economic and social changes in Hawaii over the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have been devastating to the population and to the health and well-being of the Hawaiian people;
Whereas the Native Hawaiian people are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territory, and their cultural identity in accordance with their own spiritual and traditional beliefs, customs, practices, language, and social institutions;
The Congress-
“...apologizes to the Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893, with the participation of agents and citizens of the United States, and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination,” and “expresses its commitment to acknowledge the ramifications of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, in order to provide a proper foundation for reconciliation between the United States and the Native Hawaiian people; and...urges the President of the United States to also acknowledge the ramifications of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and to support reconciliation efforts between the United States and the Native Hawaiian people.”[lxxi]
The Hawai‘iloa Voyaging Canoe
Launched in 1993, the Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is 57 feet (17 m)long, and was the first of the voyaging canoes to be built almost entirely out of traditional materials. The Hawai‘iloa was modified and launched again in 1994, making its first voyage in 1995.
With no navigational instruments, the crew sailed the boat more than 6,000 miles (9,656 km), from the Hawaiian Islands to Tahiti and the Marquesas and then back to the Hawaiian Islands.
The Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe is named after an ancient voyager who, according to legend, was the first discoverer of the Hawaiian Islands. For the ship’s two hulls, old growth Sitka spruce trees were acquired from southeast Alaska because there were no longer any large Hawaiian koa trees available. The use of Sitka spruce may be considered traditional, since ancient Hawaiians sometimes used drift logs to make canoes, and those driftlogs may have come from Alaska.
Traditional tools used to construct voyaging canoes and their various parts included the stone adze and the bone gouge. Coral files were also used, as well as sharkskin for sanding. Though modern tools were used in the construction of the Hawai‘iloa, traditional materials were used whenever possible. Every attempt was made to build an accurate replica of a traditional voyaging canoe, and many different native trees were used to create the various components of the canoe.
Nakaka ka pua‘a, nahā ka wa‘a; aukāhi ka pua‘a mānalo ka wa‘a.
The pig cracks, the canoe breaks; perfect the pig, safe the canoe.
Whenever a new canoe was launched, a pig was baked as an offering to the gods. If the skin of the roasted pig cracked, misfortune would come to the canoe;
but if it cooked to perfection the canoe would last a long time.[lxxii]
[Photographs: Hawai‘iloa voyaging canoe; stone adze; bone gouge; coral file.]
Lō‘ihi Seamount—The Next Hawaiian Island
Lō‘ihi Seamount is an undersea volcano about 18 miles (29 km) off the southeast coast of Hawai‘i Island. More than ½-mile (.8 km) below the surface of the Pacific Ocean, Lō‘ihi’s summit is currently more than 9,000 feet (2,743 km) tall. The erupting summit of Lō‘ihi should rise above the water in about 50,000 to 200,000 years from now to become the next Hawaiian Island.
The University of Hawai‘i research boat Ka‘imikai O Kanaloa carries a deep-diving manned submersible called Pisces V that has been used to explore Lō‘ihi’s volcanic activity and the life forms that grow near the summit. Strange undersea colonies of volcanic life thrive near Lō‘ihi’s sulfurous hot water vents, and in the 1,200-foot (366-km) deep pit craters in Lō‘ihi’s summit caldera.
Superheated sulfur-yellow water was seen shooting out in big plumes in an area of Lō‘ihi’s summit that the scientists named Pele’s Vents. They also recently discovered a new species of shrimp there - it is orange and just a few inches long, and blends in with the orange rocks.
The summit area later collapsed into what they named Pele’s Pit, a 1,000-foot deep crater that is 800 feet (244 m) across and filled with an estimated 300 million tons (272 mtons) of rock.
Water emitting from Lō‘ihi’s vents contains about 20,000 times as much carbon dioxide as the surrounding seawater. This helps bacteria live near the hydrothermal vents and creates massive iron deposits. Near the hydrothermal vents everything is orange because it is carpeted with three-foot-thick iron deposits created by these unique bacteria that oxidize iron.
When the Pisces V research boat touched down on Lō‘ihi’s summit, it instantly caused a bacterial snowstorm of iron deposits that puffed up all around the submersible. On July 17, 1996, more than 4,000 earthquakes were recorded in a three week period near the summit of Lō‘ihi Seamount.
Nei ka honua, he ōla‘i ia.
When the earth trembles, it is an earthquake.
We know what it is by what it does.[lxxiii]
All of the life forms near the hydrothermal vents on Lō‘ihi’s summit are very rare, surviving under immense pressure with no connection to sunlight or photosynthesis. Instead they exist by a process known as chemosynthesis, which utilizes only heat and chemicals (such as sulfur), to produce a whole variety of rare luminescent creatures, including microbes loaded with heavy metals and toxic compounds.
Researchers theorize that the lava of Lō‘ihi is coming from extremely deep in the Earth (near the very core), and that its chemical composition holds clues to Earth’s origins. This chemical composition is analyzed by comparing helium isotope ratios, and through other analytical methods. The unique biological communities thriving on Lō‘ihi’s summit continue to provide scientists with new insights into deep-sea life and chemical processes.
[Photograph: Hydrothermal vent]
Bruddah Iz (1959-1997)
A pure-blooded Hawaiian, Israel Ka‘ano‘i Kamakawiwo‘ole was born on May 20, 1959 and lived in O‘ahu’s Pālolo Valley until the age of ten when his family moved to Mākaha. The next year Israel and his brother Skippy began playing music, and a few years later they joined with Louis “Moon” Kauakahi, Sam Gray, and Jerome Koko to form the Mākaha Sons of Ni‘ihau.
During the next 15 years. The Mākaha Sons released ten albums, toured the United States, and won numerous Nā Hōkū Hanohano awards. They also hosted an annual Mākaha Bash on Memorial Day at the Waikīkī Shell.
Israel’s brother Skippy Kamakawiwo‘ole passed away in 1982, the same year Israel married his childhood sweetheart, Marlene Ku‘upua Ah Lo. They gave birth to a daughter, Ceslieanne Wehekealake‘alekupuna “Wehi” Kamakawiwo‘ole. Israel’s uncle, Moe Keale (1939-2002), was a well-known Hawaiian musician and actor.
Iz began his solo career in 1993 with the album Facing Future, and quickly became the most popular entertainer and singer in the Hawaiian Islands. The album N DIS LIFE was released in 1997 and won four Nā Hōkū Hanohano awards: Male Vocalist; Island Contemporary; Album Graphics; and Favorite Entertainer of the Year.
Israel passed away at age 38 on June 26, 1997 of respiratory failure. The renown Hawaiian musician was memorialized by thousands of people at the State Capitol Rotunda, and his ashes were scattered off Mākua Beach. Though he was famous worldwide, Israel was said to be the ali‘i (royalty) of the common people of the Hawaiian Islands. In 2001 a new CD, Alone in IZ World, was released and immediately became a top seller.
The Bishop Estate Scandal
On August 9, 1997, the Honolulu Star-Bulletin published an article titled “Broken Trust,” written by a former Kamehameha Schools principal and three other prominent community members calling for reform. Three days later, the governor asked State Attorney General Margery Bronster to investigate the matter.
In 1998, Bronster called for the removal of three of the trustees, Richard Wong, Lokelani Lindsey, and Henry Peters.
On May 6, 1999, Circuit Judge Bambi Weil removed Lokelani Lindsey from her position as a Trustee of Bishop Estate due to “poor judgment, “creation of a climate of fear,” “misappropriation of trust assets to her own benefit” and “breaches of loyalty and trust.” The decision was a result of a lawsuit filed by fellow trustees Oswald Stender and Gerard Jervis.
On May 7, 1999, Judge Kevin Chang removed four of the five trustees: Richard Wong, Lokelani Lindsey, Henry Peters, and Gerard Jervis, and accepted the resignation of the fifth trustee, Oswald Stender (this was the Bishop Estate’s first board comprised completely of members with Hawaiian ancestry).[lxxiv]
Today the Bishop Estate, officially renamed Kamehameha Schools, continues to operate Kamehameha Schools, including the 600-acre (243-ha) Kapālama campus in Honolulu as well as smaller campuses on Maui and Hawai‘i Island. The Estate has vast land holdings and investments worth nearly $7 billion, and educates more than 51,000 students annually on three campuses as well as through charter schools, community outreach programs, and in 28 preschools.
Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn—Queen of Mākaha
Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn (1950-1998) excelled not only at surfing, but also at bodysurfing, outrigger canoe paddling, and spearfishing. She was also a kumu hula and a black belt in martial arts.
As a youth, Rell honed her surfing skills at MākahaBeach, which was just two minutes from her home. She won the Hawaiian Junior Championships, and in 1966 she competed in the World Contest (the world championship of surfing at the time) in San Diego. Seven times during the following years Rell was in the top eight in the world, twice placing third. She earned a degree in cultural anthropology from the University of Hawai‘i.
Truly an all around waterwoman, Rell was an expert diver and was the first female lifeguard in the Hawaiian Islands. She was also an international surfing champion and a founder of the Women’s Professional Surfing Association.
Rell was a tireless advocate of children’s surfing, and founded the Rell Sunn Menehune Championships at Mākaha in 1976. The event recently marked its 30th year. Rell also took kids to Europe for surfing expeditions.
In 1982, Rell was the top ranked longboard champion. The following year she was diagnosed with cancer and battled the disease for the next 15 years. In 1988 she went into a coma but came out of it and then in 1991 the doctor told her she had just six months to live, but she lived for seven more years.
Rell Kapolioka‘ehukai Sunn passed away on January 2, 1998 at the age of 47. Rell was loved and respected by many, and her funeral at Mākaha was attended by thousands of people.
Rell’s middle name, Kapolioka‘ehukai, was given to her by her grandmother, and means “Heart of the sea.” She was affectionately known as the Queen of Mākaha.
June Jones and the University of Hawai‘i Warriors
In 1998, June Jones became coach of the University of Hawai‘i Warriors football team, which he played for in 1974. The season before the University of Hawai‘i hired Jones, the Warriors record was 0-12. During Jones first season at UH, in 1999, the team earned a 9-4 record, the biggest turnaround in NCAA football history, including a victory at the Christmas Day O‘ahu Bowl. Jones was also named college coach of the year by three national organizations.
After Jones played football for the University of Hawai‘i he played in the National Football League (Atlanta Falcons, 1977-1981) and then the Canadian Football League. He then worked as the quarterbacks coach for UH in 1983 before coaching in the U.S. Football League and the NFL, first in Atlanta and Detroit, then becoming the Atlanta Falcons head coach (1994-1996). Jones was the San Diego Chargers head coach in 1998 when he took the UH Warriors coaching job.
Jones sustained major injuries in a car accident on February 22, 2001 nearly killed June Jones, but amazingly he was able to recover in time for the start of the 2001 season. Jones became the highest paid state employee in 2003 when he was given a new $800,000 per year contract.
U.S.S. Missouri Battleship and U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine
World War II ended when the forces of Japan officially surrendered on September 2, 1945 on the deck of the U.S.S. Missouri battleship, now known as “Mighty Mo.” Originally launched in 1944, the U.S.S. Missouri was permanently decommissioned on March 31, 1992. On Jan. 29, 1999, the U.S.S. Missouri battleship opened as a tourist attraction at Pearl Harbor. The 58,000-ton ship is docked at Pearl Harbor’s Battleship Row, just a few hundred yards from the U.S.S. Arizona Memorial.
The U.S.S. Missouri had a 50-year career serving in World War II (in the battles of Iwo Jima and Okinawa), Korea, and Operation Desert Storm in the Persian Gulf. In July of 2004, theU.S.S. Missouri welcomed its two-millionth visitor since opening as a visitor attraction in 1999.[lxxv]
Also located at Pearl Harbor is the U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine, which was first launched one year after the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor and is one of just 15 remaining submarines from the World War II era. The submarine was known as the “Pearl Harbor Avenger,” carrying a crew of 80 and sinking 44 ships in the Pacific Ocean.
The submarine/museum tour includes boarding the U.S.S. Bowfin. Visitors may view the Japanese suicide torpedo called the Kaiten and look through the submarine’s periscopes.[lxxvi] A Memorial honors the 3,500 submariners who were lost during the war along with 52 U.S. submarines, paying tribute to their important role in defense of the United States.
[Photographs: U.S.S. Missouri; U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine]
Humpback Whales
Humpback whales are known for their spectacular breaches, a common sight in Hawaiian waters in winter. Seeing the 40-ton animal leap out of the water and come crashing down onto the ocean’s surface is the highlight of any whale-watching trip.
Hawai‘i’s humpback whales spend the summer months in Alaskan waters feeding and then migrate to Hawaiian waters for the winter where they mate and give birth. The whales begin arriving in Island waters around November.
The first humpbacks to come to the Hawaiian Islands each year are the whales that gave birth the previous year along with their yearling calves. The last humpback whales to arrive are the pregnant mothers who stay in northern waters as long as possible so they are well fed before heading south.
Adult humpback whales may be 45 feet (14 m) long and weigh more than 40 tons. Calves are about 12 feet (3.7 m) long at birth and feed on more than 100 gallons (379 liters) of their mother’s milk each day.
Humpbacks are baleen whales, and do not have teeth to grab prey. Instead they filter their food from the water using the frayed and intertwined strips of baleen that hang from their upper jaw. Before plastic was invented, baleen was used for women’s corsets, hoop skirts, umbrellas, and a variety of other products that required strong, flexible material.
In northern waters, humpbacks feast on the tiny shrimp-like creatures known as krill, as well as small fish such as herring. They sometimes use a technique known as bubblenet feeding, circling around a school of fish and releasing air, which confuses the fish and traps them within the curtain of bubbles. The whale then swims below the school, opens its huge mouth, and scoops up a nice meal by coming right up through the chaotic frenzy of fish.
Humpbacks also sing long, complex songs. Generally only the males sing, and only in their winter mating waters (e.g., Hawaiian waters). Male humpback singing is thought to be related to the courtship of females, and may be a sort of love song to attract a mate. One song lasts about 20 minutes, and may be repeated over and over again, often for many hours in a row.
All of the humpback whales in the Hawaiian Islands are basically singing the same song, perhaps imitating the mating song of the most successful whale, and this song changes gradually over time. The humpback whale is the only animal known to have such an evolving song, and to have an actual rhythm in its complex songs.
Humpbacks have no functional vocal cords, yet no other land or sea creature has such a broad acoustic range as the humpback whale. From their lowest to their highest notes, their acoustic range exceeds all other animals, and includes the highest and lowest frequencies humans can hear as well as tones beyond the range of human hearing.
By 1966, there were fewer than 1,000 humpbacks left from a pre-whaling population of about 200,000 whales. Today the North Pacific humpback whale population has increased to about 10,000 (growing about 7% per year), and more than half of them migrate to the Hawaiian Islands each year to mate and give birth.
[Photograph/Illustration: Breaching whale]
Humpback Behaviors
- Ø Breaching—Leaping from the water, spinning around, and landing on its back.
- Ø Pec Slap—Slapping a pectoral fin down onto the surface.
- Ø Fluking—Lifting its tail fluke up out of the water in preparation for diving down.
- Ø Tail Slap—Slapping just the tail fluke down onto the surface.
- Ø Peduncle Slap—Lifting the back half of the body out of the water and slapping it down onto the surface.
- Ø Head Slap—Slapping the lower jaw onto the water’s surface.
- Ø Spy Hop—Rising up from the water head first, as if to look around.
- Ø Spouting—Sending up sprays of mist (from the blowholes) while breathing at the water’s surface.
- Ø Round Out—Arching above the surface and then raising the tail fluke and diving below.
- Ø Singing—Emitting patterned sounds.
[Illustrations: Small sketch of each behavior]The Eternal Flame
In front of Honolulu Hale is a small memorial burning an eternal flame in honor of the victims of the attack on the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001. The plaque’s inscription reads:
“Let this eternal flame unite our country in memory of those who lost their lives on September 11, 2001 and honor the brave men and women who put themselves in Harm’s Way to save others. The love and spirit of our grateful nation and the hearts and prayers of our people will always be with them. Dedicated on November 11, 2001 by the people of the City and County of Honolulu.”
Representative Patsy Mink
In 1964, Patsy Mink became the first Asian-American woman elected to the U.S. Congress. Born in Pā‘ia, Maui on Dec. 6, 1927, Patsy Mink was the granddaughter of immigrant sugar plantation laborers who came to the Hawaiian Islands from Japan in the late 1800s. Patsy Mink was the valedictorian of her high school class in 1944, and then attended the University of Hawai‘i before transferring to the University of Nebraska where she successfully helped to end their policy of segregated housing.
Returning to University of Hawai‘i, Mink earned degrees in both chemistry and geology. Though she wanted to study medicine, and applied to twenty schools, none accepted women. Enrolling in law school at the University of Chicago, she was considered a “foreign student” because school officials were apparently unaware that Hawai‘i was an American territory. Mink earned her Doctor of Jurisprudence degree in 1951 and in 1953 became the first Asian-American woman to practice law in the Hawaiian Islands.
Patsy Mink was the first Asian-American woman elected to the Legislature, serving in the Territorial House of Representatives from 1956 to 1958. She was a member of the Hawai‘i State Senate in 1963 and 1964, and then was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives, where she served from 1965 to 1976 as the first Asian-American woman elected to the U.S. Congress. In 1972, Patsy Mink was instrumental in the passage of the Women’s Educational Equity Act (Title IX) prohibiting gender discrimination in academics or athletics by institutions receiving federal funds.
Patsy Mink was again elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1990, and served until September 29, 2002 when she passed away at the age of 74 due to viral pneumonia.
Senator Hiram Fong
In 1959, Hiram Fong became the first elected Asian-American U.S. Senator. Born on Oct. 15, 1906 to immigrants from Kwangtang Province in China, Hiram was the seventh of eleven children. Fong’s birth name was Yau Leong Fong, and as a youth in Kalihi, O‘ahu he shined shoes, delivered poi, and caught and sold fish. Fong graduated from McKinley High School in 1924, the University of Hawai‘i in 1930, and Harvard Law School in 1935, then worked as a Honolulu deputy attorney. Beginning in 1938, Fong served 14 years in the legislature of the Territory of Hawai‘i including four years as vice speaker (1944-1948) and six years as speaker (1948-1954).
After serving in World War II, Fong founded a law firm, and then became a founding member of Finance Factors Ltd. in 1952. Fong was elected to the U.S. Senate on July 28, 1959 and then was re-elected in 1964 and 1970. Known as a champion of civil rights and workers’ rights, he was instrumental in the passage of a measure favoring agricultural workers in 1945, and co-authored the Immigration Reform Act of 1965.
Fong retired in 1977 and concentrated on his many business interests, including the well-maintained 725-acre Senator Fong’s Plantation Gardens, which offers narrated 45-minute long tram rides through five separate valleys with more than 100 varieties of nut and fruit trees.[lxxvii] Hiram Fong passed away on August 18, 2004 at the age of 97.
Modern Waikīkī
Today Waikīkī is a cosmopolitan melting pot of hotels, parks, gourmet restaurants, fast food outlets, lively dance clubs, nightlife, and countless shopping opportunities. Just ½-mile wide by 1½-miles long, Waikīkī’s population includes more than 25,000 residents as well as about 70,000 visiting tourists, along with about 500 restaurants, more than 1,000 shops, more than 190 hotels and vacation condominiums, and hundreds of entertainment venues—all in an area of only about 681 acres!
Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Relatively few species were able to reach the Hawaiian archipelago before humans arrived, but those original colonizing species evolved into an incredible array of uniquely adapted species that gradually transformed the barren and rocky volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands into lush tropical islands full of life.
The extreme isolation of the Hawaiian Islands, more than 2,400 miles (3,862 km) from the nearest continental land mass, led to the evolution of thousands of endemic (unique) species of flowering plants, ferns, insects, birds, and marine life.
Native species of the Hawaiian Islands are divided into two categories: indigenous and endemic. Indigenous species are native to the Hawaiian Islands and also native to some other location. Without the aid of humans, they arrived in the Hawaiian Islands by “wind, wave, or wing”—in other words, they were carried by winds, the ocean, or birds.
Endemic speciesevolved in the Hawaiian Islands from an indigenous (native) species already established in the Islands. Endemic species are native to the Hawaiian Islands and nowhere else. Thus, all native Hawaiian species either came from somewhere else (indigenous), or evolved from species already established in the Hawaiian Islands (endemic).
The extreme isolation and rich diversity of habitats in the Hawaiian Islands led to an extremely high rate of endemic species. Overall, about half of the native species of the Hawaiian Islands are endemic.
A total of 23,680 Hawaiian species have been documented, including 18,607 native Hawaiian species (9,151 indigenous species and 9,456 endemic species), and 5,073 human-introduced (non-native) species.[lxxviii]
The endemic, indigenous, and introduced species of the Hawaiian Islands include plants, trees, mollusks (e.g., snails), invertebrates (e.g., insects), fish, birds, reptiles (e.g., sea turtles), mammals (e.g., bats, monk seals, whales and dolphins), fungi, lichens, protists (including algae and human parasitic protists), and helminths. Viruses and bacteria were not included in the species count.
Bishop Museum scientists have done extensive studies to determine the total number of species found in the Hawaiian Islands, and have assembled a comprehensive tabulation of scientifically documented species, published by Bishop Museum and updated annually, including the Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000, (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.)
The Hawaii Biological Survey is a Bishop Museum program that was established in 1992 by Hawai‘i’s State Legislature to maintain an ongoing inventory of the natural history of the Hawaiian Islands, including non-native as well as native species
The documented native Hawaiian species include: 1,163 flowering plants (918 endemic); 719 other native plants (241 endemic), 178 ferns (124 endemic), and 22 fern allies (7 endemic); 1,243 mollusks (962 endemic); 1,143 fish species (149 endemic); 4 reptiles (sea turtles, none endemic); 241 bird species (63 endemic); and 25 mammals (2 endemic).
These mammals include the endemic ‘ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua (Hawaiian monk seal) and ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Hawaiian hoary bat), as well as 23 indigenous marine mammal species. 1,995 protist species (82 endemic); 2,088 fungi and lichen species (240 endemic);[lxxix] and 9,270 native invertebrates (7,239 endemic). These native Hawaiian invertebrates include 6,284 arthropods, along with 1,743 other invertebrates (449 endemic). The arthropods include 5,818 insect species (5,462 endemic) and 466 other arthropods (366 endemic).
Native Plants
Before Western contact began to drastically change the landscape of the Hawaiian Islands, there were more than 1,700 known native Hawaiian plant species, including more than 1,000 native flowering plant species that had evolved from less than 300 original immigrants. At least 178 native ferns evolved from about 135 colonizing species.
The 1999 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition (Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999) formally recognized 956 species of native Hawaiian flowering plants, including 850 species that are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands.
Many more native Hawaiian plant species have since been discovered, and are documented in the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i (Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R. Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002)as well as the Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002) with a current total of at least 1,882 documented native Hawaiian plant species (1,159 endemic), including 1,163 native flowering plant species (918 endemic).
The extremely high rate of flowering plant endemism (79% endemic) in the Hawaiian Islands is primarily attributed to the geographical isolation of the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, thousands of miles from any continent. The Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands also brought at least 24 species of plants to Hawai’i, and may have brought as many as 30 plant species or more. (See Polynesian-Introduced Plants.)
About 79% of native flowering plant species in the Hawaiian Islands are endemic along with about 70% of native ferns and 26% of native birds, though nearly all native Hawaiian land bird species are endemic. About 94% of native Hawaiian insect species are endemic, as are 77% of native mollusks, 78% of native invertebrates, and 13% of native fish, including 25% of native reef fish species.
Fish
Of the 24,000 known species of fish in the world, about 1,143 are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including 149 endemic fish species. About 536 of these fish species are inshore fishes found near reefs and other nearshore areas to a depth of about 200 feet (61 m). About 25% of these 536 inshore species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. The overall rate of endemism for native Hawaiian fish is about 13% (149 endemic species and 994 indigenous species).
Native Hawaiian fish also include five freshwater species, known as ‘o‘opu, which spend part of their lives in the ocean. The endemic āholehole fish (Kuhlia sandvicensis, young stage of āhole, Hawaiian flagtail) sometimes enters lower stream areas, as do pua ‘ama‘ama (Mugil cephalus, young stage of ‘ama‘ama, mullet). ‘Ama‘ama were the main fish raised in ancient Hawaiian loko i‘a (fishponds). Also raised in fishponds were awa (Chanos chanos, milkfish), which reach a length of 6 feet (1.8 m).
At least 41 known species of sharks may be seen in Hawaiian waters (and are thus considered native to the Hawaiian Islands), and 20 of these shark species inhabit deep waters. This includes the viper shark (Trigonognathus kabeyai) reported in: Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. (Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.)
Six shark species are relatively common around the Hawaiian Islands. Five ray species are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including a manta ray, an eagle ray, and three stingray species. There are at least 38 native Hawaiian species of moray eel (Muraenidae), along with 16 native species of snake eels (Ophichthidae) and three native species of conger and garden eels (Congridae).
Reptiles and Amphibians
No terrestrial reptiles or amphibians are considered native to the Hawaiian Islands, though there remains a possibility that some lizard species arrived in the Hawaiian Islands on their own. Marine reptiles native to the Hawaiian Islands include five sea turtle species, some seen only rarely in Hawaiian waters.
The two sea turtle species that come onto Hawaiian shores to lay their eggs are honu (Chelonia mydas, green sea turtle) and honu‘ea (Eretmochelys imbricata, hawksbill sea turtle).
Another marine reptile occasionally seen in Hawaiian waters (and thus considered native) is the yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus), a venomous yellow and black reptile that is about 29 inches long. A distant relative of the cobra, the yellow-bellied sea snake is the only truly pelagic (open-ocean) sea snake of 55 known sea snake species.
Three skink species and four gecko species were established in the Hawaiian Islands before Western contact. These species likely came as stowaways aboard the voyaging canoes of the Polynesian settlers of the Hawaiian Islands, though it is possible some of these lizards may have reached the Hawaiian Islands on their own (e.g., by rafting on a log or on other ocean debris).
As of 2004 at least 21 lizard species have been found in the wild in the Hawaiian Islands (and thus are assumed to have established breeding populations). These lizards include geckos, skinks, anolis lizards, chameleons, horned lizards, and iguanas.
Some of these lizard species are found throughout the Hawaiian Islands, while others are only found in very small areas on particular islands. Three of the lizard species are (presumably) no longer found in the wild in the Hawaiian Islands.
No terrestrial snakes are native to the Hawaiian Islands, but there is one introduced snake species, called the Island blind snake (Ramphotyphlops braminus), which arrived in the Hawaiian Islands sometime around the 1930s in the soil in potted palm trees imported from the Philippines for landscaping.
Now well established in the Hawaiian Islands, the Island blind snake is a burrowing snake that is about 6½ inches (17 cm) long, feeds on insects and small invertebrates, and spends most of its life underground.
Mammals
There are 78 species of cetaceans worldwide, including all whales, dolphins, and porpoises. At least 22 cetacean species are considered native to the waters surrounding the Hawaiian Islands, though some are only occasionally seen near the Hawaiian Islands.
The 22 native Hawaiian cetacean species include: the humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae); fin whale (Balaenoptera physalus); Bryde’s Whale (Balaenoptera edeni); sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus); right whale (Eubalaena glacialis); pilot whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus); orca, or killer whale (Ornicus orca); false killer whale (Pseudorca crassiden); pygmy killer whale (Feresa attenuata); melon-headed whale (Peponocephala electra); pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps); dwarf sperm whale (Kogia simus); minke whale (Balaenoptera acutorostrata); bottlenose whale (Hyperoodon ampullatus); Cuvier’s beaked whale (Ziphius cavirostris); and the Blainville’s beaked whale (Mesoplodon densirostris).
Aside from these cetacean species, the only native Hawaiian sea mammal is the ‘ilio-holo-i-ka-uaua (Monachus schauinslandi, Hawaiian monk seal, which often feeds near shore and then rests during the day on beaches around the Hawaiian Islands.
The only native Hawaiian land mammal is the ‘ōpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus, Hawaiian hoary bat), a furry insect-eating bat that weighs in at about 6 ounces (170 gm) with a wingspan up to 14 inches. (36 cm)
Gastropods
The Bishop Museum’s Hawai‘i Biological Survey has documented at least 781 terrestrial gastropods (759 endemic), and 7 Hawaiian freshwater gastropods (all endemic).
Endemic Hawaiian tree snails (terrestrial gastropods) provide another astounding example of adaptive radiation in the Hawaiian Islands, with more than 750 endemic species having evolved from just a few pioneers that reached the Islands several million years ago, probably in the feathers of migratory birds, or in mud on the birds’ feet. The snails are known by the Hawaiian name pūpū kani oe (“shell that sounds long”), referring to the belief that the snails sing.
Endemic Hawaiian land and freshwater snails evolved from about 25 colonizing species. These extremely adaptable snails had no natural predators, and were once found in a wide variety of habitats where they fed on the fungi that grow on leaves and forest debris (making the snails an important component of native ecosystems).
The snails were known to vary considerably from valley to valley, and exhibited many shapes and colors, from gold tints to cream-colored with brown stripes.
Unfortunately, these native terrestrial snails have a very slow reproductive cycle as well as a low birthrate, and populations were significantly diminished by collectors and other causes.
The snails are extremely vulnerable to non-native predators, particularly rats (Rattus exulans; R.. rattus; R. norvegicus); introduced snails (e.g., Euglandina rosea, the “cannibal snail,”); and the New Guinea flatworm (Platydemis manokwari), which was introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the 1990s and now threatens the last, high-elevation habitats of the native snails. (Hadfield, Michael G. Hawaiian Tree Snails, in the Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Edited by Sonia P. Juvik and James O. Juvik. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.)
There were once more than 300 native Hawaiian snail species in the family Amastridae, but only about 12 or fewer of these species survive today. Recent research studying genetic mutation rates has shown that dozens of tree snail species in the subfamily achatinellinae originated from a single ancestor that likely lived in O‘ahu’s Ko‘olau mountain range about three million years ago.
The last remaining habitat of native Hawaiian terrestrial snails is at high elevations on Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, and O‘ahu, as well as some middle elevation areas on the islands of Hawai‘i and Maui.
Three brackish/freshwater snail species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Two of these species, hapawai (Neritina vespertina) and pīpīwai (Theodoxus cariosus), prefer brackish waters, while a third species, hīhīwai (Neritina granosa) lives in freshwater stream areas.
There are four native species of lymnaeid snails (pond snails) that live in streams and ponds as well as lo‘i kalo (taro patches). (Yamamoto, Mike N., and Tagawa, Annette W. Hawai‘i’s Native & Exotic Freshwater Animals. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 2000.)
Overall, at least 1,243 native Hawaiian mollusks have been documented, and about 80% of these mollusk species are snails, sea slugs, and related species. Native Hawaiian mollusks are invertebrates that evolved from about 25 original immigrant species. There are also thousands of other native Hawaiian species of invertebrates (animals without backbones), including crabs, shrimp, and sea urchins.
Two native Hawaiian shrimp species, ‘ōpaekala‘ole (Atyoida bisulcata) and ‘ōpae ‘oeha‘a (Macrobrachium grandimanus), live in streams, while a third, ‘ōpae ‘ula (Halocaridina rubra) prefers anchialine ponds that are connected to the sea only by the percolations of saltwater and freshwater through lava rock. Heteromyenia baileyi is a native (indigenous) freshwater sponge that sometimes attains a bright green color.
Algae and Coral
More than 860 marine and freshwater algae species are native to the Hawaiian Islands, including at least 80 endemic algae species. Of the more than 340 known native Hawaiian species of red limu, at least 67 are endemic and most are edible.
There are at least 150 different native Hawaiian coral species (approximately 20 to 30 percent are endemic), including 47 hard stony corals and more than 100 species of sea fan and other soft corals.
Arthropods
Arthropods are invertebrates (animals without backbones), and have a rigid external skeleton as well as segmented body parts and segmented legs (arthropod means “jointed feet”).
At least 6,284 native Hawaiian arthropods have been documented. About 95% of Hawaiian arthropods are insects, while the other 5% are closely related species that are not true insects, including centipedes, millipedes, spiders, and many others.
More than 94% of the 5,818 known native Hawaiian insect species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. These 5,462 endemic insect species evolved over a period of at least 30 million years, inhabiting the ancient islands of the Hawaiian archipelago.
At least 23 species and subspecies of damselflies are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands along with five endemic dragonfly species. Many more introduced damselfly and dragonfly species are now established in the Hawaiian Islands.
Two butterfly species are native to the Hawaiian Islands, along with about 13 more introduced butterfly species. More than 60 cave species (living in caves), are native to the Hawaiian Islands, and many of these are endemic to particular islands.
Pomace flies, (Drosophilidae and Scaptomyza), are a renowned example of adaptive radiation among insect fauna of the Hawaiian Islands, with at least 860 documented species of Drosophilidae (in five genera), and perhaps many more yet to be described. All of these flies apparently evolved from a common pair of ancestors that lived in the Hawaiian Islands about 10 million years ago.
For thousands of generations (over millions of years) the flies reproduced, and island-hopped from one volcano to the next as the islands eroded away at the northwest end of the chain and emerged at the southeast end of the chain.
Currently there are at least 2,161 known beetle species native to the Hawaiian Islands, and at least 1,416 of these beetle species are endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. There are more species of beetles than any other organism in the Hawaiian Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands also have the world’s highest proportion of beetles to other living things.
Thousands of species of native Hawaiian insects have yet to be scientifically described. It is estimated that the total number of native Hawaiian insects could exceed 10,000 species, evolved from less than 500original colonizing species. (Howarth, F.G., and Mull, W.P. Hawaiian Insects and their Kin. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1992.)
Also now established in the Hawaiian Islands are more than 550 introduced terrestrial arthropods and more than 2,700 non-native (introduced) insect species.
Hawaii Biological Survey
F.R. Warshauer, in The Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition (1998), and relying in part on the Bishop Museum’s Hawaii Biological Survey, reported 142 native bird species (including extinct species); 7,800 described arthropods (out of an estimated 10,000 to 12,000 native Hawaiian arthropods); 1,300 vascular plants; 1,600 lower plants; 788 mollusks, 166 other invertebrates; and one mammal (not counting marine mammals), totaling about 15,000 native species in those categories. (Warshauer, F.R. Alien Species and Threats to Native Ecology, in the Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Edited by Sonia P. Juvik and James O. Juvik. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.)
Counts of indigenous and endemic Hawaiian species are constantly changing as researchers discover new species, analyze relationships between species (and subspecies) and further refine scientific classifications.
Initial Colonizing Species—Adaptive Radiation
Indigenous species inhabiting the Hawaiian Islands arrived by a variety of methods. Birds came to the Hawaiian Islands on their natural migration tracks or arrived after being blown off course by a storm.
Seeds floated to the Hawaiian Islands on the ocean, were carried in the wing feathers and digestive tracts of birds, or in mud on the birds’ feet. Also likely embedded in the mud were tiny snails, insects, and other species.
Logs or rafts of debris floating on the Pacific Ocean washed up on the shores of the Hawaiian Islands perhaps carrying species such as geckos and skinks. Winds lifted tiny insects and spiders high into the jetstream, more than eight miles up, where they were carried out over the Pacific Ocean at more than 120 miles per hour and then set down on the Hawaiian Islands, there to remain and multiply.
Overall, about 39% of native Hawaiian plant species arrived in the stomachs of birds; about 13% arrived in mud on birds’ feet; about 23% arrived after being stuck to the feathers of birds; about 9% arrived on rafts of seaweed or debris on the ocean; and about 1.4% came by floating through the air to the Hawaiian Islands.[lxxx] There are no native Hawaiian amphibians, terrestrial reptiles, ants, or gymnosperms (e.g., pine trees).
Species assumed to be Polynesian-introduced, but possibly arriving on their own, include the Indo-Pacific gecko (Hemidactylus garnotii); mourning gecko (Lepidodactylus lugubris); stump-toed gecko (Gehyra mutilata); tree gecko (Hemiphyllodactylus typus); azure-tailed skink (Emoia impar); moth skink (Lipinia noctua noctua); and snake-eyed skink (Cryptoblepharus poecilopleurus). Many non-native gymnosperms, amphibians, reptiles and ants are now well-established in the Hawaiian Islands.
The evolutionary process whereby one species evolves into many new species is known as adaptive radiation. The Hawaiian Islands are renowned for their historical record of adaptive radiation, particularly regarding bird and insect species.
Populations of original colonizing species often became divided, with each separated sub-population adapting to different habitats and food sources, and eventually evolving into completely new species.
Adaptive radiation, or evolutionary divergence, allowed the relatively few colonizers of the Hawaiian Islands to develop into the amazingly diverse native flora and fauna in the Hawaiian Islands. For example, just one finch bird species that established itself in the Hawaiian Islands millions of years ago evolved into at least 50 species and subspecies of Hawaiian honeycreepers.
Less than 300 original colonizing flowering plant species evolved into more than 1,100 documented native Hawaiian flowering plant species. Just 29 of these original colonizing plant species evolved into more than half of today’s native Hawaiian flowering plant species.
The geographic isolation and diversity of habitats and food sources in the Hawaiian Islands led to the evolution of many new (endemic) species from the relatively few colonizing species that were able to make it to the Hawaiian Islands and reproduce. This resulted in extremely high rates of endemism for various categories of species (e.g., 94% of native Hawaiian insects are endemic).
The extremely high speciation rate in the Hawaiian Islands is typical of extremely isolated locations. Over hundreds of generations, many plant, animal, and insect species evolved adaptations to the unique conditions found in particular ecosystems, from the shorelines to the peaks of each of the Hawaiian Islands.
Specific adaptations distinguished separate populations that eventually evolved into new species or subspecies endemic (unique) to each particular island. For example, the fragrant mokihana plant and the tiny pink-legged puaiohi bird are found only in the uplands of Kaua‘i.
Some native Hawaiian species are endemic to very small areas, such as the endangered koki‘o ke‘oke‘o (white hibiscus) found only in a few northwest Kaua‘i valleys. Koki‘o ke‘oke‘o (white hibiscus) if sound in the valleys of Limahuli and Hanakāpī‘ai.
Birds Species in the Hawaiian Islands
A total of 495 bird species have been documented in the Hawaiian Islands,[lxxxi] including: 60 endemic resident species;[lxxxii] 168 breeding and non-breeding migratory species (some seen only rarely); at least 51 extinct species. At least 35 native Hawaiian birds species became extinct before Cook arrived in 1778, including 32 described from subfossils, and another 16 species that became extinct since 1778.
More than 150 non-native birds that have been seen in the Hawaiian Islands but have not established breeding populations; and at least 46 established non-native species.
This total number of birds documented had been 475 before the addition of 20 new species in the Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000 (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.), which documented 10 new indigenous species (3 endemic and 7 introduced species), increasing the total number of bird species now established in the Hawaiian Islands to 294 species, including 241 native species (178 indigenous, 63 endemic) and 53 introduced species.
At least 22 species of marine birds are native to the Hawaiian Islands, with a total population of more than twelve million birds. More than 60% of the total population of native Hawaiian marine birds are noddies and terns.
At least 33 species of geese and ducks (many migratory) are native to the Hawaiian Islands, along with five species of waterbirds (all endangered).
The five waterbirds are: Hawaiian black-necked stilt (ae‘o); Hawaiian coot (‘alae ke‘oke‘o); koloa (koloa maoli, Hawaiian duck); Hawaiian moorhen (‘alae ‘ula); and black-crowned night-heron (‘auku‘u).
When Captain Cook arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in 1778, there were about 80 species of endemic (unique) Hawaiian landbirds, along with at least 24 species and subspecies of native Hawaiian seabirds (4 endemic) and 34 species and two subspecies of waterbirds (29 endemic).
Worldwide there are about 9,700 bird species, but only about 2% of these bird species are native to the Hawaiian Islands. More than 35 endemic Hawaiian landbirds had already gone extinct by the time of Cook’s arrival.
Species that went extinct prior to Cook’s arrival met their demise from a variety of causes, including hunting of the birds for food and for feathers. Sometimes the birds were released unharmed after some of the feathers were collected.
Pua‘a (pigs) and ‘īlio (dogs) brought by the Polynesians also had an effect on island bird populations, as did the ‘iole (Polynesian black rats) that hitched a ride on the voyaging canoes.
Polynesian-introduced pigs, dogs, and rats were particularly detrimental to native Hawaiian ground-nesting birds, including flightless ducks, geese, ibises, and rails, which were also the most likely birds to be hunted by humans for food.
About 23 of the bird species that became extinct prior to Western contact were ground-nesting birds. Now known only from subfossil discoveries, these species included flightless ducks (four species); flightless ibises (three species); flightless rails (at least 10 species); and flightless geese (six species). Some of the flightless geese species were more than 3 feet (1 m) tall.
Other species that went extinct prior to Western contact included at least four long-legged owl species, one shearwater, one bald eagle, two crow species, one petrel, and a harrier along with more than 21 honeycreeper species and one honeyeater species.
It is possible that some of these bird species may have become extinct prior to Polynesian settlement in the Hawaiian Islands, but most (if not all) of these bird species probably became extinct after the Polynesians arrived in the Hawaiian Islands, but before Cook arrived in 1778 establishing Western contact.
Aia a pohā ka leo o ka ‘a‘o, kāpule ke momona o ka ‘uwa‘u i ka puapua.
When the ‘a‘o birds’ voices are distinctly heard, the ‘uwa‘u
birds are fat even to the very tails.
The ‘a‘o bird was not heard during the nesting season. When the fledglings emerged and their cries were heard, the season had come when young ‘uwa‘u were best
for eating, and the people went to snare them.[lxxxiii]
Since 1778, at least 24 more native Hawaiian land bird species or subspecies have become extinct,[lxxxiv] including the native kioea (Chaetoptila angustipluma), last seen in 1859, the Greater koa finch (Rhodacanthis palmeri), last seen in 1896, and the Laysan rail (Porzana palmeri), last seen in 1944. The Hawai‘i ‘ō‘ō (Moho nobilis), a bird long sought after for its beautiful feathers used in Hawaiian featherwork, hasn’t been seen since 1934.[lxxxv]
At least 59 endemic Hawaiian bird species and subspecies are now extinct, and another 30 are currently considered rare or endangered (six may already be extinct). At least 30 species and subspecies of Hawaiian birds are federally listed as endangered, along with one subspecies listed as threatened.[lxxxvi]
[Photograph: Hawai‘i ‘ō‘ō (Moho nobilis)]
Plant and Animal Extinctions
Just as the Hawaiian Islands are known as the world capital of endemic species, it may also be considered the capital of extinct species. About 10% of native Hawaiian flowering plants (more than 100 species) have gone extinct in the last century, along with more than 40 Hawaiian insect species.
Also extinct are 72 taxa (species and subspecies) of snails and 74 taxa of insects.[lxxxvii] Insects presumed extinct include: 15 species of Coleoptera (beetles); five species of Diptera (flies, gnats, and mosquitoes); 15 species of Homoptera (leafhoppers, planthoppers, mealybugs, and scales); 38 species of Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies); one species of Odonata (damselflies and dragonflies); two species of Orthoptera (crickets and grasshoppers); and one species of Hemiptera (true bugs).[lxxxviii]
More than one third of the plants and animals federally listed as endangered are Hawaiian. In all, more than 360 Hawaiian species and subspecies are listed as either threatened or endangered under the federal and state Endangered Species Acts.
The federally listed Endangered Species include more than 275 species and subspecies of plants and more than 35 vertebrate species, with at least another 40 invertebrate species listed as threatened.
About 38% of Hawaiian plants are considered extinct or threatened, 10% presumed extinct, 12% endangered, 4% vulnerable, and 12% rare.
Note: The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service endangered species program (in regards to Hawaiian species) does not count subspecies separately, resulting in different totals and percents in the stated categories.
The Hawaiian Islands are just two tenths of one percent of the size of the United States, but accounts for nearly 70% of the United States’ historically documented plant and animal extinctions. More than 30% of federally listed endangered species are Hawaiian, along with more than 40% of the listed birds.
More than half of endemic Hawaiian plants are now threatened, endangered, or extinct, and about half of the original endemic Hawaiian bird species are already extinct. This is documented in the Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002. Twenty-seven species that were presumed to be extinct in the 1990 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i were subsequently rediscovered, and documented as such in the 1999 Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition. (Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999.)
In the 2002 Electronic Supplement to the Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i (Wagner, Warren L., and Herbst, Derral R.) Internet site:http://rathbun.si.edu/botany/pacificislandbiodiversity/hawaiianflora/supplement.htm, 3/05/2002. at least 32 new species and two new subspecies discoveries are documented, along with one new endemic genus.
The Electronic Supplement also lists numerous name (nomenclatural) changes, “resurrections from synonymy,” and corrections of past misidentifications. Many of these changes have further increased the total number of documented native Hawaiian species and subspecies. In addition, many more species that were presumed extinct were rediscovered (in addition to the 27 rediscoveries between 1990 and 1999.
Threats to Native Species of the Hawaiian Islands
Population and Visitor Statistics
Hawaiian Kingdom, Republic, Territory, and State of Hawai‘i
1778—Captain Cook’s crew estimates the population of the Hawaiian Islands at about 400,000. Later estimates vary from less than 300,000 to more than 700,000.
1805—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 264,160.
1831—The first archipelago census gives a population of 130,313.
1850—The native Hawaiian population is about 82,000 people.
1853—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is 73,134, including 2,119 foreigners. The native Hawaiian population continues to decline from an estimated 300,000 people living in the Hawaiian Islands at the time of first Western contact (see Chapter 11, Timeline: 1778, Jan. 18).
1872—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 56,897 people.
1876—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is 53,900 people. After this date, the overall population stops decreasing and begins to increase, though the native population continues to decline.
1884—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is reported to be more than 80,000 people, which is an increase of 24,000 people from just twelve years earlier, though the native population continues to decline.
1890—It is estimated that less than 40,000 native Hawaiians remain, down from the estimated population of more than 300,000 people in the Hawaiian Islands at the time of Western Contact (see Chapter 11, Timeline: 1778, Jan. 18).
The main cause of the decline of the native Hawaiian population is the introduction of foreign diseases including measles, smallpox, Asiatic cholera, whooping cough, scarlet fever, diphtheria, influenza, syphilis, gonorrhea, bubonic plague, dysentery, and numerous other maladies.
The clash of cultures as well as the loss of land, religion, rituals, and language also has devastating negative affects on the native population.
1900-1920—The population of the Hawaiian Islands in 1900 is documented at 154,001 people, including about 25% Hawaiian or part-Hawaiian; 40% Japanese; 16% Chinese; 12% Portuguese; and about 5% Caucasian.
The first two decades of the 1900s see a mass migration to the Hawaiian Islands by hundreds of thousands of foreigners, at the same time that the native Hawaiian population suffers a massive decline due to foreign diseases and other causes. Foreigners outnumber those of Polynesian descent (native Hawaiians).
Earlier waves of Portuguese laborers and immigrant laborers from China and Japan are supplemented by the importation of laborers from Puerto Rico (1900), Korea (1903), and the Philippines (1907-1931).
In 1900 there are more than 60,000 Japanese in the Hawaiian Islands, and by 1920, they comprise more than 40% of the total population. (See Immigrant Laborers, Chapter 12.)
1910—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 191,874 people, including 26,041 Hawaiians and 12,056 part-Hawaiians.
1920—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 255,881 people, with 42.7% of the population being of Japanese descent. (See Immigrant Laborers, Chapter 12.)
1930—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 368,336 people.
1940—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 420,770 people.
1950—The population of the Territory of Hawai‘i is documented at 499,794 people, and about 85% of these are United States citizens.
About one-third of the population of the Hawaiian Islands is Caucasian, one-third Japanese, and 12% are part Hawaiian, with only about 2% pure Hawaiian. About 10% of the population is Filipino, and there are also a small number of Chinese, North Koreans, and Puerto Ricans.
1959—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is about 622,000 people, with more than 240,000 annual visitors.
1960—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 632,772 people.
1964—Caucasians become the majority in the Hawaiian Islands for the first time.
1967—The annual visitor count of the Hawaiian Islands exceeds one million people for the first time.
1970—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 769,913 people.
1972—The annual visitor count of the Hawaiian Islands exceeds two million people.
1979—The annual visitor count of the Hawaiian Islands exceeds four million people.
1980—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 964,691 people.
1982—The population of the State of Hawai‘i exceeds 1 million people.
1986—The State of Hawai‘i annual visitor count exceeds five million people. Tourism continues to grow as the driving force of the economy of the Hawaiian Islands.
1990—The population of the Hawaiian Islands is documented at 1,108,228 people, with more than 6.7 million annual visitors.
2000—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,211,537 people, including 239,655 people of native Hawaiian ancestry. Twenty-one percent of Hawai‘i’s 1.21 million residents identify their ancestry as Japanese; 17.7% Filipino; 16.3% Hawaiian; 8.3% Chinese; 5.8% German.
Visitors to the Hawaiian Islands total 6,983,394, including 6,948,594 by air and 34,800 by ship. Visitor expenditures in 2000 total $10.9 billion. This visitor expenditure total is the second highest recorded to date (the 1995 total was $11.1 billion).
2001—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,224,398 people. Visitors to the Hawaiian Islands total 6,350,361, including 6,303,790 by air and 46,571 by ship.
2002, July 1—According to the Census Bureau, the July 1, 2002 population of the Hawaiian Islands is 1,244,898 people, including: Maui County-134,007; Island of Hawai‘i—154,794; Kaua‘i—59,946; City and County of Honolulu—896,019; and Metropolitan Honolulu (Red Hill to Hawai‘i Kai)—378,155.
2002—Visitors to the State of Hawai‘i total 6,452,834, including 6,389,058 by air and 63,776 by ship.
2003—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,257,608, including about 7,000 Hawaiians, and 401,000 part (mixed-blood) Hawaiians.
The population of the Hawaiian Islands ranks 42nd in the United States, which has a total population of about 290 million. The Hawaiian Islands gained 16,945 new residents during the previous year, which is a total population increase of about 1%.
Visitors to the State of Hawai‘i in 2003 total 6,442,020, including 6,380,439 by air and 61,581 by ship.
2004—Visitors to the State of Hawai‘i total 6,991,927, including 6,912,094 by air and 79,833 by ship.
2004—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,262,840, an increase of about 1.1% from 2003, and including about 200,000 people of native Hawaiian ancestry.
2005—The population of the State of Hawai‘i is 1,275,194.HE
Chapter 12 Source Notes
All Hawaiian words in this text, the Hawaiian Encyclopedia, include proper diacritical marks, including the ‘okina (hamzah, or glottal stop) and kahakō (macron), except when the word is cited directly as part of a title or in a direct quote, in which case the words are spelled as originally published.
See Appendix 1: Note On Sources for more information about diacritical marks; objectivity; Hawaiian word spellings and meanings; scientific, cultural, and historic information; new research and discoveries; verifying dates and details of historic events; and Hawaiian sovereignty and other native issues.
[Note: This list is still in progress and being updated.]
Ablan, Jennifer. Weather watch—snowfall. Hawaii Magazine, February 1996.
Abbott, Isabella Aiona. Lā‘au Hawai‘i: Traditional Hawaiian Uses of Plants. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1992.
Abbott, Isabella Aiona. Limu: An Ethnobotanical Study of Some Hawaiian Seaweeds. Lawai: National Tropical Botanical Garden, 1984.
About the Polynesian Voyaging Society. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/aboutpvs.html.
A case of bill overkill. Discover Magazine, May, 1996.
Adams, Wanda A. Explore scenic and historic North Kohala. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/08/2002.
Adams, Wanda A. Hike through history at Pololū Valley: Kohala Ditch trail also offers native wildlife, scenic views. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/08/2002.
Adams, Wanda. Navigator, mediator, hero...Eddie: Eddie Aikau, Hawai‘i’s legendary surfer, is recalled by those who knew him best. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/01/2002.
Adamski, Mary. Makua Makahiki: Dedicated faithful revive ancient Hawaiian traditions in contrast to a military presence. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/09/2003.
Aguiar, Eloise. Big turquoise waves create perfect ‘Eddie.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/08/2002.
Aikin, Ross R. Kilauea Point Lighthouse: The Landfall Beacon on the Orient Run. Kilauea Point Natural History Association. Lihue: Island Printers, 1988.
Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Relatives recall his humble personality. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002.
Akana-Gooch, Keiko Kiele. Volunteers and experts tackle extensive Hokule‘a repairs. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/25/2002.
Ali‘iolani Hale. Internet site: http://www.planet-hawaii.com/jhchawaii/ahale.html, 8/18/2002.
All About Hawaii (1948-1949): Thrum’s Hawaiian Annual and Standard Guide. Publications Division: Honolulu Star-Bulletin, Honolulu, Hawaii, 1949.
Aloha Flight 243: Air Disaster. Internet site: http://www.disastercity.com/flt243/index.htm, 9/01/2001.
A look at Midway Atoll today. The Garden Island, 6/06/2002.
Altonn, Helen. Hawaiian got isles off to a flying start: The airline began Hawaii’s first scheduled interisle flights in 1929. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002.
Altonn, Helen. New Mauna Kea camera: The wide-field device helps researchers investigate broad expanses of the sky. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/20/2003.
Altonn, Helen. UH enlisted to spot ‘killer asteroids’: Its Astronomy Institute will help design an array of telescopes. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/09/2002.
Altonn, Helen. Unique telescope will seek new stars: The dish antenna array on Mauna Kea focuses on radiation from cold regions. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/20/2003.
A Natural History of the Hawaiian Islands: Selected Readings II. Edited by Alison Kay. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999.
Ancient chants and hula at Historical Society dinner. The Garden Island, 5/26/1994.
Anderson, George William. Excerpts from Captain Cook’s Third and Last Voyage. The Garden Island, 11/10/1999.
A new Hawaiian. The Garden Island, 7/23/2001.
A nice gift for the new Hawaiian monk seal. The Garden Island, 7/27/2001.
Antone, Rod. A drowning season: A rash of ocean deaths has officials studying the situation with concern. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/06/2002.
Antone, Rod. Swimmer luckily not to shark’s liking: John Marrack is safe after a close call off the Waianae coast. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 6/25/2003.
Anwar, Yasmin. ‘Original’ flag raises debate: Honolulu man promotes design. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/12/2001.
Apgar, Sally. Persistent monk seal relocated to Johnston Atoll. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/03/2003.
Ariyoshi, Rita. The National Geographic Traveler: Hawaii. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic Society, 2000.
Arthur, Sheila Heathcoate. Kauaians help to restore lonely Kaho‘olawe. The Garden Island, 9/19/1998.
Astronomers find strongest evidence yet of solar system around star visible from earth. The Garden Island, 4/12/2002.
Atlas of Hawai‘i: Second Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1983.
Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.
A Trip Through Hawaii’s Military History: Exploring the U.S. Army Museum of Hawaii. Edited by Barbara Mills. Hawaii Army Museum Society, 2000.
A web site for monk seal watchers. The Garden Island, 7/28/2001.
Bakutis, Bunky. Diver gets close look at ‘Jaws’ off Maili: Great whites rare in Hawaii. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/15/1999.
Balcomb, Kenneth C. III. The Whales of Hawaii: Including All Species of Marine Mammals in Hawaiian and Adjacent Waters. San Francisco, California: Marine Mammal Fund, 1987.
Balloon flight blazes trail. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/09/2003.
Barayuga, Debra. State found negligent in Sacred Falls deaths: A judge rules there was insufficient warning of the risks of a rockslide. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/25/2002.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Alula. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/30/2002.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Hibiscus kokio. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/07/2003.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Iliau (Kauai Greensword). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/01/2002.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Koki‘o Kea. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/08/2002.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Ma‘ohauhele (Hawaii’s State Flower). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/13/2002.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Naio. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/15/2002.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Naupaka Papa (Dwarf Naupaka). The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/16/2003.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Nehe. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/07/2003.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Palapalai. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/02/2003.
Barboza, Rick. In the Garden: Wiliwili. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/17/2003.
Basement makes building isle rarity. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/02/2003.
Bassler, Bonnie L. Tiny Conspiracies: Cell-to-cell communication allows bacteria to coordinate their activity. Natural History Magazine, 5/2001.
Beamish, Rita. Scientists, environmentalists, fishermen clash over NW Hawaiian Islands’ future. The Garden Island, 5/27/2002.
Beletsky, Les. Hawaii: The Ecotravellers’ Wildlife Guide. London: Academic Press, 2000.
Berger, Andrew J. Bird Life in Hawaii. Honolulu: Island Heritage Limited, 1983.
Berger, Andrew J. Hawaiian Birdlife: Second Edition. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1981.
Bernardo, Rosemarie. Aloha Airlines starts on right flight path: Employees live up to Hung Wo Ching’s legacy of pride and a can-do attitude. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002.
Bernardo, Rosemarie, and Leone, Diana. Mink’s work to advance women’s rights and aid environment serves as legacy. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002.
Bishop Museum—About the Museum. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/about.html, 7/23/2002.
Bishop Museum—About the Museum: Contact Information. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/contact.html, 7/23/2002.
Bishop Museum—About the Museum: Our Mission. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/mission.html, 7/23/2002.
Bishop Museum—Amy B. H. Greenwell Ethnobotanical Garden. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/greenwell/index.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—Archives: About the photo collection. Internet site:
http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archphoto.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum—Archives: The Mele Collection. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archmele.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum—Archives: Manuscript Collection. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archmanu.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum—Archives: Special Collections. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/archother.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum—Falls of Clyde. Informational brochure distributed at Hawai‘i Maritime Center.
Bishop Museum: Hawaiian and Pacific Studies. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/handps.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—Hawai‘i Maritime Center: Home of the Hokule‘a and Falls of Clyde. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/hmc/, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum: Hawaii’s Extinct Species. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/extinct.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum: Hawai‘i’s Extinct Species—Birds. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-birds.html., 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Insects. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-insects.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Plants. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-plants.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Snails. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-snails.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum: History. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/history.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—Hokule‘a: Polynesian Voyaging Canoe- Retracing the paths of ancient Polynesia. Internet site: http:www.bishopmuseum.org/hmc/hokulea.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum: Museum Guide & Map. Informational brochure, distributed at Bishop Museum, 8/15/2002.
Bishop Museum—Library and Archives: The history of Hawaii and the Pacific in words and images. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/research/cultstud/libarch/, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum: Message from the President. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/message.html, 7/23/2002.
Bishop Museum: Native plant species in Hawai‘i. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/greenwell/gwplants.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum: Pacific Center for Molecular Biodiversity. Internet site: http://bishopmuseum.org/research/pcmb/pcmb.html, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum: Past Exhibits. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/exhibits/past.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum: Planetarium Programs: Fun in Space. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/education/planetarium.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum Press. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/press/, 7/28/2002.
Bishop Museum—The Falls of Clyde: A one-of-a-kind ship. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/hmc/fallsofclyde.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum: The How Many Species Are there in Hawaii Web Page. Includes: How many species are there in Hawaii?, from the “Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994” as published in the Bishop Museum Occasional Paper volume 41: 3-18; and Number of Hawaiian Species: Supplement 1, originally published in Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 45: 8-17 (1996). Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hispp.html, 10/17/2002.
Bishop Museum—The Kona Field System. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/greenwell/kona.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum—The role of the Hawaii Biological Survey. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hbs3.html.
Bishop Museum: Upcoming Traveling Exhibits. Internet site: http://www.bishopmuseum.org/exhibits/upcoming.html, 8/07/2002.
Bishop Museum: World famous Bishop Museum now in Waikīkī. Informational brochure distributed by Bishop Museum, August, 2002.
Blakeman, Karen. Sanctuary system moves forward: ‘This is going to strangle us, slowly,’ bottom fisherman says of restrictions. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/16/2002.
Blakeman, Karen. Shark attacks woman on Maui: Visitor bitten swimming off Kā‘anapali. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/18/2002.
Blakeman, Karen. 1,300 sightings reported by whale watchers. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/26/2003.
Blay, Chuck, and Siemers, Robert. Kauai’s Geologic History: A Simplified Guide. Kaua‘i: TEOK Investigations, 1998.
Blowhole has history of danger. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/01/2002.
Borg, Jim. Catching the wave. San Francisco Examiner, 3/3/1996.
Borg, Jim. Genetic research offers intriguing new view of Polynesian migrations. Hawaii Magazine, February, 1997.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Crown flower thrives in heat, sun. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/02/2002.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Hawai‘i Gardens. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/02/2001.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Hawaiian cotton needs a helping hand from us. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/23/2002.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Native hibiscus gains a following. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/02/2000.
Bornhorst, Heidi. Wiliwili variety of erythrina native to Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002.
Boynton, David. Boar hunting: Hunting the feral pigs helps to protect the forest ecology. Kauai Magazine, Fall, 1992.
Boynton, David. Kaua‘i monk seal population up by one. The Garden Island, 7/19/1999.
Boynton, David. Students taking part in Kolea Watch: Native bird ready for annual migration north. The Garden Island, 4/15/2002.
Brill, Richard. The birth of a hurricane. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/01/1998.
Briscoe, David. Ancient galaxy being studied atop Mauna Kea. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/31/2003.
Briscoe, David. Don’t worry about 1,000-foot waves: They’re all underwater. The Garden Island, 2/15/2002.
Briscoe, David. Kilauea lava flow slows, but still attracts thousands. The Garden Island, 8/29/2002.
Bryan, E.H. Jr. Stars Over Hawaii. Hawai‘i: The Petroglyph Press, 1995.
Building’s corner entry even grander than most. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/09/2003.
Bunnell, Dave. Pele’s Underground: Beyond the twilight awaits the deep, dark world of lava tubes. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1996.
Burlingame, Burl. Advertiser building went up in 1929. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/23/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Archives built to house monarchy files. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/25/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Building was home for Japanese newspaper. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 11/30/2003.
Burlingame, Burl. Eddie: Riding on the crest of the myth. Honolulu Star-Bulletin Features, http://starbulletin.com/98/03/09/features/story1.html, 2/02/2001.
Burlingame, Burl. Efficient design and perfect location define market. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/14/2003.
Burlingame, Burl. Elegant, functional train depot was typical of old Honolulu. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/11/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Foster Botanical Gardens is a 20-acre, green oasis. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/1/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. German immigrant built ‘Iolani Barracks. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 4/11/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Hawaii Theatre back to its original ‘new’ look. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/15/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Hawaiian royalty backed St. Andrew’s. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/14/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Honolulu Hale has a strong Mediterranean look. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/09/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Kawaiahao is a Protestant showplace. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 6/06/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Missionary landmark was built in 1915. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 5/16/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Oldest Catholic cathedral in isles—and maybe U.S. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 2/29/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Queen’s spirit prevails in historic home. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/21/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Roots of modern China in isle building. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 12/07/2003.
Burlingame, Burl. State art museum looks a bit like a hotel and Italian palazzo. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 3/28/2004.
Burlingame, Burl. Temple is devoted to goddess of mercy. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/25/2004.
Bushnell, O.A., and Daws, Gaven; Illustrated by Feher, Joseph. The Illustrated Atlas of Hawaii. Aiea, Hawaii: Island Heritage Publishing, 1970.
Cabrera, Theresa. The Hawaiian hoary bat: Hawaii’s only native land mammal. Honolulu: Nature Conservancy of Hawaii Newsletter, Spring, 1995.
California researchers aim to tag great white sharks. The Garden Island, 7/10/2003.
Captain James Cook: British Navigator and Explorer. Internet site: http://www2.lucidcafe.com/lucidcafe/lucidcafe/library/95oct/jcook.html.
Cause of death of hikers on lava flow determined. The Garden Island, 3/01/2001.
Cave critters added to endangered species list. The Garden Island, 1/16/2000.
Chang, Lester. Dolphins are happy in Kaua‘i’s waters. The Garden Island, 6/23/2003.
Chang, Lester. It’s raining Newell shearwaters again: Annual falling—and rescuing—of the birds resumes. The Garden Island, 10/07/2000.
Chang, Lester. Monk seal pair are hassle-free: Proper respect gives pup good start. The Garden Island, 8/01/2001.
Chang, Lester. Monk seal pup is weaned and relocated: Po‘ipu beach to reopen soon. The Garden Island, 9/09/2001.
Chang, Lester. More and more whales spotted in Kaua‘i waters. The Garden Island, 1/26/2003.
Chang, Lester. Nurses rally against drownings. The Garden Island, 1/20/2001.
Chang, Lester. The end of Queen Lili‘uokalani’s rule. The Garden Island, 1/20/2002.
Chang, Lester. Visit to “sinkhole” offers a look at thousands of years of Kaua‘i’s natural history. The Garden Island, 3/25/2002.
Chang, Lester. Young seal moves in to Po‘ipu: Officials say long beach closures unlikely. The Garden Island, 10/12/2001.
Chang, Lester. $2.8 million helping bats, other species: Federal protection money pouring into state. The Garden Island, 9/29/2001.
Chaffee, Frederic H. 10-year-old Keck still rules. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/09/2002.
Chapin, Helen G., for the Hawaiian Historical Society. Kauai prince left isles at 6. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/13/2002.
Chapin, Helen G., for the Hawaiian Historical Society. 1901 trolley alters Manoa. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/01/2002.
Charles Reed Bishop. Kamehameha Schools. Internet site: http://www.ksbe.edu/endowment/bpbishop/CRBishop.html, 8/7/2002.
Check out the Bowfin. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/20/2002.
Ciaffardini, David Aldo. Eddie would go, has gone and is still going: A wild, occasional big-wave surf meet honors the memory of a homegrown hero. Hawaii Magazine, December, 1996.
Clark, Hugh. Mauna Loa swelling detected: Scientist says eruption only a matter of time. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/29/2002.
Coleon, Shayna. Duke stamp creates sales swell. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/27/2002.
Cole, William. Links to Italy found in middle of sea: Vespucci crew visits POW graves, statues. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/02/2002.
Clark, Hugh. Groups seek hearing on telescope plan. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/22/2002.
Clark, Hugh. Kilauea’s 18-year eruption far from longest, experts say. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/2/2001.
Clark, Hugh. Land deal creates habitat for endangered birds. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/27/2001.
Clark, Hugh. Lava flows again crawl across Royal Gardens. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/10/2001.
Clark, Hugh. Turtle nest in Hilo great rarity in itself. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/12/2002.
Clark, Hugh. Visiting astronomers to give free lectures: Gravitational lensing, quasars are topics for Keck anniversary. The Honolulu Advertiser.
Clark, Hugh, and TenBruggencate, Jan. Tsunami could hit Islands with little warning. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/09/2000.
Clark, Joan. The etiquette of lei: The gift of flowers carries a varied symbolism. Hawaii Magazine, June, 1995.
Closing the triangle: A quest for Rapa Nui. Polynesian Voyaging Society: History and Heritage. Internet site: http://leahi.kcc.hawaii.edu/org/pvs/rapanui/heritage.html.
Cole, Richard. Hurricane forecasting needs a lift, 20,000 feet: Higher-flying planes required to gather more reliable data from 8 miles high. San Francisco Examiner and Chronicle, 12/05/1993.
Cole, William. ‘Queen’s Own’ recalls Korea. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/23/2002.
Cole, William. War practice opens with planning: RIMPAC forces downsized by world tensions. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/26/2002.
Coleon, Shayna. Beach Boys share memories of Duke: Surfing legend remembered for ‘spreading aloha.’ The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/24/2002.
Coleon, Shayna. Picnic perfect for war stories: 100th Battalion gathers for event. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/15/2002.
Coleon, Shayna. Rash of drownings causes alarm. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/20/2002.
Cone, Joseph. Life’s undersea beginnings. Earth Magazine, July, 1994.
Conrow, Joan. Kauai profits in Iniki’s aftermath. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/8/1994.
Conrow, Joan. Puaiohi thrives in the Alaka‘i Swamp. The Garden Island, 6/2/2000.
Cook, Chris. Mayor calls for comprehensive water safety plan: 169 drownings in 26 years, 240 percent rise in responses. Kauai Times, 5/31/1997.
Cook, Evelyn. Geckos galore. Spirit of Aloha Magazine, February, 1997.
Cook, Robert. Kīlauea sea slide could be catastrophic: Scientists recorded sizable slip in 2000. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/28/2002.
Cox, J. Halley, with Stasack, Edward. Hawaiian Petroglyphs. Honolulu: Bernice P. Bishop Museum Special Publication 60, 1970.
Creamer, Beverly. Plans set for rare birds to meet, mate: Biologists ready for high-tech effort on Maui. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/15/2002.
Creamer, Beverly. Project measures stability of earth’s core. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/14/2002.
Culliney, John L. Islands in a Far Sea. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1988.
Curtis, Paul C. Expect monk seals alongside beachgoers: Odds are monk seals will claim sections of Po‘ipu Beach. The Garden Island, 6/04/2002.
Curtis, Paul C. Mother seal attacks snorkeler: Too close for comfort at Po‘ipū Beach. The Garden Island, 8/06/2001.
Curtis, Paul C. North Shore beaches reopen. The Garden Island, 12/28/2001.
Curtis, Paul C. Seals are weaning it: Almost time for mother and pup to part ways. 8/29/2001.
Curtis, Paul C. Whale of a time around Kaua‘i: Visitors, boat operators ready for another season of whale watching. The Garden Island, 12/01/2000.
Damien. Informational brochure distributed at The Damien Museum, 130 Ohua Ave., Honolulu, HI., August, 2002.
Danninger, Lyn. Isle agriculture ahead of the curve. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002.
Danninger, Lyn. Sweet industries see sour fall: Mechanization and competition took their toll on once-thriving sugar and pineapple industries. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/29/2002.
Davidson, Keay, and Williams, A.R. Under our skin: Hot theories on the center of the Earth. National Geographic, December, 1992.
Daws, Gavan. Shoal of Time: A History of the Hawaiian Islands. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968.
Day, A. Grove. A Biographical Dictionary: History Makers of Hawaii. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1984.
Dayton, Kevin. Hawai‘i statehood anniversary: From simple dreams to grand challenges (cites State of Hawai‘i: Historical Statistics of Hawai‘i; 1959 Testimony in the United States Senate). The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/18/1999.
Dayton, Kevin. New Mauna Kea telescope to be dedicated: Instrument can peer into ‘nurseries’ of distant stars, planets. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/22/2003.
Dayton, Kevin. Vandals deface Hilo landmarks. The Honolulu Advertiser, 11/14/2003.
Dayton, Kevin. 2 endangered Hawaiian hawks returning to Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/14/2003.
Degener, Otto. Plants of Hawaii National Parks: Illustrative of Plants and Customs of the South Seas. Braun-Brumfield, Inc., 1973.
Denny, Jim. The Birds of Kaua‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1999.
Desha, Stephen L., translated by Frazier, Frances N. Kamehameha and his Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 2000.
Dillingham building’s style evokes 1920s. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/24/2003.
Dixon, Susan. Anthropologist seeks support for Polynesian canoe project. Kauai Times, 9/11/1996.
Dixon, Susan. Hokule‘a sets sail for Kaua‘i: Ceremony Saturday to mark arrival of voyaging canoe. The Garden Island, 9/18/1996.
Dixon-Strong, Susan. Why is Kauai always the bull’s eye? Kauai Times, 10/04/1992.
DNA tests trace Polynesians to China origins. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/11/1998.
Dorrance, William H. O‘ahu’s Hidden History. Honolulu: Mutual Publishing, 1998.
Dr. Stangenwald’s monument set Honolulu’s height limit. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 9/14/2003.
Dudley, Walt and Penisten, John. Sex and the Single Fish: Hedonistic Reef Dwellers Crave Kinky Stimulation. Hawaii Magazine, October, 1995.
Dudley, Walter C., and Lee, Min. Tsunami! Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1988.
Duke Kahanamoku and the Dawn of Australian Surfing: at the “Boomerang Camp” Freshwater Beach, Sydney in the Southern Summer of 1915. Internet site: http://www.magna.com.au/c.prfbrown/the_duke.html, 2/18/2001.
Duke Kahanamoku gets own stamp next year: Surfing legend latest U.S. icon feted by Postal Service. The Garden Island, 11/07/2001.
Duke Kahanamoku—The legendary Hawaiian waterman and his influence on Kaua‘i: The Duke sends a surfboard to a Kaua‘i boy. The Garden Island, 8/23/2002.
Duke put Hawaii on map. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 1/19/2003.
Duke’s Fans Make Stamps a Big Sell. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 8/29/2002.
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TenBruggencate, Jan. Amazing kōlea faithfully return. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/26/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. April 1, 1946: ‘Tidal wave!’. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/01/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Astronomers spot new Jovian moons: 7 found recently by UH team brings total to 47. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/06/2003.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Bat stages rare show on O‘ahu. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/08/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Beaches slip-sliding away. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/19/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Beetles live here in abundance. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/02/2003.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Biologists score breakthrough in raising reef fish. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/23/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Botanical secrets of sea await discovery. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/3/2000.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Dark evenings of autumn a risky time for fledglings. The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date).
TenBruggencate, Jan. Debris continues to threaten marine life. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/01/01.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Dolphins change sonar volume: Signals reveal target, size, distance, UH researchers find. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/24/2003.
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TenBruggencate, Jan. Eddie’s Sacrifice: Surfer’s search for help during a stormy 1978 Hōkūle‘a voyage ensured his legacy—and the canoe’s mission. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/17/2003.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Get out of water if dolphins are jumpy, shark experts say. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/26/2003.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Giant tsunami theory disputed: Lana‘i study contradicts 1937 report. The Honolulu Advertiser, 12/08/2000.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Group sues for forest bird habitat. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/4/2000.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Hawaiian spellings catch on but slowly: Luddites afraid of diacritical mass. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/16/2003.
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TenBruggencate, Jan. Help keep watch on our kōlea. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/25/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Identify ‘elepaio habitat, court says. Honolulu Advertiser, 6/27/2000.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Isles warned tsunami overdue: Experts fear few aware of danger. Honolulu Advertiser, 9/05/2000.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Kaua‘i limestone 315,000 years old. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/19/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Kauai thrush may be coming back. The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date).
TenBruggencate, Jan. Kilauea simmers down again: Coat of red dust covers wide area. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/02/1997.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Keck seeing farther and farther out—and back. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/1996.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Keck twins open new paths to universe. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/03/2003.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Last habitat for crow endangered. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/15/1996.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Linking of telescopes enhances visibility: Kecks to look for planets like Earth. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/03/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Lo‘ihi’s secret: a little known form of life. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/13/1996.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Loss of variability left nēnē vulnerable. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Mauna Kea telescope gets world’s biggest camera. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/02/2003.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Muted lights brighten sea birds’ future. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/05/2003.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Navy clocked Iniki gust at 227 mph: Weather Service reports sustained winds blew at 145 mph. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/07/1992.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Nēnē finds home on Moloka‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/07/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Nene flourish on Kauai. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/19/1995.
TenBruggencate, Jan. New firm to manage Midway Atoll. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/30/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Northwestern islands subject of wrangling. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/10/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Northwest islands’ fish differ noticeably. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/15/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Officials discover third monk pup born on Kaua‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/06/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. ‘Outrigger’ telescopes would target giant planets. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/21/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Po‘ipu may face new wildlife rules: Federal actions would be limited. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/20/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Push to protect habitats worrisome to landowners: Proposal calls for one-fourth of two islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/07/2002
TenBruggencate, Jan. Presence of seals worries officials: Biologists say sightings are up. The Garden Island, 4/15/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Rare birds socializing again at Midway. The Honolulu Advertiser, 1/15/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Rare seeds stolen from nature preserve: Lāna‘i thief targets endangered plant. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/23/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Researchers studying volcanoes to drill 3 miles into Mauna Loa. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/09/1996.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Sanctuary status sought for Northwestern Hawaiian Islands. The Honolulu Advertiser, 4/07/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Seal has another pup at Po‘ipū. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/23/2001.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Science mission finds new species: Discoveries rife on outlying isles. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/19/2000.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Scientists gather on Big Island to debate brown dwarfs. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/17/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Seal pup plops down in Po‘ipu. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/07/2000.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Service cuts at Midway Atoll raise protests. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/02/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark attacks teenager off Kaua‘i. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/26/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Sinkhole yields treasure trove of bird fossils. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/25/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Songbird showing promise in wild: Efforts tested on Kaua‘i thrush. The Honolulu Advertiser, 2/22/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Sub finds mysteries near Loihi’s new pit. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/09/1996.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Taro’s in trouble, and it’s rooted in labor. The Honolulu Advertiser, (no date).
TenBruggencate, Jan. This bug’s life is an icy existence: Wēkiu thrives in Mauna Kea cold. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/18/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Three rare puaiohi hatch in captivity. The Honolulu Advertiser, 5/1996, (uncertain date).
TenBruggencate, Jan. Jupiter study adds 11 moons: UH astronomers widen jovian map. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/17/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Scientist disputes Kīlauea slide danger. The Honolulu Advertiser, 3/07/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Shark chomps into board at popular surf spot. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/30/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. UH to plan asteroid scope: Instrument to search for threats to Earth. The Honolulu Advertiser, 10/09/2002.
TenBruggencate, Jan. Variety fills island ecosystems. The Honolulu Advertiser, 9/16/2002.
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Thompson, Rod. Endangered olive ridley turtle lays eggs at Hilo Bay: Officials are asking the public to not disturb the rare nest, which has 124 eggs. The Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 10/12/2002.
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Wilson, Christie. Hansen’s disease still carries stigma. The Honolulu Advertiser, 6/17/2002.
Wilson, Christie. Lava flows at your feet, a changing landscape: Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park is summer’s hit attraction. The Honolulu Advertiser, 8/25/2002.
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Wright, Walter. Teen adventurous, not careless, mother says. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/02/2002.
Wright, Walter. Wave pulls man into Blowhole. The Honolulu Advertiser, 7/01/2002.
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[1] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[2] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[3] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[4] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[5] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[6] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[7] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[8] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[9] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[10] p. 243, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2224.
[11] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[12] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[13] p. 252, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2313.
[14] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[15] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[16] p. 234, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2144.
[17] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986. This popular Hawaiian saying comes from a song by that name written by Reverend Samuel Kapū.
[18] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[19] p. 203, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1885.
[20] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[21] Island ages based on: Blay, Chuck, and Siemers, Robert. Kauai‘’s Geologic History: A Simplified Guide. Kaua‘i: TEOK Investigations, 2004.
[22] p. 266, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2441.
[23] p. 137, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1267.
[24] Wagner, Warren L., Herbst, Derral R., and Sohmer, S.H. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai‘i: Revised Edition, Volumes 1 and 2. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press; Bishop Museum Press, 1999.
[25] p. 276, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2523.
[26] p. 146, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1340.
[27] p. 300, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2735.
[28] p. 248, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2270.
[29] One version of the Kumulipo is: The Kumulipo: A Hawaiian Creation Chant. Translated and edited with commentary by Martha Warren Beckwith. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, Facsimile reproduction of first edition, University of Chicago Press, 1951. Including Foreword by Katharine Luomala, The University Press of Hawaii, 1972.
[30] p. 38, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 311.
[31] p. 309, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2814.
[32] p. 66, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 571.
[33] p. 191, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1781.
[34] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. & Mookini, Esther T. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[35] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[36] p. 309, p. xxiv, Desha, Stephen L., translated by Frazier, Frances N. Kamehameha and his Warrior Kekūhaupi‘o. Honolulu: Kamehameha Schools Press, 2000).
[37] p. 81, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 732.
[38] p. 64, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 552.
[39] Translation by J.C. Lane, as cited in: Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988.
[40] Houston, Victor S. K. The Hawaiian Flag. Friends of ‘Iolani Palace, 6/1988.
[41] p. 320, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2924.
[42] p. 112, 113, Wichman, Frederick B. Nā Pua Ali‘i O Kaua‘i: Ruling Chiefs of Kaua‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003.
[43] p. 113, Wichman, Frederick B. Nā Pua Ali‘i O Kaua‘i: Ruling Chiefs of Kaua‘i. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2003.
[44] p. 183, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1698.
[45] The Seamen’s Bethel provided opportunities for sailors to learn to read.
[46] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
[47] p. 194, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1803.
[48] p. 275, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2520.
[49] Official Protest to the Treaty of Annexation: Presented by Lili‘uokalani in Washington D.C., June 17, 1897. Internet site: http://hawaiii-nation.org/treatyprot.html, 6/14/2005.
[50] p. 75, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 669.
[51] Stevenson also visited Waikīkī in 1889.
[52] p. 41, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 333.
[liv] p. 235, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2157.
[lv] p. 140, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1285.
[lvi] p. 201, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1868.
[lvii] p. 307, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2786.
[lviii] p. 81, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 736.
[lix] p. 303, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2766.
[lx] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[lxi] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[lxii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[lxiii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[lxiv] p. 163, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 1512.
[lxv] Pukui, Mary Kawena, Elbert, Samuel H., and Mookini, Esther T. Mookini. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[lxvi] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
[lxvii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. Hawaiian Dictionary: Revised and Enlarged Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1986.
[lxviii] Pukui, Mary Kawena, and Elbert, Samuel H. & Mookini, Esther T. Place Names of Hawaii: Revised & Expanded Edition. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1974.
[lxix] Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983.
[lxx] p. 234, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2147.
[lxxi] The Apology to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the United States for the Overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Kapolei, Hawai‘i: Ka‘imi Pono Press, 1994.
[lxxii] p. 243, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2227.
[lxxiii] p. 251, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 2307.
[lxxiv] Lokelani Lindsey was later sentenced to six months in prison for bankruptcy fraud and money laundering, charges unrelated to her Bishop Estate position. Jervis was later caught in a public mens’ room at the Hawaiian Prince Hotel with a married Bishop Estate employee. The woman committed suicide the next day, and about one week later Jervis (also married) consumed a large amount of sleeping pills and was rushed to the hospital.
[lxxv] Battleship Missouri Memorial, 808-973-2494 (recording); 808-423-2263, 1 Arizona Memorial Drive, Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, www.ussmissouri.org, open daily 9-5.
[lxxvi] U.S.S. Bowfin Submarine Museum and Park, 11 Arizona Memorial Drive, Pearl Harbor, Honolulu, 808-423-1341, open daily 8-5, www.bowfin.org.
[lxxvii] Senator Fong’s Plantation Gardens, 808-239-6775, 47-285 Pūlama Road, open 10-4 daily. Directions: 1 mile off Kahekili Highway (Hwy. 83).
[lxxviii] Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.
[lxxx]Juvik, James O. Biogeography in Atlas of Hawai‘i: Third Edition. Edited by Sonia P. Juvik and James O. Juvik. Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 1998.
[lxxxi] The How Many Species Are there in Hawaii Web Page. Includes: How many species are there in Hawaii?, from the “Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 1994” as published in the Bishop Museum Occasional Paper volume 41: 3-18; and Number of Hawaiian Species: Supplement 1, originally published in Bishop Museum Occasional Papers 45: 8-17 (1996). Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/hispp.html, 10/17/2002.
[lxxxii] Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002. The species were documented as part of Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum’s ongoing Hawaii Biological Survey, updated in the Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey for 2000.
[lxxxiii] p. 6, Pukui, Mary Kawena. ‘Ōlelo No‘eau: Hawaiian Proverbs & Poetical Sayings. Honolulu: Bishop Museum Press, 1983. Proverb 32.
[lxxxiv] Bishop Museum: Hawai‘i’s Extinct Species—Birds. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-birds.html, 7/28/2002.
[lxxxv] Bishop Museum: Hawai‘i’s Extinct Species—Birds. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-birds.html, 7/28/2002.
[lxxxvi] Federal Register, 2002, Vol. 67, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Threatened and Endangered Species System (TESS), Listings by State and Territory as of 7/20/2002. Internet site: http://ecos.fws.gov/servlet/TESSWebpageUsaLists?state=HI, 7/28/2002.
[lxxxvii] Bishop Museum - Hawaii’s Extinct Species. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/extinct.html, 7/28/2002.
[lxxxviii] Bishop Museum - Hawaii’s Extinct Species: Insects. Internet site: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/endangered/ext-insects.html, 7/28/2002.
[lxxxix] (Records of the Hawaii Biological Survey// (Evenhuis, Neal L., and Eldredge, Lucius G., Editors. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers, Number 68, 69. Honolulu: Bishop Museum, 3/25/2002.)